IB Chemistry SL & HL Formula Booklet

Table of Contents

1. Relevant Equations
2
2. Fundamental Constants
3
3. Metric Prefixes
3
4. Unit Conversions and Standard Conditions
3
5. Electromagnetic Spectrum
3
6. Names of the Elements
4
7. The Periodic Table
5
8. Melting Points and Boiling Points of the Elements at 101.325 kPa
5
9. First Ionization Energy, Electron Affinity, and Electronegativity of the Elements
6
10. Atomic and Ionic Radii of the Elements
6
11. Covalent Bond Lengths
7
12. Bond Enthalpies and Average Bond Enthalpies at 298.15 K
8
13. Thermodynamic Data (Selected Compounds)
9
14. Enthalpies of Combustion
10
15. Colour Wheel
11
16. Lattice Enthalpies (Experimental Values) at 298.15 K
12

17. Triangular Bonding Diagram (van Arkel–Ketelaar triangle) 13

18. Acid-base Indicators 14

19. Standard Reduction Potentials at 298.15 K 15

20. Infrared Data 16

21. 1H NMR Data 16-17

22. Mass Spectral Fragments Lost 17

23. References 18

1
1. Relevant Equations
Subtopic Description Equation
𝑚
𝑛= = 𝐶𝑥𝑉
S1.4 Number of moles 𝑀
n= number of moles (mol), m= mass (g), M= molar mass (g mol -1), C= concentration (mol dm-3), V
=volume (dm3)

PV = nRT
S1.5 Ideal Gas Equation
P= pressure (Pa), V=volume (m3 ), n= number of moles (mol), T= temperature (K)

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
S1.5 Combined Gas Law
P= pressure (Pa), V=volume (m3 ), T= temperature (K)

c= f λ
S1.3H Speed of light
c= speed of light (m s-1), λ = wavelength (m), f = frequency (s-1)

E= h f
S1.3H Energy of photon of light
E= energy (J), h = Plank’s constant (J s), f = frequency (s-1)

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡

R2.1 Atom economy % 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑦 = 𝑥 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

Q= mc∆T
R1.1 Heat change
Q= heat change (J), c= specific heat capacity (J g-1K-1), m = mass (g), ∆T = temperature change (K)

ΔHΘ= Σ(ΔHfΘproducts) − Σ(ΔHfΘreactants) = Σ(ΔHcΘreactants) − Σ(ΔHcΘproducts)

R1.2H Standard enthalpy change of reaction
ΔHΘ= standard enthalpy change of reaction (kJ mol -1), ΔHfΘ= standard enthalpy change of
formation (kJ mol-1), ΔHcΘ= standard enthalpy change of combustion (kJ mol -1)

∆GΘ= ∆HΘ −T ∆SΘ

R1.4 Gibbs free energy change
∆GΘ= standard Gibbs free energy change (kJ mol-1), ∆HΘ = standard enthalpy change (kJ mol-1), ∆SΘ
= standard entropy change (J K-1 mol-1), T = temperature (K)

∆GΘ = -RT lnK

R2.3H Gibbs free energy change
∆GΘ= standard Gibbs free energy change (kJ mol-1), R= gas constant (J K-1mol-1), T= temperature
(K), K=equilibrium constant

∆G = ∆GΘ + RT lnQ
R2.3H Gibbs energy change
∆GΘ= standard Gibbs free energy change (kJ mol-1), R= gas constant (J K-1mol-1), T= temperature
(K), Q= reaction quotient

∆GΘ = -nFEΘ
R3.2H Gibbs free energy change
∆GΘ= standard Gibbs free energy change (J), n= number of moles of electrons transferred in the
reaction (mol), F= Faraday’s constant (C mol -1), EΘ= standard cell potential (V)

𝑘 = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝐸𝑎/𝑅𝑇

R2.2H Arrhenius equation

k= rate constant, A = Arrhenius constant or frequency factor or pre-exponential factor, Ea=
activation energy (Jmol-1 ), R= gas constant (J K-1mol-1), T= temperature (K)

−𝐸𝑎
lnk = 𝑅𝑇
+ lnA
R2.2H Linear form of Arrhenius equation
k= rate constant, A = Arrhenius constant or frequency factor or pre-exponential factor, Ea=
activation energy (J mol-1 ), R= gas constant (J K-1mol-1), T= temperature (K)

