Print Culture and The Modern World Notes

INTRODUCTION
Printed matter is prevalent in our daily lives. From printed books, images, newspapers to
hoardings, advertisements and pamphlets; Print has become a very integral part of our
modern lives.
But there was a time when printed matter did not exist, and there were other ways by which
information was going on. There was a gradual shift from handwritten point to printed
matter, with the invention of new machines and presses; and this transformation had a
marked effect on the lives of the people.
• The First Printed Books Hand printing was the initial form of painting; practised in
China, Japan and Korea.
• Inked wooden blocks, having alphabets carved out by artisans, were rubbed against the
paper. The papers then made were porous, so two articles were not published. The not
printed sides were sown, and such ‘accordion books’ in China were made.
• In the sixteenth century, China was one a country producing printed matter on a large
scale. Initially, it included only textbooks for examinations of civil services.
• Gradually, other printed matter became available to the people. People were more
interested in reading fictional stories, poetries, plays, autobiographies and the like.
Likewise, trade information became available in printed form, which was vastly used by
traders.
• With the rise in population and an increase in demand for new types of printed matter-
there was a need to publish it faster. Western techniques and presses were introduced in
China to fulfil the new reading class’s demands of the nineteenth century.
One of the most famous hums for the new Print is Shanghai
PRINT IN JAPAN
• The Print was introduced in Japan around AD 768-770 by China’s Buddhist missionaries.
• Printed in AD 868, the Buddhist Diamond Sutra is the oldest Japanese book.
• The handprinted matter became a common sight in Japan’s libraries and markets,
ranging from textbooks to books on prose, poetry, paintings, etc. There were also books
on women, manners and etiquettes, cooking, flower arrangements and many more.
• Paintings of representations also became famous in Japan. Edo’s pictures illustrated an
elegant urban culture that involved artists, teahouse gatherings, and courtesans.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. How were books made in China before the introduction of the printing press?
2. Which is the oldest book of Japan?

Print Comes to Europe

Introduction of Chinese paper to Europe opened the ways to make manuscripts, written by
skilled hand writers or scribes. Initially, handwritten editions were available to aristocratic
people and monastic libraries on vellum, expensive.
With the coming of the paper, many manuscripts were being made and exported. Scribes
found employment not only under wealthy employers but also by booksellers.
Manuscripts had its disadvantages: copying was expensive, time-consuming and a very
laborious task. Also, the documents were difficult to handle and could not be carried around
 easily and fragile. With the growing demand for books, manuscripts were insufficient to fulfil
the request.
In 1295, Marco Polo, a great explorer, introduced woodblock printing in Italy. From Italy, it
spread to various parts of the world. Soon, woodblock painting became widely used to print
books, textiles, play cards, pictures, and much more.
GUTENBERG AND THE PRINTING PRESS
• Gutenberg grew up on large farms, where he had seen wine and olive presses. He
became a master goldsmith, who had the expertise of creating lead moulds for making
trinkets.
• Gutenberg applied this knowledge to create the printing press, where olive press formed
the base model of the printing press, and the lead moulds were used to cast alphabets.
• In 1448, Gutenberg printed the first book on the press. It was the Bible.
• The publishes published180 copies of the Bible in 3 years, a high-speed production by
the then standards.
Gradually, the more developed printing press came into everyday use, and many books
were published. This transition of hand printing to automatic printing led to print revolution.
Though the printing press was introduced, it did not entirely stop hand printing. The metal
casts were designed such that they resembled handwritten styles. Books were printed in the
media with the borders designed according to the reader’s choice.
MPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. What were the disadvantages of using manuscripts?
2. Who was Gutenberg and describe his contribution to the print world?

The Print Revolution and Its Impact

The print revolution was the transformation that printed matter brought to the people’s lives.
Many people and the content were not restricted to the religious and academic point; new
ideologies and thoughts came to be acknowledged, and a new culture came into being.
A NEW READING PUBLIC
Before the process of the printing press, reading was restricted to a limited population. As
books were expensive and not produced in large number, ordinary people did not have
access to them.
Before print culture there resided an oral culture, where information was passed on orally;
sacred texts were read out, plays were performed and folk stories recited.
Even after the printing press process, when books became cheap and available in large
numbers, not many could read it. An as large section of the European society was illiterate,
books on folk tales and ballads were printed with beautiful pictures for illustrations. Such
was then read out to people gatherings at villages or towns.
MPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. What were the disadvantages of using manuscripts?
2. Who was Gutenberg and describe his contribution to the print world?
 The Print Revolution and Its Impact
The print revolution was the transformation that printed matter brought to the people’s lives.
Many people and the content were not restricted to the religious and academic point; new
ideologies and thoughts came to be acknowledged, and a new culture came into being.
A NEW READING PUBLIC
Before the process of the printing press, reading was restricted to a limited population. As
books were expensive and not produced in large number, ordinary people did not have
access to them.
Before print culture there resided an oral culture, where information was passed on orally;
sacred texts were read out, plays were performed and folk stories recited.
Even after the printing press process, when books became cheap and available in large
numbers, not many could read it. An as large section of the European society was illiterate,
books on folk tales and ballads were printed with beautiful pictures for illustrations. Such
was then read out to people gatherings at villages or towns.
Gradually, with the availability of cheap books, people learned to read. Oral culture slowly
was paving a path to reading culture.

