Uas MP

Job in project management
• Evaluation is the periodic assessment of a project's relevance,

performance, efficiency, and impact (both expected and unexpected)
in relation to stated objectives.
• monitoring, evaluation benefits from the process of information
gathering to facilitate the assessment of the extend at which the
project is achieving or has achieved its expected goals.
1
• Its findings allow project managers, beneficiaries, partners, donors
and all project stakeholders to learn from the experience and improve
future interventions.
• Qualitative and quantitative information are critical components of an
evaluation, with out it, it is almost impossible to identify how project
interventions are contributing (or not) to the project goals.
2
 Because stakeholder management is so important
to project success, the Project Management
Institute decided to create an entire knowledge area
devoted to it as part of the Fifth Edition of the
PMBOK® Guide in 2013
 The purpose of project stakeholder management is
to identify all people or organizations affected by a
project, to analyze stakeholder expectations, and to
effectively engage stakeholders
Information Technology Project

Management, Eighth Edition Copyright 2016 2
 Identifying stakeholders: Identifying everyone involved in
the project or affected by it, and determining the best ways
to manage relationships with them.
 Planning stakeholder management: Determining
strategies to effectively engage stakeholders
 Managing stakeholder engagement: Communicating and
working with project stakeholders to satisfy their needs and
expectations, resolving issues, and fostering engagement in
project decisions and activities
 Controlling stakeholder engagement: Monitoring
stakeholder relationships and adjusting plans and strategies
for engaging stakeholders as needed

 Internal project stakeholders generally include the
project sponsor, project team, support staff, and
internal customers for the project.
 External project stakeholders include the project’s
customers (if they are external to the organization),
competitors, suppliers, and other external groups that
are potentially involved in the project or affected by it,
such as government officials and concerned citizens

 A stakeholder register includes basic information on
stakeholders:
◦ Identification information: The stakeholders’ names, positions,
locations, roles in the project, and contact information
◦ Assessment information: The stakeholders’ major
requirements and expectations, potential influences, and
phases of the project in which stakeholders have the most
interest
◦ Stakeholder classification: Is the stakeholder internal or
external to the organization? Is the stakeholder a supporter of
the project or resistant to it?

 After identifying key project stakeholders, you can
use different classification models to determine an
approach for managing stakeholder relationships
 A power/interest grid can be used to group
stakeholders based on their level of authority
(power) and their level of concern (interest) for
project outcomes

 Unaware: Unaware of the project and its potential
impacts on them
 Resistant: Aware of the project yet resistant to change
 Neutral: Aware of the project yet neither supportive
nor resistant
 Supportive: Aware of the project and supportive of
change
 Leading: Aware of the project

 After identifying and analyzing stakeholders,
project teams should develop a plan for
management them
 The stakeholder management plan can include:
◦ Current and desired engagement levels
◦ Interrelationships between stakeholders
◦ Communication requirements
◦ Potential management strategies for each stakeholders
◦ Methods for updating the stakeholder management plan

 Project success is often measured in terms of
customer/sponsor satisfaction
 Project sponsors often rank scope, time, and cost
goals in order of importance and provide guidelines
on how to balance the triple constraint
 This ranking can be shown in an expectations
management matrix to help clarify expectations

 Understanding the stakeholders’ expectations can
help in managing issues
 Issues should be documented in an issue log, a
tool used to document, monitor, and track issues
that need resolution
 Unresolved issues can be a major source of
conflict and result in stakeholder expectations not
being met
 Issue logs can address other knowledge areas as
well

 You cannot control stakeholders, but you can
control their level of engagement
 Engagement involves a dialogue in which people
seek understanding and solutions to issues of
mutual concern
 Many teachers are familiar with various
techniques for engaging students
 It is important to set the proper tone at the start of
a class or project

 Managing stakeholders is now the tenth
knowledge area in the PMBOK® Guide.
 Processes include:
◦ Identify stakeholders
◦ Plan stakeholder management
◦ Manage stakeholder engagement
◦ Control stakeholder engagement

