Detailed project report on:

Utlization of non edible by- products from meat and poultry.

Submitted to:
Dr. Idress Ahmed Wani
Department of Food Science and Technology,
University of kashmir,Hazratbal srinagar-190006
Submitted by:
Razia sultan
Enrollment No:21049110023
M.Sc Food science & Technology, 4th sem.
 contents

• Meat industry
• Statistics and production of byproducts.
• By-products in the meat industry and their utilization.
• Nutritive value of meat by products.
• Utilization of blood.
• Use of blood plasma.
• Medicinal and pharmaceutical uses of blood.
• Utilization of hides and skins.
• Stacking of hides and skin.
• Gelatin from hides and skin.
• Use of gelation in food and pharmaceuticals.
• Medicinal and pharmaceuticals uses of skins and hides.
• Utilization of bone.
• Utilization of glands and organs.
• Utilization of edible tallow and lard.
• Utilization of poultry by-products.
Meat industry
The majority of the waste, in the meat industry is produced during slaughtering.
Slaughter house waste consists of the portion of a slaughtered animal that cannot
be sold as meat or used in meat-products. Such waste includes bones, tendons,
skin, the contents of the gastro-intestinal tract, blood and internal organs. These
vary with each type of animal. The specific amounts of generated waste for each
type of animal are listed in Table 1

Table 1

Types of waste and their origin in the food industry

Type of Waste Origin of Waste
Waste from the preparation,
Slaughter house, butcher shops, fish
processing and rendering of
processing plants, egg processing plants,
meat, fish and other food stuffs
tallow processing plants
originating from animals
Waste from the preparation and Fruit and vegetable processing plant, starch
processing of fruit, vegetables, manufacturers, malt houses, grist and
grain, edible oil, cocoa, coffee husting mill, oil mills, manufacturers of
and tobacco, production of coffee, tea, cocoa, and canned foods,
canned foods. tobacco processing plants.
Waste from sugar production Sugar manufacturers
Waste from milk processing Dairies
Waste from production of baked
Bakeries, confectioners, candy producers.
foods and sweets
Waste from the production of Breweries, wineries, liqueur producers,
both non-alcoholic and alcoholic distilleries, non-alcoholic beverage and fruit
beverages juice producers
Efficient utilization of meat by-products is important for the profitability of the
meat industry. It has been estimated that 11.4% of the gross income from beef
and 7.5% of the income from pork, come from the by-products. In the past, by
products were a favourite food in Asia, but health concerns have led to an
increased focus on non-food uses, such as pet foods, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics
and animal feed.
Meat by-products are produced by slaughter houses, meat processors, wholesalers
and rendering plant. Traditional markets for edible meat by-products have
gradually been disappearing because of low prices and health concerns. In
response to these problems, meat processors have directed their marketing and
research efforts towards non-food uses.
The literature indicates that by-products (including organs, fat or lard, skin, feet,
abdominal and intestinal contents, bone and blood) of cattle, pigs and lambs
represents 66.0, 52.0 and 68.0% of the live weight respectively. More than half
the animal by-products are not suitable for normal consumption, because of their
unusual physical and chemical characteristics. As a result, a valuable source of
potential revenue is lost, and the cost of disposing of these products is increasing.
The United States Dept. of Agriculture Economic Research Service has found
that 11.4% of the gross income from beef is from the by-products. The figure for
pork is 7.5%. In addition to economic losses, unused meat products cause serious
environmental pollution. However, with improved utilization, meat by-products
can give a good profit to meat processors.

Statistics and production of by products

There are 2,702 registered slaughter houses in the country, which are mostly
service oriented performing only slaughtering and dressing. Livestock available
for slaughtering comprises of animals namely buffaloes, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs
and poultry. As per the recent data published by the Ministry of Agriculture,
livestock population is 84.2 million buffaloes, 204.5 million cattle, 50.8 million
sheep, 115.3 million goats, 12.8 million pigs and 307.1 million poultry. In the
year 1992–93, meat production was 1.5 million tones which increased to 2 million
tonnes in 1997–98.
India ranks top most in the world in livestock holding and the total availability of
offal/bones in the country generated from large slaughter houses is estimated to
be more than 21 lakh tones/annum. Based on the data collected during survey, the
solid waste quantity generated in the bovine, goat and sheep and pig slaughter
house.