RELIGIOUS DEBATES AND THE FEAR OF PRINT

In the oral culture, religious faiths and norms were passed on from generations. They
believed what was said by the religious authorities. As not many were literate, people could
not read the spiritual or sacred text and understand their own. This was also the case with
other spheres.
But with the spread of print culture, many could read and interpret things in their ways. They
published their views and spread it among the crowd, persuading them to throw away the
old age norms.
This led to fear of the printed matter. Many thought that with the circulations of new and
varied ideas, old texts would lose their value, leading to a spread of irreligious and
rebellious ideas. Because of this, many wanted restrictions on what could be printed.
Martin Luther
• Martin Luther was a religious reformer.
• In 1517, he wrote Ninety Five Thesis where he criticized the Roman Catholic Church’s
practices and rituals.
• A copy of the work was posted on a church’s door in Wittenberg.
• Soon, Martin Luther’s work spread like a forest fire, leading to the sale of 5000 copies in
the first few weeks.
• The Thesis had a significant impact on the readers. There was a division in the Church
itself, which led to Protestant Reformation.
• Martin Luther stated Print as “the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one”.
PRINT AND DISSENT
Easy availability of printed matter significantly impacted the people’s ideas and thoughts.
Those who had little knowledge about reading and writing also read religious texts and
deciphered the message according to their understanding.
• Menocchio, a miller in Itlay, began reading books in his locality.
• His interpretations about God and Creation were not acceptable to the Roman Catholic
Church.
• Menocchio was dragged up publicly twice and then executed. This was done so set an
example to those who questioned and criticized the Roman Catholic Church’s ways.
From 1558, the Church began to maintain Prohibited Books’ Index to gain control over
publishers and booksellers. The Church did this to stop the criticisms and restore people’s
faith in them.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Why were many people against printed matter availability to a large scale?
2. What led to Protestant Reformation?
3. What prompted the Roman Catholic Church to control printed matter in the
market?

The Reading Mania

Eighteenth and nineteenth-century Europe saw an increase in literacy rates, which caused
a rise in books publications. As more people became literate, and many cultivated the habit
of reading, there came a demand for varied categories of printed matter.
To sell books to every nook and corner of the country, publishers in England, began hiring
chapmen. These were petty pedlars who carried penny chapbooks and sold them to the
poor.
In France, “Bibliotheque Bleue” were cheap books printed on low-quality paper, bounded in
blue colour covers.
Along with stories, scientists’ theories and philosophies also came to be published. Such
publications helped scientists in various parts of the world know about the ongoing research
on a particular topic. Ideas of philosophers such as Thomas Paine, Voltaire and Jean
Jacques had a great impact on the readers’ minds.
Newspapers, periodicals and magazines also gained popularity from the early eighteenth
century. These compiled information on various topic significant published matter on the
national and cultural importance and current affairs. This helped people to know about the
events happening in their country.
TREMBLE, THEREFORE, TYRANTS OF THE WORLD
• This is a statement proclaimed by a French novelist of the eighteenth century – Louise-
Sebastien Mercier.
• Mercier and many believed Print to be the engine that would enlighten people to fight
against them’ autocratic rule and injustice.
• Mercier books protagonists were mainly readers who were inspired by the ideas and
philosophies delivered by books.
• Thus the statement “Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world! Tremble before the virtual
writer!”
PRINT CULTURE AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
There are three arguments or points that link print culture to the French revolution:
• Many revolutionary ideas were spread through Print. Concept of reasons and knowledge
should be applied to govern a country rather than traditions were popularized by writers
 such as Voltaire and Rousseau. Many criticized and questioned the age-old beliefs and
superstitions; introducing people to theories and thoughts made them rethink all the
customs that were followed till then.
• As many people read new ideas, some agreed to them while others did not. This opened
the opportunities to discussions and arguments, enabling the public to evaluate the
writings and opinion of their own. This debate and discussion culture, called the public
culture, paved the way to a social revolution in Europe.
• Literature that made fun of the monarchy also gained ground. Cartoons and caricatures of
the aristocrats were published that showed the people how the royalty was only
interested in the power and had a minimal sense of duty towards the common men that
suffered painfully under their rule. This created a sense of hatred for the aristocrats and
the monarchs.
Though the arguments say a lot about Print’s contribution to the spread of new French
society ideas, one should not ignore the literature available that supported the traditions and
beliefs followed till then. They encouraged them as the message of good.
According to their understanding, people read both the type of ideas and accepted and
rejected them. So, we can say that print culture did not directly influence the people, but it
opened them to new ideas and helped them form opinions of their own.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Write a short note on how books were made available to the poor.
2. What does “Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!” mean?
3. How can one link print culture to the French revolution?