R3.1 Definition of pH
pH = −log10 [H3O+] or pH = −log10 [H+]

Definition of pOH
R3.1H pOH = −log10 [OH−]

R3.1 Ionic product constant Kw = [H+] [OH−]

2. Fundamental Constants

Symbol Quantity Approximate Value

𝑵𝑨 Avogadro’s constant 6.02 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1

R Gas constant 8.31 J K-1 mol −1

Vm Molar Volume of an ideal gas at STP 22.7 dm3 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1

c Speed of light 3.00 × 108 m s−1

cw Specific heat capacity of water 4.18 J g−1 𝐾 −1 = 4.18 kJ kg−1 𝐾 −1

h Planck’s constant 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽 𝑠

F Faraday’s constant 9.65 × 104 𝐶 mol −1

Kw Ionic product constant for water (at 298.15 K) 1.00× 10−14 mol2 dm-6

mp Proton rest mass 1.672622 × 10−27 kg

mn Neutron rest mass 1.674927 × 10−27 kg

me Electron rest mass 9.109384 × 10−31 kg

1.602177× 10−19 𝐶
e Elementary charge

3. Metric Prefixes
Symbol Prefix Value

P peta- 1015

T tera- 1012

G giga- 109

M mega- 106

k kilo- 103

h hecto- 102

da deca- 101

d deci- 10−1

c centi- 10−2

m milli- 10−3

𝝁 micro- 10−6

n nano- 10−9

p pico- 10−12

f femto- 10−15

4. Unit Conversions and Standard Conditions

1 dm3 1 L = 1 × 10-3 m3 = 1 × 103 cm3

Temperature (K) Temperature (℃) + 273.15

STP conditions 273.15 K and 100 kPa

SATP conditions 298.15 K and 100 kPa

5. Electromagnetic Spectrum

3
6. Names of the Elements

Element Symbol Atomic Number Element Symbol Atomic Number Element Symbol Atomic Number