Table 3
Quantity of solid waste generated from the bovine, goat, sheep and pig slaughter
houses
Quantity of solid waste
Animal
Kg/head Kg/TLWK % of animal weight
Bovine 83 275 27.5
Goat/sheep 2.5 170 17
 Quantity of solid waste
Animal
Kg/head Kg/TLWK % of animal weight
Pig 2.3 40 4

Average solid waste generation from bovine slaughter house is

275 kg/tonne of total live weight killed (TLWK) which is equivalent to
27.5% of the animal weight. In case of goat and sheep slaughter house,
average waste generation from pig slaughtering is 2.3 kg/head equivalent to
4% of animal weight.
In India, the slaughter house waste management system is very poor and
several measures are being taken for the effective management of wastes
generated from slaughter houses. Effective management of liquid
waste/effluent by proper treatments, as per the guidelines contained in the
Manual of Sewage treatment published by the Ministry of Urban
development may be followed. The blood available from the slaughter
houses should be collected and made use of its full potential in
pharmaceutical industry. Provisions should be made for improved method
of dressing, evisceration, safe disposal of waste products, control of odours,
curbing activities of illegal slaughtering of animals, provisions of dry
rendering plants and modernization
of slaughter houses.

By-products in the meat industry and their utilization

United States considers everything produced by or from the animal, except
dressed meat, to be a by-product. Animal by-products in the USA are
divided into two classes, edible and inedible. In United States terminology,
offal means slaughter by-products, and includes the entire animal which is
not part of the carcass.
Variety meats are the wholesale edible by-products. They are segregated,
chilled and processed under sanitary conditions and inspected by the US
Meat Inspection Service. In some parts of the world, blood is also utilized
as an edible product for human beings. In US, meat trimmed from the head
is described on edible offal or an edible by-product. Edible fats are obtained
during slaughter, such as the cowl fat surrounding the rumen or stomach, or
the cutting fat which is back fat, pork leaf fat or rumen fat. In commercial
slaughter house practice in U.K, the offal is divided into red (head, liver,
lungs, tongue, tail etc.) and white (fat), plus the set of guts and bladder, the
set of tripe (rumen), and the four feet and trimming. The list originally
included the spinal cord and brain, but these are now banned for food use
since the outbreak of BSE (Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy, popularly
known as Mad Cow Disease) . It also includes poultry parts such as the
heart and liver
Some items may not be used in uncooked products. This list includes
mammalian parts such as blood, blood plasma, feet, large intestines, small
intestines, lungs, oesophagus meat, rectum, stomach (non-ruminant), first
stomach (tripe, after cooking), second stomach (tripe, after cooking), fourth
stomach, testicles and udder. It also includes poultry part such as gizzards
and necks. The average quantity of the different by-products from sheep,
cattle and pig are shown in Table 3
By-products as a percentage of market live weight
Pigs Cattle Sheep
Item
% kg % kg % kg
Market live weight 100 600 60
Whole carcass 77.5 77.5 63.0 378.0 62.5 37.5
Blood 3.0 3.0 18.0 4.0 2.4
Fatty tissue 3.0 3.0 4.0 24.0 3.0 1.8
Hide or skin 6.0 6.0 6.0 36.0 15.0 9.0
Organs 7.0 7.0 16.0 96.0 10.0 6.0
Head 5.9 5.9
Viscera (chest and abdomen 10.0 10.0 16.0 96.0 11.0 6.6
Feet 2.0 2.0 2.0 12.0 2.0 1.2
Tail 0.1 0.1 0.1 6.0
Brain 0.1 0.1 0.1 6.0 2.6 0.156

The yield of edible meat by-products from pigs is around 6.7% of the
carcasses weight. The world production of edible by-products from pigs in
2004 was 625 million MT, most of it from Asia (50.4%). Europe is the
second largest producer, with 37.1% of the world total. Asia and Europe are
also the two major consumers of meat by-products, including beef and
lamb. Usage of meat by-products often requires treatments such as
collection, washing, trimming, chilling, packaging and cooling. Whether
these products are widely accepted by consumers depends on various
factors. These include the nutrient content, the price and whether there are
comparable competing products.