The Nineteenth Century

CHILDREN, WOMEN AND WORKERS
Children: Books for children became prominent in society. As primary education became
compulsory, books for children flooded the market. Textbooks for children became a heavy
task for the publishers, and many houses were established that were solely responsible for
publishing children’s’ books.
Stories and folk tales were re-written with some changes that suited the children’s innocent
minds. The Grimm Brothers spent years compiling various accounts collected from
peasants and village older men and finally published them in 1812.
Women: Women also became essential readers. Books on etiquettes and housekeeping
were published for women. Women were also seen as well known novelists in the
nineteenth century, with Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters and George Eliot being prominent.
The novels they wrote portrayed a different type of woman – a person who had an opinion
of her own, a strong will and an influencing personality.
Workers: Workers also became interested in reading and learning new knowledge. Many
lower middle-class people and artists started renting from libraries and educated
themselves. From the mid-nineteenth century, when the working hours were getting shorter,
the workers found themselves expressing their views and thoughts through writing.
FURTHER INNOVATIONS
• Richard M. Hoe introduced a power-driven cylindrical press that could publish 8000
sheets per hour.
• Offset press was developed by the nineteenth century that could print six colours.
• In the 1920s, cheap series, called Shilling Series, was published, which consisted of
famous works.
• Dust covers or jacket covers were also introduced in the twentieth century.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. What were the contributions of women to the world of Print?
2. What works were included in the publications for children?

India and the World of Print

MANUSCRIPTS BEFORE THE AGE OF PRINT
Preserving information through manuscripts had been an ancient practice in India. They
were written in various languages – Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian, and local languages.
Manuscripts were written on palm leaves or handmade papers and then either pressed
between wooden covers or sewn together to keep the information safe.
But manuscripts were fragile and could be carried everywhere easily. They were also
challenging to handle.
PRINT COMES TO INDIA
• The first printing press in Goa by Portuguese missionaries
• In 1579, the first Tamil book was published, and in 1710, the first Malayalam book was
published by the catholic priests.
• James Augustus Hickey began editing a weekly magazine called Bengal Gazette, in
1780.
• The magazine was proclaimed to be influenced by none. And so the magazine contained
information about trade and sales. It also covered information and advertisements about
the slavery business in India.
• The magazine also published gossip about the Company’s officials and the news. This
angered the Company, and the then Governor-General Warren Hastings harassed
Hickey tremendously.
• After this incident, the Company encouraged publishing newspapers under the Company
rule, where what information is to be shared can be controlled.
• Indians also published their newspapers. First among them was Bengal Gazette,
published by Gangadhar Bhattacharya, a close ally of Rammohun Roy.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. How was information preserved in India before the introduction of Print?
2. Why did the officials of the Company begin controlling the publishing of
newspapers?