Actinium Ac 89 Iodine I 53 Silicon Si 14

Aluminium Al 13 Iridium Ir 77 Silver Ag 47

Americium Am 95 Iron Fe 26 Sodium Na 11

Antimony Sb 51 Krypton Kr 36 Strontium Sr 38

Argon Ar 18 Lanthanum La 57 Sulfur S 16

Arsenic As 33 Lawrencium Lr 103 Tantalum Ta 73

Astatine At 85 Lead Pb 82 Technetium Tc 43

Barium Ba 56 Lithium Li 3 Tellurium Te 52

Berkelium Bk 97 Lutetium Lu 71 Terbium Tb 65

Beryllium Be 4 Magnesium Mg 12 Thallium Tl 81

Bismuth Bi 83 Manganese Mn 25 Thorium Th 90

Bohrium Bh 107 Meitnerium Mt 109 Thulium Tm 69

Boron B 5 Mendelevium Md 101 Tin Sn 50

Bromine Br 35 Mercury Hg 80 Titanium Ti 22

Cadmium Cd 48 Molybdenum Mo 42 Tungsten W 74

Caesium Cs 55 Neodymium Nd 60 Uranium U 92

Calcium Ca 20 Neon Ne 10 Vanadium V 23

Californium Cf 98 Neptunium Np 93 Xenon Xe 54

Carbon C 6 Nickel Ni 28 Ytterbium Yb 70

Cerium Ce 58 Niobium Nb 41 Yttrium Y 39

Chlorine Cl 17 Nitrogen N 7 Zinc Zn 30

Chromium Cr 24 Nobelium No 102 Zirconium Zr 40

Cobalt Co 27 Osmium Os 76

Copernicium Cn 112 Oxygen O 8

Copper Cu 29 Palladium Pd 46

Curium Cm 96 Phosphorus P 15

Darmstadtium Ds 110 Platinum Pt 78

Dubnium Db 105 Plutonium Pu 94

Dysprosium Dy 66 Polonium Po 84

Einsteinium Es 99 Potassium K 19

Erbium Er 68 Praseodymium Pr 59

Europium Eu 63 Promethium Pm 61

Fermium Fm 100 Protactinium Pa 91

Fluorine F 9 Radium Ra 88

Francium Fr 87 Radon Rn 86

Gadolinium Gd 64 Rhenium Re 75

Gallium Ga 31 Rhodium Rh 45

Germanium Ge 32 Roentgenium Rg 111

Gold Au 79 Rubidium Rb 37

Hafnium Hf 72 Ruthenium Ru 44

Hassium Hs 108 Rutherfordium Rf 104

Helium He 2 Samarium Sm 62

Holmium Ho 67 Scandium Sc 21

Hydrogen H 1 Seaborgium Sg 106

Indium In 49 Selenium Se 34
 7. The Periodic Table

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1 2
1 H Atomic number He
1.01 4.00

3 4 Element 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Relative atomic mass
6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al SI P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.90

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.96 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29

55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.20 208.98 (209) (210) (222)

87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
(223) (226) (227) (267) (268) (269) (270) (269) (278) (281) (281) (285) (286) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294)

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.05 174.97

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.04 231.04 238.03 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)

8. Melting Points and Boiling Points of the Elements (at 101.325 kPa)

Melting point (̊̊̊̊℃

̊̊̊̊ )
-259.2
H
-252.9
Element He
-268.9

180.5 1287 Boiling point (̊̊̊̊℃

̊̊̊̊ ) 2077 3500 -210.0 -218.8 -219.7 -248.6
Li Be B C N O F Ne
1342 2468 4000 4827 -195.8 -183.0 -188.1 -246.0

97.79 650.0 660.3 1414 44.15 115.2 -101.5 -189.3

Na Mg Al SI P S Cl Ar
882.9 1090 2519 3265 280.5 444.6 -34.04 -185.8

63.38 842.0 1541 1670 1910 1907 1246 1538 1495 1455 1085 419.5 29.77 938.2 816.8 220.8 -7.050 -157.4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
758.8 1484 2836 3287 3407 2671 2061 2861 2927 2913 2560 907.0 2229 2833 613.0 684.8 58.78 -153.4

39.30 768.8 1522 1854 2477 2622 2157 2333 1963 1555 961.8 321.1 156.6 231.9 630.6 449.5 113.7 -111.8
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
687.8 1377 3345 4406 4741 4639 4262 4147 3695 2963 2162 766.8 2027 2586 1587 987.8 184.4 -108.1

28.44 725.0 920.0 2233 3017 3414 3453 3033 2446 1768 1064 -38.83 303.8 327.5 271.4 253.8 301.8 -71.15
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
670.8 1845 3464 4600 5455 5555 5900 5008 4428 3825 2836 356.6 1473 1749 1564 962.0 336.8 -61.85

27.00 699.8 1050

Fr Ra Ac
676.8 1140 3200

795 935 1024 1042 1072 826 1313 1360 1410 1472 1529 1545 824 1663
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
3433 3510 3074 (2730) 1791 1596 3273 3230 2567 2694 2900 1950 1194 3042

1750 1572 1135 637 640 1176 1340 986 900 (860) 827
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
4788 (4000) 3818 (3900) 3230 (2067) 3110 (2623)
9. First Ionization Energy, Electron Affinity, and Electronegativity of the Elements

First ionization energy Electron affinity (kJ mol-1 )

(kJ mol-1 ) 2nd EA (kJ mol-1 )
1312 -73
2372

2.2
H
Element He

Electronegativity
1314 -141
520 -60 900 801 -27 1086 -122 1402 1681 -328 2081
(+753)
Li Be B C N F Ne
O
1.0 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.0 4.0
3.4

1000 -200
496 -53 738 578 -42 787 -134 1012 -72 1251 -349
(+545) 1520
Na Mg Al SI P Cl
S Ar
0.9 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 3.2
2.6

419 -48 590 -2 633 -18 659 -8 651 -51 653 -64 717 762 -15 760 -64 737 -112 745 -119 906 579 -41 762 -119 944 -78 941 -195 1140 -325
1351
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
Kr
0.8 1.0 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.6 3.0