Nutritive value of meat by-products

Edible meat by-products contain many essential nutrients. Some are used as
medicines because they contain special nutrients such as amino acids, hormones,
minerals, vitamins and fatty acids. Not only blood, but several other meat by-
products, have a higher level of moisture than meat. Some examples are lung,
kidney, brains, spleen, and tripe. Some organ meat, including liver and kidney,
contains a higher level of carbohydrate than other meat materials.
The liver, tail, ears and feet of cattle have a protein level which is close to that of
lean meat tissue, but a large amount of collagen is found in the ears and feet. The
lowest protein level is found in the brain, chitterlings and fatty tissue. The United
States Dept. of Agriculture (2001) requires that mechanically deboned beef and
pork contain at least 14% protein and a maximum of 30% fat. The amino acid
composition of meat by-products is different from that of lean tissue, because of
the large amount of connective tissue.
As a result, by-products such as ears, feet, lungs, stomach and tripe contain a
larger amount of proline, hydroxyproline and glycine, and a lower level of
tryptophan and tyrosine. The vitamin content of organ meats is usually higher
than that of lean meat issue. Kidney and liver contain the largest amount of
riboflavin (1.697–3.630 mg/100 g), and have 5–10 times more than lean meat.
Liver is the best source of niacin, vitamin B12, B6, folacin, ascorbic acid and
vitamin A. Kidney is also a good source of vitamin B6, B12, and folacin. A 100 g
serving of liver from pork or beef contributes 450%–1,100% of the RDA of
vitamin A, 65% of the RDA of vitamin B6, 3,700% of the RDA of vitamin B12
and 37% of the RDA of ascorbic acid. Lamb kidneys, pork, liver, lungs, and
spleen are an excellent source of iron, as well as vitamins. The copper content is
highest in the livers of beef, lamb and veal. They contribute 90–350% of the RDA
of copper (2 mg/day). Livers also contain the highest amount of manganese
(0.128–0.344 mg/100 g). However, the highest level of phosphorus (393–
558 mg/100 g) and potassium (360–433 mg/100 g) in meat by-products is found
in the thymus and sweetbreads. With the exception of brain, kidney, lungs, spleen
and ears, most other by-products contain sodium at or below the levels found in
lean tissue. Mechanically deboned meat has the highest calcium content (315–
485 mg/100 g).

Utilization of blood

Animal blood has a high level of protein and heme iron, and is an important edible
by-product. In Europe, animal blood has long been used to make blood sausages,
blood

pudding, biscuits and bread. In Asia, it is used in blood curd, blood cake and
blood pudding. It is also used for non-food items such as fertilizer, feedstuffs and
binders. According to the Meat Inspection Act of the United States, blood is
approved for food use when it has been removed by bleeding an animal that has
been inspected and passed for use in meat food products.

Blood is usually sterile in a healthy animal. It has high protein content (17.0),
with a reasonably good balance of amino acids. Blood is a significant part of the
animal’s body mass (2.4–8.0% of the animal’s live weight). The average
percentage of blood that can be recovered from pigs, cattle and lambs are 3.0–
4.0, 3.0–4.0 and 3.5–4.0%, respectively. However, the use of blood in meat
processing may mean that the final product is dark in color, and not very
palatable. Plasma is the portion of blood that is of greatest interest, because of its
functional properties and lack of color.

Use of blood plasma in food

Blood is used in food as an emulsifier, a stabilizer, a clarifier, a colour additive,

and as a nutritional component. Most blood is used in livestock feed in the form
of blood meal. It is used as a protein supplement, a milk substitute, a lysine
supplement or a vitamin stabilizer, and is an excellent source of most of the trace
minerals. Blood plasma has ability to form a gel, because it contains 60.0%
albumin. Plasma is the best water and fat binder of the blood fraction. Plasma gels
appear very similar to cooked egg whites. Plasma forms a gel at a protein
concentration of 4.0–5.0%. The strength of the gel increases with increasing
concentration. Cooked ham to which were added 1.5 and 3.0% frozen blood
plasma, and hot dogs with 2.7% added plasma, were more satisfactory in colour
than those without it.
Blood plasma also has an excellent foaming capacity, and can be used to replace
egg whites in the baking industry. The application of transglutaminase (TGase)
from animal blood and organs or microbes to meat products has received a great
deal of research. Blood factor XIII is a transglutaminase that occurs as an
enzymogen in plasma, placenta and platelets. Transglutaminase was first
extracted from bovine blood in 1983, in order to improve the binding ability of
fresh meat products at chilling temperature. It showed how myosin was cross-
linked by TGase. An important property of the TGase reaction was documented
when cross-linking between myosin and proteins (soy, casein and gluten), all
commonly used in meat processing Moreover, the restructured meat products can
be processed without heating, and their salt and phosphate content reduced, by
the addition of TGase from animal blood.