Religious Reform and Public Debates

• As literacy rates increased, more and more people became aware of people’s atrocities in
the name of religion. They began forming opinions of their own. These ideas and
thoughts were published in newspapers and magazines, which reached a large crowd.
• As some wanted to end the age-old atrocities and bring new changes to the society,
many supported the traditional system of beliefs and wanted things to go the way they
always had.
• Print became an essential source of tool to carry ideas and thoughts to a large number of
people. It helped people shape their views, where they accepted and rejected arguments
according to their understanding.
• To reach more comprehensive society sections, religious reformer Raja Rammohun Roy
began publishing Sambad Kaumudi from 1821. To counteract his ideas, Hindu orthodoxy
published Samachar Chandrika.
• Two Persian newspapers- Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Samshul Akhbar– were published. A
Gujrati newspaper was also published named Bombay Samachar.
• Fearing conversion under colonial rule, ulama decided to publish Holy Scripture
translations in local languages to promote the people’s faith. The Deoband Seminary also
issued fatwas to promote Islamic doctrines’ meanings and educate people on conducting
themselves in their everyday lives.
• Hindu literature was also encouraged via Print. Ramcharitmanas by Tulsidas was
published in Calcutta in 1810. Publishing houses such as Naval Kishore Press at
Lucknow and Shri Venkateshwar Press in Bombay printed various religious texts, tales in
local languages. These could be read by people everywhere and could be read out to
illiterate people.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Explain how Print helped in forming opinions and helped in religious reforms.
New Forms of Publication
Varied forms of literature came into publishing with the increase in several readers. Different
people had different demands, leading to various writing styles. Popular among these
became novels, which reflected the ordinary people’s lives. People reading them could
relate to the stories.
Visual paintings also became popular. Calendars and pictures of god and goddess adorned
the people’s walls, be it rich or poor. This led to the employment of wood engravers. Photos
depicting new social and cultural life also began to be printed. Such prints began shaping
the people’s views on how a society can be changed for a better future.
Caricatures and cartoons also became famous. With these, editors sometimes tried to give
strong messages to the public: contained arguments or thoughts on social, political or
religious issues.
WOMEN AND PRINT
Women can be said to be significantly influenced by print culture. With the opening of
women schools, many girls began to be educated. Fathers also taught their daughters at
home. Journals and magazines were published which had attached syllabus to guide
womenfolk at homes.
People who did not want women to be educated. Hindus thought that education would lead
women to be widowed. Muslims feared that ladies would be corrupted by reading Urdu
romances. But still, many women managed to learn to read and write by themselves in the
confines of their home.
• Rashsundari Debi was a young married girl of Bengal who learnt to read in her house.
Later she wrote her autobiography named Amar Jiban, the first full-length autobiography,
published in 1876.
Gradually, women began speaking up for their rights and strongly opposed the injustices
they faced by the very people they served.
• Kailashbashini Debi, a Bengali woman, wrote about women’s experiences in her house:
about the hard labour they were forced to do, treat as inferiority, kept in the confines in
the house, and many more.
• Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Rambai wrote about the miserable lives of upper-caste
Hindu women, especially the widows.
Hindi literature gained popularity from the 1870s. Many magazines, journals and
newspapers began publishing issues of profound importance such as widow remarriage,
the widow’s lives, women education, and national movement.
In Punjab, books were published for women as well. Ram Chaddha published a book
named Istri Dharm Vichar to teach women to be obedient.
In Bengal, the Battala- central area of Calcutta- became famous for printing books for
women. Cheap books were published on various topics, and such were distributed by
peddlers which enabled women to read and educate themselves on different issues.
PRINT AND THE POOR PEOPLE
Print changed the lives of all the sectors of society. Poor were also affected by the print
culture. Cheap books were published and sold at crossroads to enable workers and
labourers to buy and read them.
The caste system is rigid in India. In the seventeenth and eighteenth century, lower caste
people were treated with disrespect and denied respect and position in society.
• Jyotibha Phule, also known as Maratha pioneer of low-caste, published a book
named Gulangiri in 1871, highlighting the injustices done through the caste system.
• R. Ambedkar and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker also wrote against the caste system, and
such were read by a lot of people, bringing to light the plights of people which were
ignored by people through the ages.
Mill-workers and labourers also engaged themselves in reading and learning to express
their feelings and experiences.
• Kashibaba, a Kanpur worker, published Chhote Aur Bade ka Sawaal where he defined
the difference between upper and lower class people and about exploiting the people
working in the industries and factories.
• A mill worker under the name Sudarshan wrote many poems. These poems were
compiled as a collection and published as Sacchi Kavitayan.
• Many reformers and nationalists also helped workers set up libraries to educate them.
This was hoping to help them get rid of their drinking habits.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Explain how Print helped in bringing reforms in India’s lives.
2. What were the various forms of publications that gained popularity in India?
Print and Censorship
• During the early years of East India Company rule, it wasn’t much concerned about
circulation and print matter control. Instead, it was the Company’s officials they were
concerned about. Many Englishmen officials were not happy with the Company’s rule and
thought they were misusing their powers and oppressing people. The Company, fearing
of losing its monopoly right in India if such criticism reached the England government,
took measures to control what was published by the Englishmen.
• Calcutta Supreme Court passed some regulations to control freedom of the press. After
pressurizations from vernacular newspapers and English editors, in 1835, press laws
 were revised. The Governor-General was Bentinck, and Thomas Macaulay was the
colonial official who formulated new rules that gave the press the freedom to print.
• After 1857, strict restrictions were imposed on the press. Some publications carried
nationalist messages, and people were getting influenced on a large scale.
• 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed. It gave the government control over what
could be published. The Company kept track of the printed matter, and if found against
the Company rule, the publisher was given a warning. If still, such act continued, the
Company was liable to confiscate the property and shut it down.
• Though the Company officials took stringent actions, the nationalist movement did not
slow down. The restrictions even further provided fuel in their fight against the Company
rule. An example of such is: Bal Gangadhar Tilak wrote in his Kesari against the act of
cruelty done to Punjab Revolutionaries, for which he was imprisoned in 1908.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Give a brief about print censorship in India.

THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD

The Pre-modern world
We live in a modern world where everyplace is connected to each other. But it should not
be mistaken that the ancient people were not so connected and lived lives being ignorant of
the ways others lived.
• There are many accounts of various travellers and priests who travelled large distances;
former to attain insight of the ways of the world, while latter to attain knowledge and
spirituality.
• Trade relations were also active and can be dated back to as early as 3000 BCE. Indian
currency cowdi (plural cowdies) could be found in china and East Africa.
• Evidences of disease and germs spread across the world have also been found.
SILK ROUTES LINK THE WORLD
• Silk routes are a very important example of confirming relations of different parts of the
world with each other.
• Silk routes are the path covered for the transfer of Chinese silk cargoes. These routes
have been identified to link Asia with Europe and northern Africa.
• Apart from silk, Chinese pottery, Indian spices and textiles were also traded to Europe in
exchange of gold and silver.
It is believed that trade exchange is accompanied by cultural exchange. This was also the
case in ancient world as well. Many Buddhist and Christian missionaries along with Muslim
preachers travelled vast distances in various directions to preach and spread their
knowledge and culture.
FOOD TRAVELS: SPAGHETTI AND POTATO
• Relations between different parts of the world can also be drawn from the food present in
the regions. It is assumed that travellers and traders carried crops to different regions and
introduced them to those people.
• Noodles from China Became spaghetti in the west
• Potatoes, soya, groundnuts, tomatoes, chillies were introduced to us after the discovery
of the American continent.
• Introduction of new crops was beneficial in some areas. Humble potato became the food
n which European’s poor people survived. They were so dependent on potatoes that
when crop production got destroyed, many poor people died due to starvation.
CONQUEST, DISEASE AND TRADE
• With the discovery of sea routes that connected Europe to America via Asia was a turning
point in the pre-modern world’s trading activity.
• The native inhabitants of America were tribal people, living simple lives. Its discovery led
paved the way to abundant minerals and crops grown in the region.
• Present day Peru and Mexico became centres for mining activities, especially silver.
• This helped the European powers to expand their trade, thus enabling them to become
powerful, financially and politically.
• The American continent (North America, South America and the Caribbean), became a
target of capture for growth of power. Portuguese and Spanish colonisation was its mid-
way till the mid-sixteenth century.
• One of the major weaknesses of the native Americans was their lack of immunity against
various diseases. Even before conquest of the region, the place was infected with deadly
disease carried by the Europeans during trading activities.
• Small pox was one such disease which proved to be very fatal, killing out entire
communities. This opened the path of the Europeans to acquire land without much war
and fighting.
• People that carried such disease were either slaves that worked in Africa plantations and
were carried to America for the same, or some were those who fled Europe in search of
something better. As the people of Europe were immune to such diseases, it affected the
most to the native Americans.
• Till eighteenth century, China and India were considered to be the richest countries. But
China’s restriction of overseas trade and India’s colonisation by the European powers,
made the Europe the centre of world trade.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Give some examples showing relations between different regions in the ancient
world.
2. What was the key tool that helped the European powers to capture America?
The Nineteenth Century (1815 – 1914)
The nineteenth century world faced dramatic changes in spheres of finance, politics, culture
and technology. There are three factors/ movements which contributed to this effect:
• movement of goods or products
• movement of labourers or workers
• movement of capital, for both short and long term basis.
A WORLD ECONOMY TAKES SHAPE
One can say that in-sufficiency of food production in Britain played a major role in shaping
the world’s economy in the nineteenth century.
Britain’s Food demand:
• With the growth of population alongwith industrial sector, demand for food increased. As
demand increased, so did the prices. Also, government banned the import of corn under
the laws commonly known as “Corn Laws”.
• This high increase in prices for food was opposed by the industrialists, which forced the
government to scrap the “Corn Laws”.