403 -47 549 -5 600 -30 640 -41 652 -88 684 -72 702 -53 710 -101 720 -110 804 -54 731 -126 868 558 -29 709 -107 831 -101 869 -190 1008 -295 1170
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.6 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.7 2.6

376 -46 503 -14 538 -45 659 -1 728 -31 759 -79 756 -14 814 -106 865 -151 864 -205 890 -223 1007 589 -36 716 -35 703 -91 812 -183 -270
1037
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At
Rn
0.8 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2

393 -47 509 -10 499 -34

Fr Ra Ac
0.7 0.9 1.1

534 -64 528 -93 533 -185 539 545 547 -83 593 566 -112 573 <0 581 589 597 -99 603 2 524 -33
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.0

609 568 598 605 581 576 578 598 606 619 627 635 642 473
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
1.3 1.5 1.7 1.3 1.3

10. Atomic and Ionic Radii of the Elements

32 Atomic radius 37
H (10-12 m) He

130 99
Element 84 75 71 64 60
62
Li Be Ionic radius B C N O F
Ne
76 (1+) 45 (2+) 27 (3+) 16 (4+) 146 (3-) 140 (2-) 133 (1-)
(10-12 m)

160 140 124 114 109 104 100

101
Na Mg Al SI P S Cl
Ar
102 (1+) 72 (2+) 54 (3+) 40 (4+) 38 (5+) 184 (2-) 181 (1-)

148 144 130 129 124 118 122 120 120

200 174 159 117 120 123 118 117
Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Cu Ge As 116
K Ca Sc Ni Zn Ga Se Br
86 (2+) 79 (2+) 62 (3+) 83 (2+) 61 (2+) 65 (2+) 77 (1+) 53 (4+) 58 (3+) Kr
138 (1+) 100 (2+) 75 (3+) 69 (2+) 74 (2+) 62 (3+) 198 (2-) 196 (1-)
61 (4+) 54 (5+) 44 (6+) 53 (4+) 55 (3+) 55 (3+) 73 (2+) 272 (4-) 46 (5+)

156 136 134 130 140

215 190 176 164 146 138 136 140 142 140 137 136
Nb Ru Rh Pd Sn 136
Rb Sr Y Zr Mo Tc Ag Cd In Sb Te I
72 (3+) 68 (3+) 67 (3+) 86 (2+) 118 (2+) Xe
152 (1+) 118 (2+) 90 (3+) 72 (4+) 65 (4+) 65 (4+) 115 (1+) 95 (2+) 80 (3+) 76 (3+) 221 (2-) 220 (1-)
64 (5+) 62 (4+) 60 (4+) 62 (4+) 69 (4+)

150 141 136 132 130 130 132 144 145 150
238 206 194 164 158 142
W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi 148 146
Cs Ba La Hf Ta Po
66 (4+) 63 (4+) 63 (4+) 68 (3+) 80 (2+) 137 (1+) 119 (1+) 150 (1+) 119 (2+) 103 (3+) At Rn
167 (1+) 135 (2+) 103 (3+) 71 (4+) 64 (5+) 97 (4+)
60 (6+) 53 (7+) 55 (6+) 63 (4+) 63 (4+) 85 (3+) 102 (2+) 89 (3+) 78 (4+) 76 (5+)

201
242 211
Ac
Fr Ra

184 190 188 186 185 183 182 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
101 (3+) 99 (3+) 98 (3+) 97 (3+) 96 (3+) 117 (2+) 94 (3+) 92 (3+) 91 (3+) 90 (3+) 89 (3+) 88 (3+) 87 (3+) 86 (3+)
87 (4+) 85 (4+) 95 (3+) 76 (4+)

190 184 183 180 180 173 168 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
94 (4+) 104 (3+) 89 (4+) 101 (3+) 100 (3+) 98 (3+) 97 (3+) 96 (3+) 99 (3+) 110 (2+)
90 (4+) 73 (6+) 87 (4+) 86 (4+) 85 (4+)
11. Covalent Bond Lengths
Single bonds (10-12 m = pm)