Medicinal and pharmaceutical uses of blood

Blood can be separated into several fractions that have therapeutic properties.
Liquid plasma is the largest fraction (63.0%). It consists of albumin (3.5%),
globulin and fibrinogen (4.0%). In the laboratory, many blood products are used
as a nutrient for tissue culture media, as a necessary ingredient in blood agar, and
as peptones for microbial use. Glycerophosphates, albumins, globulins,
sphingomyelins, and catalase are also used for biological assay. Many blood
components such as fibrinogen, fibrinolysin, serotonin, immunoglobulins and
plasminogen are isolated for chemical or medical uses. Purified bovine albumin
is used to help replenish blood or fluid loss in animals. It is used in testing for the
Rh factor in human beings, and as a stabilizer for vaccines. It is also used in
antibiotic sensitivity tests.

utilization of hides and skins

Animal hides have been used for shelters, clothing and as containers by human
beings since prehistoric times. The hides represent a remarkable portion of the
weight of the live animal, from 4% to as much as 11% (e.g., cattle: 5.1–8.5%,
average: 7.0%; sheep: 11.0–11.7%; swine: 3.0–8.0%).
Hides and skins are generally one of the most valuable by-products from animals.
Examples of finished products from the hides of cattle and pigs, and from sheep
pelts, are leather shoes and bags, rawhide, athletic equipment, reformed sausage
casing and cosmetic products, sausage skins, edible gelatine and glue.
stacking of hides and skins

After the hide is removed from the animal, it should be cured quickly to avoid
decomposition by bacteria and enzymes.
There are four basic treatments. One is air-drying, the second is curing with salt,
and the third and fourth are curing by mixer and raceway respectively.
Salt curing is often used for the raw hides. The quality of cured hides and skins
is usually based on their moisture and salt content. The moisture level of hides
should be in the range 40–48%, if they are to remain in good condition during
storage or shipping.

gelatin froM hides and skins

Gelatin is produced by the controlled hydrolysis of a water-insoluble collagen

derived from protein. It is made from fresh raw materials (hides or bone) that are
in an edible condition. Both hides and bones contain large quantities of collagen.
The processing of gelatin from hide consists of three major steps. The first step
is the elimination of non-collagenous material from the raw material. This is
followed by controlled hydrolysis of collagen to gelatin. The final step is recovery
and drying of the final product.
uses of gelatin in the food and pharMaceutical industries

Gelatin extracted from animal skins and hides can be used for food The raw
material can also be rendered into lard.
In the United States, Latin America, Europe and some Asian countries, pork skin
is immersed, boiled, dried and then fried to make a snack food (pork rinds) and
in U.K they are called “pork scratching”.
Collagen from hides and skins also has a role as an emulsifier in meat products
because it can bind large quantities of fat. This makes it a useful additive or filler
for meat products. Collagen can also be extracted from cattle hides to make the
collagen sausage used in the meat.
Gelatin is added to a wide range of foods, as well as forming a major ingredient
in jellies and aspic. Its main use is the production of jellied desserts, because of
its “melt in the mouth” properties, but is also added to a range of meat products,
in particular to meat pies.
Gelatin is also widely used as a stabilizer for ice cream and other frozen desserts.
High-bloom gelatin is added as a protective colloid to ice cream, yoghurt and
cream pies. The gelatin is thought to inhibit the formation of ice crystals and the
recrystallization of lactose during storage.
Approximately 6.5% of the total production of gelatin is used in the
pharmaceutical industry. Most of it is used to make the outer covering of
capsules.
Gelatin can also be used as a binding and compounding agent in the manufacture
of medicated tablets and pastilles. It is used as an important ingredient in
protective ointment, such as zinc gelatine for the treatment of ulcerated varicose
veins.
Gelatin can be made into a sterile sponge by whipping it into foam, treating it
with formaldehyde and drying it. Such sponges are used in surgery, and also to
implant a drug or antibiotic directly into a specific area.
Gelatin is an excellent emulsifier and stabilizing agent for many emulsions and
foams. It is used in cosmetic products, and in printing for silk screen printing,
photogravure printing etc.
Collagen casing products were developed in Germany in the 1920s, but only
gained popularity in the United States in the 1960s.
The processing does not convert the collagen into a soluble product, as in the
case of gelatine. Instead, it results in a product which retains a relatively high
degree of the native collagen fibre, and is strong enough to be used as a casing
for sausages and other products.
The extracted collagen is mixed with water and converted into a dough, which is
extruded by either a wet or a dry process. The tube of extruded collagen is then
passed through a concentrated salt solution and a chamber of ammonia to
precipitate the collagen. The swollen gel contracts to produce a film of reasonable
strength. It can be improved by the addition of glycerine, to make it more flexible.
The tube is then dried to 10.0–15.0% water content.
Medicinal and pharMaceutical uses of hides and skins