• As large section of the population got involved in the industrial sector, import of food
became cheaper than its production. Food grain prices fell and its consumption
increased. There was a high demand for increase in production of food in many parts of
the world to meet the demand of Britain.
Shaping of Economy:
• To meet the demands of Britain, lands in Eastern Europe, Russia, America and Australia
were cleared.
• After agricultural production, there was a need to transfer the goods to the desired
location. For this, railways were constructed. Railways connected the agricultural regions
to the ports, from where the food was shipped. Sea trade increased, leading to building of
new ports and expansion of old ones.
• As lands were cleared for production, people needed to settle down there for regular
supply. This required construction of houses and other facilities.
• With the requirement of settlement came need for labour and investment; investment
came from good financial centres such as London.
• Lack of work force in the regions of development led to migration of people from many
parts of the world, especially Europe. It is estimated that nearly 150 million people
migrated to different regions in search of a better future.
Similar pattern was observed in India, where Canal Colonies were established in western
parts of Punjab. These were semi-deserted areas which were converted into fertile lands
with the help of irrigation. Such initiative was taken by British Indian government to increase
production of wheat and cotton. The peasants who were employed in these areas were
labourers who were from nearby places.
ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY
Technology played a major role in nineteenth century. For instance, railways and
steamships helped in transfer of food, livestock and humans from one place to another.
There were many factors that stimulated this growth in many parts of the world, one being
colonisation.
European power’s colonisation of many areas had many side effects to the place, but also it
to evolve in terms of technology. The colonists built railways, developed ports, and
introduced policies which helped the region to get rid of its ancient ways of living.
Trade in meat also flourished due to advancement in technology, especially with the
invention of refrigerated ships. Initially animals were transported live from America to
Europe. But this led to a lot of wastage, as some died in the journey, some fell it, others
became unfit for use. With the invention of refrigerated ships, animals are slaughtered as
the origin place and transported as frozen meat.
Due to transportation of live animals, meat prices were usually high and poor were not able
to afford it. With the introduction of frozen meat, more amount is transferred as place
 occupied is less and also the price was less. So many poor people were also able to afford
the luxury of meat eating.
LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY COLONIALISM
On the one hand where world trade flourished and a new economy was taking shape, there
were many places in the world that faced serious drawbacks. One of the reasons for this
was colonisation.
Colonisation of a particular region led away the freedom and basic human rights of the
people. The colonists were only interested in meeting their demands, treating people as
mere objects.
One such example is Africa. European power’s conquest for the same was very rigour that
in 1885, the main European powers met at Berlin to discuss the distribution of Africa
between them.
RINDERPEST OR THE CATTLE PLAGUE
Africa before Rinderpest:
• Africa was a continent with vast resources and less population. People led simple lives
owning land livestock. Africans did not bother to earn through wages as they had
sufficient to live.
• The Europeans who went to Africa to capture land and own it were successful in doing
so. But they were not able to force the Africans to work in the plantations or in the mining.
• Many measures were taken by the Europeans to force the people to work for wages,
such as, introduction of inheritance laws which enabled only one member of the family to
inherit land; or imposition of heavy taxes which were only be paid it people worked for
wages.
Rinderpest:
• The cattle disease arrived in Africa in 1880s when the Europeans brought infected cattle
to Africa to feed its soldiers.
• The disease spread very rapidly through the entire African continent. It killed almost 90
percent of the livestock.
• With maximum number of livestock gone, the Africans were force to take up wage work,
which was now strictly regulated. As the Europeans knew that people were helpless, they
exploited the situation for their own benefit.
The Rinderpest situation shows us that though globalisation helped in shaping economy, it
also disastrously affected the lives of the people. A cattle disease changed the fortune of a
large number of people.
INDENTURED LABOUR MIGRATION FROM INDIA
Indentured labour was referred to as “new system of slavery”. The indentured labour shows
us how on one side some sections of the world saw prosperity in trade and economy, while
other sections of the society faced oppression and poverty.
• In India, due to failure of domestic cotton industries, capture of land by renters due to
failure of payment of debts, and clearance of land for plantations and mining forced the
people to migrate out of the place in search of something better.
• People were hired by agents for a contract period of five years, where they had to go to
the plantations or mining areas to work. People of present day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Central India and Tamil Nadu were prominent among those who were hired for
 indentured labour. They were usually taken to Caribbean islands, Mauritius and Fiji.
Some were also taken to Assam plantations.
• Many a time agents gave false information to the labourers about work and living
conditions. They were also not informed about the time and type of journey they were to
endure. There were also instances when labourers were forcibly taken to work at far way
lands.
• Labourers were shocked when they arrived at their work locations, seeing harsh working
and living conditions. But many labourers survived, either by escaping into the wilds or
accepting their situations. The labourers formed their own associations. Many workers
stayed on after their contract period while others returned back to their work place after
their short trip to India.
• Indentured labour was banned in India in 1921, after Indian nationalists opposed the
system labelling it abusive and cruel.
The associations formed by the labourers had new impact on the culture of the region. It is
a good example to visualise how culture from different origins mixed and formed something
unique or new.
• ‘Chutney music’ is a famous art form in Trinidad and Guyana, which expresses creatively
the post-indenture experience.
• ‘Hosay’ was a carnival celebrated in Trinidad, which was attended by all the workers of
the region, irrespective of their race and religion.
INDIAN ENTREPRENEURS ABROAD
Indians also invested in the global trade and earned profits. They usually played the role of
bankers who invested in plantations as well as in its export. Indians developed a system to
regulate transfer of money nationally as well as internationally.
Indians also reached the colonies of Europe to earn money by utilising their resources. With
increase in trade, by the 1860s, many Indians had established retail shops ay busy ports
selling to the tourists local and imported varied items.
• Nattukottai Chettiars, Shikaripuri shroffs, Hyderabadi sindhis are some of the examples.
INDIAN TRADE, COLONIALISM AND THE GLOBAL TRADE