Br C Cl F H I N O P S Si

Br 228 194 214 176 141 247 214 220 227 216

C 194 154 177 138 108 214 147 143 184 182 185

Cl 214 177 199 163 128 232 197 170 203 199 202

F 176 138 163 142 92 257 136 142 154 158 156

H 141 108 128 92 74 160 101 97 142 134 148

I 247 214 232 257 160 267 247 243

N 214 147 197 136 101 146 136 175 174

O 143 170 142 97 136 148 154 161 163

P 220 184 203 154 142 247 154 221 210

S 227 182 199 158 134 175 161 210 205 215

Si 216 185 202 156 148 243 174 163 215 232

Multiple bonds (10-12 m = pm)

Bond Length (10-12m) Bond Length (10-12m) Bond Length (10-12m)

C=N 130 N=N 125 O=O 121

C=O 122 N=O 114 O=S 143

C=S 156

C=C 134 S=S 189

C≡O 113 N≡N 110

C≡N 116

C≡C 120
12. Bond Enthalpies and Average Bond Enthalpies at 298.15 K
Single bonds (kJ mol-1)

Br C Cl F H I N O P S Si

Br 193 285 219 249 366 178 201 264 218 330

C 285 346 324 492 414 228 286 358 264 289 307

Cl 219 324 242 255 431 211 192 206 322 271 400

F 249 492 255 159 567 280 278 191 490 327 597

H 366 414 431 567 436 298 391 463 322 364 323

I 178 228 211 280 298 151 201 184 234

N 286 192 278 391 158 214

O 201 358 206 191 463 201 214 144 363 466

P 264 264 322 490 322 184 363 198

S 218 289 271 327 364 266 293

Si 330 307 400 597 323 234 466 293 226

Multiple bonds (kJ mol-1)

Bond Enthalpy (kJ mol-1) Bond Enthalpy (kJ mol-1) Bond Enthalpy (kJ mol-1)

C=N 615 N=N 470 O=O 498

C=O 804 N=O 587 O=S 522

C=S 536

C=C 614 S=S 429

C≡O 1077 N≡N 945

C≡N 890

C≡C 839
13. Thermodynamic Data (Selected Compounds)
Substance Formula State ΔHf Θ (kJ mol-1) ΔGf Θ (kJ mol-1) S Θ(kJ mol-1)

Methane CH4 g -74 -50 +186

Ethane C2H6 g -84 -32 +230

Propane C3H8 g -105 -24 +270

Butane C4H10 g -126 -17 +310

Pentane C5H12 l -173

Hexane C6H14 l -199

Ethene C2H4 g +52 +68 +220

Propene C3H6 g +20 +62 +267

But-1-ene C4H8 g +0.1 +71 +306

Cis-but-2-ene C4H8 g -7 +66 +301

Trans-but-2-ene C4H8 g -11 +63 +297

Ethyne C2H2 g +228 +211 +201

Propyne C3H4 g +185 +194 +248

Buta-1,3-diene C4H6 g +110 +151 +279

Cyclohexane C6H12 l -156

Benzene C6H6 l +49 +125 +173

Methylbenzene C6H5CH3 l +12

Ethylbenzene C6H5CH2CH3 l -12

Phenylethene C6H5CHCH2 l +104

Chloromethane CH3Cl g -82 -58.0 +235

Dichloromethane CH2Cl2 l -124 +178

Trichloromethane CHCl3 l -134 -74 +202

Bromomethane CH3Br g -36 -26 +246

Iodomethane CH3I l -14 +163

Chloroethane C2H5Cl g -137 -53

Bromoethane C2H5Br l -90 -26 +199

Chlorobenzene C6H5Cl l +11

Methanol CH3OH l -239 -167 +127

Ethanol C2H5OH l -278 -175 +161

Phenol C6H5OH s -165 +144

Methanal HCHO g -109 -102 +219

Ethanal CH3CHO g -166 -133 +264

Propanone (CH3) 2CO l -248 +200

Methanoic acid HCOOH l -425 -361 +129

Ethanoic acid CH3COOH l -484 -390 +160

Benzoic acid C6H5COOH s -385 +168

Methylamine CH3NH2 g -23 +32 +243

Water H2O l -286 -237 +70

Steam H2O g -242 -229 +189

Carbon monoxide CO g -111 -137 +198

Carbon dioxide CO2 g -394 -394 +214

Hydrogen bromide HBr g -36 -53 +199

Hydrogen chloride HCl g -92 -95 +187

Hydrogen fluoride HF g -27 -275 +174

Hydrogen iodide HI g +26 +2 +207

14. Enthalpies of Combustion
(The molar enthalpy of combustion (ΔHc Θ ) values shown in the table below were collected at SATP conditions)
Substance Formula State ΔHc Θ (kJ mol-1)