A product made from extracted collagen can stimulate blood clotting during
surgery. Pork skin is similar to human skin, and can be converted into a dressing
for burns or skin-ulcers.
 Pork skin used as a dressing needs to be cut into strips or into a patch, shaved of
hair, split to a thickness of 0.2–0.5 mm, cleansed, sanitized and packaged. It can
be used for skin grafting. When used for skin grafting, it is removed from the
carcass within 24 h of the death of the pig.
utilization of bone
Eleven percent of pork carcasses, 15% of beef carcasses and 16% of lamb
carcasses are bone. These values are higher if they include the meat clinging to
the bone.
The marrow inside some of the bones can also be used as food. The marrow may
be 4.0–6.0% of the carcass weight. For centuries, bones have been used to make
soup and gelatine.
In recent years, the meat industry has been trying to get more meat from bones,
and new techniques have been used for this purpose. The beef, pork or lamb
produced by mechanical deboning produces tissue that is called “mechanically
separated”, “mechanically deboned” or “mechanically removed”. Such meat is
now approved for use in meat products (mixed or used alone) in many countries.
In 1978, mechanically separated red meat was approved for use as red meat in the
United States.
Normally, if a high percentage of mechanically separated red meat is incorporated
into products, the flavour and quality are reduced. The colour becomes darker,
and the meat is softer with higher water content. For this reason, the level of
mechanically separated meat is usually limited.
Meat and bone meal (MBM) was widely recommended and used in animal
nutrition as a protein source in place of proteinaceous feeds because of its content
of available essential amino acids, minerals and vitamin B12. MBM and related
rendered protein commodities have potential for use in applications other than
animal feed, including use as a fuel or a phosphorus fertilizer.
utilization of glands and organs

Glands and organs as food

Animal organs and glands offer a wide variety of flavors and textures, and often
have a high nutritional value. They are highly prized as food in many parts of the
world, particularly Southeast Asia.
Those used as human foods include the brain, heart, kidneys, liver, lungs and
spleen. They also include the tongue, the bovine pancreas and udder, the stomach
and uterus of pigs, the rumen, reticulum, thymus of sheep and pigs omasum and
abomasum of sheep and cattle, and the testes and
Heart meat is generally regarded as relatively touch, reflecting the nature of the
cardiac muscle. Heart is used as a table meat. Whole hearts can be roasted or
braised. Sliced heart meat is grilled or braised. Heart meat is often also used as
an ingredient in processed meats.
Kidneys are generally removed from the fatty capsule which holds the kidney in
place. The ureter and blood vessels need to be trimmed before the kidneys are
prepared for cooking. Kidneys may be cooked whole or in slices, and are
generally broiled, grilled, or braised.
Liver is the most widely used edible organ. It is used in many processed meats,
such as liver sausage and liver paste. Livers from lambs, veal calves and young
cattle are preferred for the table in the United States and Europe, because they
have a lighter flavour and texture.
Animal intestines are used as food after being boiled in some countries. Animal
intestines are also used in pet food or for meat meal, tallow or fertilizer. However,
the most important use of the intestines is as sausage casings
Animal intestines, when removed from the carcass, are highly contaminated with
microbes and very fragile. They must be cleaned immediately after the slaughter
of the animal.
To make them into sausage casing, they are removed from the abdomen. The
ruffle fat is separated from the intestines, and the faeces stripped out. Sometimes
they are fermented, though this is not often done today. The inner mucosa
membrane is separated from the casing, all strings and blood are removed, and
the intestines are finally soaked salted and packaged.