Initially, fine variety of cotton cloth produced in India was exported to Britain and other
counties. But with the development of factories and industries in Britain, trade barriers were
imposed which led to the banishment of imported fine cotton cloths.
With the decrease in export from India, import of manufactured goods from Britain in India
increased. This led to increased competition faced by Indian textiles, whose export business
fell dramatically. The share of cotton textiles in export dropped from 30 percent in 1800 to
below 3 percent by the 1870s.
With the decrease in export of fine cotton cloth, export of food grains and raw materials
increased. The raw materials for the Britain factories were exported from India, especially
raw cotton. Indigo was another raw material whose export increased. Britain also exported
opium from India to China, and with the money earned imported tea and other items from
China.
Consequently, British manufactured goods increased in the Indian market. Britain imported
raw cotton and exported manufactured goods to India. But the money it invested in imports
was much less than the profit it earned through its export in India. Thus Britain was termed
to have ‘trade surplus’ over India. This helped Britain to cover its expenses in trade with
countries with whom it did not share good margin of profit.
 Britain trade surplus over India also helped Britain to cover its expenses of colonisation that
included pensions of British officials, payments of interest of debts of trade and various
others.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Explain how deficiency of food in Britain helped shape the world economy?
2. Write a short note on indentured labour in India.
3. Explain what caused the people of Africa to take up work for wages.
The Inter-war Economy
The First World War started from 1914-1918. It was mainly fought in Europe. As till the
nineteenth century, Europe was the centre for trade and commerce, the war brought about
many changes in the lives of the people, impacting them socially, politically and financially.
WARTIME TRANSFORMATIONS
• The First World War was fought between two important powers: Allies-which included
Britain, France and Russia- and the Central Powers-which included Germany, Hungary-
Austria and Ottoman Turkey.
• The war is said to be the first war of modern age, where many important industrial nations
took part. They used technologies and weapons which had the possibility of damaging
the opponents on a large scale. Death toll increased, with an estimation of 9 million
people dead and 20 million people injured after the First World War. Many of the soldiers
were from working age, thus declining the labour force dramatically after the war.
• As the war continued, more people were recruited from across the world to participate in
the war. Many people travelled large distances, covering seas and oceans to reach the
destinations.
• Male members in the family declined, leading to decline in the family income. And as
more were sent to war, females were forced to step up and take jobs which were meant
to be executed by only men.
• Industries in the world also reshaped, producing goods for war. Industrial nations, who
once controlled the economy, then borrowed money from many nations, especially US.
After the war, US went from debtor to being a creditor.
POST WAR RECOVERY
• After the First World War, Europe faced major repercussions. As Britain was engaged in
war, India and Japan’s industries flourished and they took hold of the market. After the
war, it became difficult for Britain to take back their positions.
• The interest for the money, which was borrowed by Britain during the war, grew rapidly.
Britain went under enormous debts.
• War also led to increase in jobs- as demand in production increased. After the war ended,
many people were left jobless.
• Government also decreased post war expenditures to balance with peace revenues
which further led to loss of jobs. This caused anxiety and panic among the people.
• War effects can also be seen in agriculture. With Europe being engaged in war, wheat
supplies from Europe diminished, which were made up by increase in production in
Canada, America and Australia. After war, the wheat production in Europe bloomed
again; the prices of wheat fell all over the world. This led to decrease in rural income.
RISE OF MASS PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
 US economy boosted after the First World War. It longer was a country that was under the
rule of the European powers. After a short crisis after the war, US resumed to grow in status
of finance and power.
One of the major features of the US economy after the First World War was the system of
mass production. Mass production led to increase in goods available in the market, leading
to decrease in their prices. The decrease in price was comparative to the other
contemporary products available, but it brought profit to the workers and to the company
that produced them.
• Henry Ford was a car manufacturer that maybe said to have started the practice of mass
production.
• He introduced conveyer belts for the transfer of car parts in his company. He named them
‘assembly lines’ which he thought would enable workers to perform a work repeatedly at
a faster rate. The rate will depend on the speed of the conveyer belt.
• This introduction forced the workers to work hard to meet the pace, for example, fix a part
of the car coming with the help of conveyer belt to another part. The workers then were
under the pressure to fix the part at hand before another arrives from the conveyer belt.
• This method caused the production of parts at a much faster rate than the previous
methods employed.
• Initially, the workers were not able to cope with the pressure of work. Many began to quit
the job. Seeing this, Henry Ford doubled the salaries of the workers.
• Increasing the salaries of the workers did not come as a loss to the company. Henry
increased the production rate and again forced the workers to work much harder.
• His profit earned from the production was so high that he termed his decision of
increasing the salaries of the workers as his best ‘cost cutting decision’.
The practice of Henry Ford’s mass production was soon adopted by many industrialists,
leading to rise in production of refrigerators, washing machines, radios, etc.
Another feature observed was purchasing goods on ‘hire purchase’ which allowed people to
pay the prices of the goods in instalments, either weekly or monthly. As the purchase of
electronic items increased, so did the requirement of house building and its ownership,
which was again facilitated through the loan system or ‘hire purchase’.
The requirement of house ownership and building led to more employment. With the
increase in demands, came more investments which created more employment – leading to
an overall prosperity in the US in the 1920s.
US also became one of the largest capital investor. Its trade with the European countries
helped them recover from the post war effects to a large extent.
THE GREAT DEPRESSION
The Great Depression started in 1929 till the mid 1930s. Its effects were seen in every
sector of economy, but the worst affected was the agricultural sector. Many revived after the
depression, but the effects on the agriculture sector was prolonged and very prominent.
There were many factors that contributed to the cause of the Great Depression:
• There was an overproduction of agricultural goods after the First World War. This caused
the prices to fell. The decrease in income of the farmers led them to produce more goods
to balance their overall income, further deteriorating the scenario.
• Many countries of the world were dependent on US for investment. But seeing the early