Hydrogen H2 g -286

Sulfur S s -297

Carbon (graphite) C s -394

Carbon monoxide CO g -283

Methane CH4 g -891

Ethane C2H6 g -1561

Propane C3H8 g -2219

Butane C4H10 g -2878

Pentane C5H12 l -3509

Hexane C6H14 l -4163

Octane C8H18 l -5470

Cyclohexane C6H12 l -3920

Ethene C2H4 g -1411

Buta-1,3-diene C4H6 g -2541

Ethyne C2H2 g -1301

Benzene C6H6 l -3268

Methylbenzene C6H5CH3 l -3910

Naphthalene C10H8 s -5156

Chloroethane C2H5Cl g -1413

Iodoethane C2H5I l -1463

Trichloromethane CHCl3 l -473

Methanol CH3OH l -726

Ethanol C2H5OH l -1367

Propan-1-ol C3H7OH l -2021

Butan-1-ol C4H9OH l -2676

Cyclohexanol C6H11OH s -3728

Phenol C6H5OH s -3053

Ethoxyethane (C2H5)2O l -2724

Methanal HCHO g -571

Ethanal CH3CHO g -1167

Benzaldehyde C6H5CHO l -3525

Propanone (CH3)2CO l -1790

Pentan-3-one (C2H5)2CO l -3100

Phenylethanone CH3COC6H5 l -4149

Methanoic acid HCOOH l -255

Ethanoic acid CH3COOH l -874

Benzoic acid C6H5COOH s -3228

Ethanedioic acid (COOH)2 s -243

Ethyl ethanoate CH3COOC2H5 l -2238

Ethanamide CH3CONH2 s -1186

Methylamine CH3NH2 g -1086

Phenylamine C6H5NH2 l -3393

Nitrobenzene C6H5NO2 l -3088

Urea CO(NH2)2 s -633

Glucose C6H12O6 s -2803

Sucrose C12H22O11 s -5640

15. Colour Wheel
16. Lattice Enthalpies at 298.15 K (experimental values)

The provided lattice enthalpy values (ΔHΘlattice ) correspond to the endothermic process MaXb (s) → aMb+ (g) + bXa- (g), which involves the separation of gaseous ions of a crystal
to an infinite distance from each other.

Experimental Values (Adequate Born-Haber cycle was used to obtain the values in the tables below)

ΔHΘlattice(kJ mol-1)
Alkali metal halides
F Cl Br I

Li 1049 864 820 764

Na 930 790 754 705

K 829 720 691 650

Rb 795 695 668 632

Cs 759 670 647 613

Other substances ΔHΘlattice(kJ mol-1) Other substances ΔHΘlattice(kJ mol-1)

CaF2 2651 SrO 3223

BeCl2 3033 BaO 3054

MgCl2 2540 CuCl2 2824

CaCl2 2271 AgF 974

SrCl2 2170 AgCl 918

BaCl2 2069 AgBr 905

MgO 3791 AgI 892

CaO 3401
17. Triangular Bonding Diagram (van Arkel–Ketelaar triangle)
18. Acid-base Indicators

Colour change

Indicator pKa pH range Acid Alkali

Methyl orange 3.7 3.1-4.4 Red Yellow

Bromophenol blue 4.2 3.0-4.6 Yellow Blue

Bromocresol green 4.7 3.8-5.4 Yellow Blue

Methyl red 5.1 4.4-6.2 Red Yellow

Bromothymol blue 7.0 6.0-7.6 Yellow Blue

Phenol red 7.9 6.8-8.4 Yellow Red

Phenolphthalein 9.6 8.3-10.0 Colourless Pink

19. Standard Reduction Potentials at 298.15 K

Oxidized species ⇌ Reduced species Eѳ(V)