Medicinal and pharmaceutical uses of glands and organs

Animal glands and organs are traditionally used as medicine in many countries,
including China, India and Japan.
The endocrine glands secrete hormones (i.e., enzymes that regulate the body’s
metabolism). These include the liver, lungs, pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, stomach,
parathyroid, adrenal, kidney, corpus luteum, ovary and follicle. The glands are
collected only from healthy animals. Locating the glands needs some experience.
They are often small and encased in other tissue.
Different animals have different glands that are important. The function of glands
also depends on the species, sex and age of the animal.
The best method of preserving most glands to stop tissue breakdown from
bacterial growth is by rapid freezing. Before freezing, the glands need be cleaned,
and the surrounding fat and connective tissue trimmed off. The glands are then
placed onto waxed paper and kept at −18 °C or less.
Bile consists of acids, pigments, proteins, cholesterol etc., and can be obtained
from the gall bladder. It is used for the treatment of indigestion, constipation and
bile tract disorders. It is also used to increase the secretory activity of the liver.
Bile from cattle or pigs can be purchased as a dry extract or in liquid form. Some
ingredients of bile, such as prednisone and cortisone, can be extracted separately,
and used as medicines. Gallstones are reported to have aphrodisiac properties,
and can be sold at a high price. They are usually used as ornaments to make
necklaces and pendants.
The liver is the largest gland in animals. The liver of mature cattle usually weighs
about 5 kg, while that of a pig weigh approximately 1.4 kg.
Liver extract is produced by mixing raw ground liver with slightly acidified hot
water. The stock is concentrated into a paste in a vacuum at a low temperature,
and is used as a raw material by the pharmaceutical industry.
Liver extract can be obtained from pigs and cattle, and has been used for a long
time as a source of vitamin B12, and as a nutritional supplement used to treat
various types of anaemia.
Heparin can be extracted from the liver, as well as the lungs and the lining of
the small intestines. It is used as an anticoagulant to prolong the clotting time of
blood. It is also used to thin the blood, to prevent blood clotting during surgery
and in organ transplants.

Progesterone and oestrogen can be extracted from pig ovaries. It may be used
to treat reproductive problems in women. Relaxin is a hormone taken from the
ovaries of pregnant sows, and is often used during childbirth.

The pancreas provides insulin, which regulates sugar metabolism and is used in
the treatment of diabetes. Glucagon extracted from the cells of the pancreas is
used to increase blood sugar, and to treat insulin overdoses or low blood sugar
caused by alcoholism. Chymotrypsin and trypsin are used to improve healing
after surgery or injury.

The intestines of sheep and calves are used for the manufacture of catgut, to make
internal surgical sutures. The lining of the small intestines of pigs and cattle can
be collected while the intestines are being processed into casings. It is either
preserved in a raw state, or processed into a dry powder for shipment to heparin
manufacturers.
utilization of edible tallow and lard

Animal fats are an important by-product of the meat packing industry. The major
edible animal fats are lard and tallow. Lard is the fat rendered from the clean
tissues of healthy pigs. Tallow is hard fat rendered from the fatty tissues of cattle
or sheep.
Lard and edible tallow are obtained by dry or wet rendering. In the wet rendering
process, the fatty tissues are heated in the presence of water, generally at a low
temperature.
The quality of the lard or tallow from this process is better than that of products
from dry rendering. Low-quality lard, and almost all of the inedible tallow and
greases, are produced by dry rendering.
Rendered lard can be used as an edible fat without any further processing.
However, because of consumer demand, lard and tallow are now often bleached
and given a deodorizing treatment before being used in food.
Traditionally, tallow and lard were used for deep frying. However, this use is
declining in the fast-food industry, due to consumer health concerns.
An alternative liquid tallow product has been developed for the preparation of
French fries and other fast foods, since less fat is absorbed. Tallow and lard are
also used for margarine and shortening. Some edible lards are used in sausages
or emulsified products.
utilization of poultry by-products

Waste products from the poultry processing and egg production industries must
be efficiently dealt with as the growth of these industries depends largely on waste
management.
Animal and poultry waste management centre, at North Carolina State
University, North Carolina, USA is engaged in conversion of wastes to valuable
products and the work being supported by various organization, agencies,
companies etc.
The intensive and large-scale production of food animals and animal products has
generated an enormous disposal problem for the animal industry. These wastes,
including animal excreta, mortalities, hair, feathers and processing wastes are
convertible to useful resources.
An efficient thermophilic anaerobic digester system that converts animal manure
to methane for an energy source was reported by Shih.
Properties of a feather degrading bacterium, Bacillus licheniformis, which can
ferment and convert feathers to feather lysate, a digestible protein source for feed
use. An enzyme, keratinase, secreted by this bacterium, was purified and
characterized. The keratinase is a potent proteinase that hydrolyses collagen,
elastin and feather keratin.
Emulsion—based mutton nuggets, incorporating chicken by-products, i.e., skin,
gizzard and heart (SGH) from spent hens were evaluated by Kondaiah et al.
(1993). Incorporation of SGH resulted in better acceptability of mutton nuggets
as compared to that containing mutton fat.
Egg white flavoprotein is abundant in low-cost egg processing by-products and
could serve as a useful food ingredient, provided a cost effective procedure for its
purification is available.