signs of depression, US backed out from lending further loans to the countries, thus
severely affecting their economies.
• Also, US imposed duties on import trade to deal with the effects of Depression. This also
caused a blow to the countries’ economies.
Effects of Depression:
• The major effect was seen on farmers, whose income declined on a very large scale.
They were unable to pay off their interests and further went down under the debts.
• Due to cut off of loans from US, many major banks collapsed leading to disruption of
currencies such as British pound sterling.
• US also faced the blow of depression. As the prices of commodities fell, US banks
backed out from giving loans and demanded the money lend back. With this, came failure
of businesses, households where people were forced to sell their homes and other assets
to pay off their debts.
• Unemployment reached a high value, causing people to leave their homes and travel far
off distances in search of any available work.
• US banks also went bankrupt and collapsed, as they were not able to collect the money
that was given as loan: 110,000 companies collapsed during 1929 and 1932.
INDIA AND THE GREAT DEPRESSION
• The Great Depression of the US had its effect on Indian economy as well. This can also
be seen as an example how the economies of the world were intricately intermixed.
• With the start of the depression, export of raw materials declined, as prices fell. The fall in
prices internationally caused an increase in prices in India, thus causing more suffering.
• Farmers were the worst affected, as export declined. But the decline in export did not
lower the revenue taxes that were to be paid. The farmers that produced for the
international market were the worst to suffer.
• To clear off their loans and debts, Indians started selling off their jewellery or any other
precious metals. India became an exporter of the precious metals in the depression
years. It is said that India’s export of gold helped Britain revive its economy in the
depression years.
• Urban dwellers of India were the least affected. With fix salaries and falling of prices of
goods, they lived comfortable lives comparatively. As government granted tariff protection
to the industries, investment in the industrial sector also increased.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. What were the changes observed during the First World War from economic point
of view?
2. How did mass production affect the society?
3. What were the causes and effects of the Great Depression?
Rebuilding a world Economy: The Post-war Era
Second World War was fought in the year 1939 to 1945 between Axis powers- that included
Nazi Germany, Japan and Italy- and the Allies- which included Britain, France, the Soviet
Union and the US).
Second World War brought more devastation and havoc than the First World War. It is
estimated that more than 60 million people lost their lives. But this time, along with soldiers,
civilians were also killed due to air attacks on different cities. This caused many parts of
Europe and Asia turn to ashes.
 Two important outcomes of the Second World war was: one, US came out to be a powerful
force in political, economic and military sphere. Secondly, Soviet Union also emerged out
as a world power, from an agricultural backward country.
POST-WAR SETTLEMENT AND THE BRETTON WOODS INSTITUTIONS
Two key points were drawn from various economic cultures:
• If one is to base its industrial sector on mass production, then there should be a constant
demand for the goods produced, which in turn required stable incomes, which was
possible from stable jobs or employment. Also, it was proposed that government should
control prices and provide opportunities for employment.
• A country’s economic links with other countries was also important to control
employment. A government can control employment by controlling flow of goods in and
out of the country, capital and labour.
Bretton Woods Institutions
After the Second World War, United Nations was formed, to ensure peace between different
countries. United nations work in different sectors to help needy and poor and help them
cope with the competitive work. After the Second World War, emphasis was given on
economic and political stability.
A system was worked out at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held at
Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA in 1944 and so, the name, Bretton Woods.
Bretton woods institutions, also known as Bretton Woods twins, consisted of two units: the
International Monetary fund (IMF), which dealt with a member country’s excess and deficit
resources. The other unit was the International Bank for Reconstruction and development
(also known as World Bank). It was set up to finance post war reconstruction.
The International Monetary system was one in which a country’s currency was pegged or
fixed at a certain exchange rate with other country’s currency.
THE EARLY POST-WAR YEARS
The post war years saw rapid growth in trade and income in the Western industrial nations.
The growth was steady and on an average, unemployment was less than 5 percent in the
industrial nations.
Developing nations invested in large amounts in industrial equipments and machinery to
catch up with the advanced nations. This also caused increase in employment and incomes
in the developing nations.
DECOLONISATION AND INDEPENDENCE
After the Second World War, many countries freed themselves from the colonial rule. But
after years of being controlled, the people were under enormous pressure to bring them out
of poverty and develop a system that would ensure employment, food and security. Along
with it, it also had to cope with the advancement which led to the development of other
countries.
The Bretton Woods Institutions were initially focused on meeting the needs of the industrial
countries, but as they were self-sufficient in rebuilding their economies, the focus of the
institution shifted to the developing countries.
The Bretton Woods was mainly regulated by the colonial powers, and so, even after
independence, they had control over a country’s natural resources. And also, powerful
 countries were able to exploit the resources of the less developed countries for their own
benefit.
In the 1950s and 1960s, a group of developing countries came together to form a union of
their own called as the Group of 77 or G-77. It was done so to avoid exploitation from the
developed countries: by having control over their own resources, by having control over the
prices of raw materials and finished products in the international market. These demands
were collectively called a new international economic order (NIEO).
END OF BRETTON WOODS AND THE BEGINNING OF ‘GLOBALISATION’
By the fall of the 1960s, US trade overseas fluctuated, causing the value of dollar to decline.
This rendered the system of fixed exchange rates useless. In place of it, a new system of
floating exchange rates was introduced.
Also, with the formation of Bretton Woods twins, developing countries financed its growth by
taking loans from the twins initially. But later on, the loans had to be taken from the banks
and money lenders of the developed nations. This led to higher interest rates, and many a
times pushed the developing countries further back into debts.
China emerged out as a platform where MNCs were attracted to the most. This was
because of the low cost structure of the Chinese economy- its low wage income. This
stimulated the world’s trade and capital investment.
World’s economy faced major transformations with the economic transformations of
countries like India, China and Brazil.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. What was Bretton Woods system?
2. What were the two important lessons learnt from varied economic cultures?
3. What is G-77?