Li+ (aq) + e- ⇌ Li(s) -3.04

K+ (aq) + e- ⇌ K(s) -2.93

Ca2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Ca(s) -2.87

Na+ (aq) + e- ⇌ Na(s) -2.71

Mg2+ + 2e- ⇌ Mg(s) -2.37

Al3+(aq) + 3e- ⇌ Al(s) -1.66

Mn2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Mn(s) -1.18

H2O(l) + e- ⇌ ½ H2 (g) + OH-(aq) -0.83

Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Zn(s) -0.76

Fe2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Fe(s) -0.45

Ni2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Ni(s) -0.26

Sn2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Sn(s) -0.14

Pb2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Pb(s) -0.13

H+ (aq) + e- ⇌ ½ H2 (g) 0.00

Cu2+ (aq) + e- ⇌ Cu+ (aq) +0.15

SO42- (aq) + 4H+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) +0.17

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Cu(s) +0.34

½ O2 (g) + H2O(l) + 2e- ⇌ 2OH-(aq) +0.40

Cu+ (aq) + e- ⇌ Cu(s) +0.52

½ I2 (s) + e- ⇌ I-(aq) +0.54

Fe3+(aq) + e- ⇌ Fe2+(aq) +0.77

Ag+ (aq) + e-⇌ Ag(s) +0.80

½ Br2 (l) + e- ⇌ Br- (aq) +1.09

½ O2 (g) + 2H+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ H2O(l) +1.23

Cr2O72- (aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e- ⇌ 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) +1.36

½ Cl2 (g) + e- ⇌ Cl- (aq) +1.36

MnO4- (aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5e- ⇌ Mn2+ + 4H2O(l) +1.51

½ F2 (g) + e- ⇌ F-(aq) +2.87

20. Infrared Data

Distinctive intervals for infrared absorption arising from stretching vibrations in organic compounds.

Bond Organic molecules Wavenumber (cm-1) Intensity

C–I Iodoalkanes 490 – 620 Strong

C – Br Bromoalkanes 500 – 600 Strong

C – Cl Chloroalkanes 600 – 800 Strong

C–F Fluoroalkanes 1000 – 1400 Strong

C–O Alcohols, esters, ethers 1050 – 1410 Strong

C=C Alkenes 1620 – 1680 Medium-weak; multiple bands

C=O Aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters 1700 – 1750 Strong

C≡C Alkynes 2100 – 2260 Variable

O–H Carboxylic acids (with hydrogen bonding) 2500 – 3000 Strong, very broad

C–H Alkanes, alkenes, arenes 2850 – 3090 Strong

O–H Alcohols and phenols (with hydrogen bonding) 3200 – 3600 Strong, broad

N–H Primary amines 3300 – 3500 Medium, two bands

21. 1H NMR Data

Common proton chemical shift values (δ ) are referenced to tetramethylsilane (TMS) = 0.

An alkyl group is represented by R, and the elements F, Cl, Br, or I are represented by Hal.
Different solvents and conditions may cause variations in these values.

Type of proton Chemical shift (ppm)

0.9 – 1.0

1.3 – 1.4

1.5

2.0 – 2.5

2.2 – 2.7

2.5 – 3.5

1.8 – 3.1

3.5 – 4.4
 Type of proton Chemical shift (ppm)

3.3 – 3.7

3.7 – 4.8

9.0 – 13.0

1.0 – 6.0

4.5 – 6.0

4.0 – 12.0

6.9 – 9.0

9.4 – 10.0

22. Mass Spectral Fragments Lost

Mass Lost Neutral Fragment, Possibly Lost

15 •CH3

17 •OH

18 H2O

28 CH2 = CH2 C=O

29 •CH2CH3 •CHO

31 •OCH3

45 •COOH
23. References

Data in sections 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21 and 22 were taken fully or in part from:
Blackman, A., Gahan, L. R., Aylward, G. H., & Findlay, T. J. V. (2014). Aylward and Findlay’s SI Chemical Data. (7th ed.).
John Wiley & Sons.
National Institute of Standards and Technology. (2021). NIST Chemistry WebBook SRD 69, NIST Standard Reference
Database. U.S. Department of Commerce. http://webbook.nist.gov.
Rumble, J. R. (Ed.). (2019). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. (100th ed.). CRC Press.