Stakeholder Map Matrix
• Pemetaan stakeholder digunakan untuk mengidentifikasikan siapa
stakeholder yang berperan penting terhadap perusahaan dan bisnis
dengan menilai sifat dari hubungan stakeholder (Goergen et al., 2010).
• Sementara Johnson et al. (2005), diadaptasi dari Mendelow (1991),
mengatakan bahwa pemetaan stakeholder merupakan salah satu cara
untuk mengidentifikasi ekspektasi stakeholder dan power yang
dimilikinya.
• Pemetaan stakeholder ini disajikan dalam bentuk matriks yang terdiri dari
dua dimensi, yaitu power dan interest.
• Semakin tinggi power yang dimiliki oleh stakeholder, semakin tinggi juga
pengaruhnya terhadap proyek.
• Semakin tinggi interest yang dimiliki stakeholder, semakin tinggi juga
tingkat keaktifan stakeholder dalam suatu proyek.
Contoh Stakeholder Map Matrix
penjelasan dari masingmasing bagian.
1. Key Players
• Key players merupakan stakeholder yang berperan langsung dalam
pelaksanaan proyek karena memiliki tingkat power dan interest yang
tinggi. Jika terdapat kesalahan pada pekerjaan mereka, maka akan
langsung dapat terlihat hasilnya.
2. Keep Satisfied
• Kategori stakeholder ini memiliki tingkat power yang tinggi tetapi
interest yang rendah.
• Meskipun tingkat interest tergolong rendah, tapi dengan power yang
tinggi dapat mempengaruhi keberjalanan proyek.
3. Keep Informed
• Keep informed merupakan stakeholder yang memiliki tingkat power
yang rendah dan interest yang tinggi. Meskipun power yang dimiliki
terbatas, tapi dengan interest yang tinggi dapat memengaruhi proyek
secara tidak langsung.
4. Minimal Effort
• Kategori stakeholder ini memiliki dampak yang paling kecil terhadap
proyek jika dibandingkan dengan kategori stakeholder yang lain. Hal
ini karena tingkat power dan interest yang sama-sama rendah.
Job in project management
• Evaluation is the periodic assessment of a project's relevance,
performance, efficiency, and impact (both expected and unexpected)
in relation to stated objectives.
• monitoring, evaluation benefits from the process of information
gathering to facilitate the assessment of the extend at which the
project is achieving or has achieved its expected goals.
1
• Its findings allow project managers, beneficiaries, partners, donors
and all project stakeholders to learn from the experience and improve
future interventions.
• Qualitative and quantitative information are critical components of an
evaluation, with out it, it is almost impossible to identify how project
interventions are contributing (or not) to the project goals.
2
 Because stakeholder management is so important
to project success, the Project Management
Institute decided to create an entire knowledge area
devoted to it as part of the Fifth Edition of the
PMBOK® Guide in 2013
 The purpose of project stakeholder management is
to identify all people or organizations affected by a
project, to analyze stakeholder expectations, and to
effectively engage stakeholders

 Identifying stakeholders: Identifying everyone involved in
the project or affected by it, and determining the best ways
to manage relationships with them.
 Planning stakeholder management: Determining
strategies to effectively engage stakeholders
 Managing stakeholder engagement: Communicating and
working with project stakeholders to satisfy their needs and
expectations, resolving issues, and fostering engagement in
project decisions and activities
 Controlling stakeholder engagement: Monitoring
stakeholder relationships and adjusting plans and strategies
for engaging stakeholders as needed

 Internal project stakeholders generally include the
project sponsor, project team, support staff, and
internal customers for the project.
 External project stakeholders include the project’s
customers (if they are external to the organization),
competitors, suppliers, and other external groups that
are potentially involved in the project or affected by it,
such as government officials and concerned citizens

 A stakeholder register includes basic information on
stakeholders:
◦ Identification information: The stakeholders’ names, positions,
locations, roles in the project, and contact information
◦ Assessment information: The stakeholders’ major
requirements and expectations, potential influences, and
phases of the project in which stakeholders have the most
interest
◦ Stakeholder classification: Is the stakeholder internal or
external to the organization? Is the stakeholder a supporter of
the project or resistant to it?

 After identifying key project stakeholders, you can
use different classification models to determine an
approach for managing stakeholder relationships
 A power/interest grid can be used to group
stakeholders based on their level of authority
(power) and their level of concern (interest) for
project outcomes

 Unaware: Unaware of the project and its potential
impacts on them
 Resistant: Aware of the project yet resistant to change
 Neutral: Aware of the project yet neither supportive
nor resistant
 Supportive: Aware of the project and supportive of
change
 Leading: Aware of the project

 After identifying and analyzing stakeholders,
project teams should develop a plan for
management them
 The stakeholder management plan can include:
◦ Current and desired engagement levels
◦ Interrelationships between stakeholders
◦ Communication requirements
◦ Potential management strategies for each stakeholders
◦ Methods for updating the stakeholder management plan

 Project success is often measured in terms of
customer/sponsor satisfaction
 Project sponsors often rank scope, time, and cost
goals in order of importance and provide guidelines
on how to balance the triple constraint
 This ranking can be shown in an expectations
management matrix to help clarify expectations

 Understanding the stakeholders’ expectations can
help in managing issues
 Issues should be documented in an issue log, a
tool used to document, monitor, and track issues
that need resolution
 Unresolved issues can be a major source of
conflict and result in stakeholder expectations not
being met
 Issue logs can address other knowledge areas as
well

 You cannot control stakeholders, but you can
control their level of engagement
 Engagement involves a dialogue in which people
seek understanding and solutions to issues of
mutual concern
 Many teachers are familiar with various
techniques for engaging students
 It is important to set the proper tone at the start of
a class or project

 Managing stakeholders is now the tenth
knowledge area in the PMBOK® Guide.
 Processes include:
◦ Identify stakeholders
◦ Plan stakeholder management
◦ Manage stakeholder engagement
◦ Control stakeholder engagement

Stakeholder Map Matrix
• Pemetaan stakeholder digunakan untuk mengidentifikasikan siapa
stakeholder yang berperan penting terhadap perusahaan dan bisnis
dengan menilai sifat dari hubungan stakeholder (Goergen et al., 2010).
• Sementara Johnson et al. (2005), diadaptasi dari Mendelow (1991),
mengatakan bahwa pemetaan stakeholder merupakan salah satu cara
untuk mengidentifikasi ekspektasi stakeholder dan power yang
dimilikinya.
• Pemetaan stakeholder ini disajikan dalam bentuk matriks yang terdiri dari
dua dimensi, yaitu power dan interest.
• Semakin tinggi power yang dimiliki oleh stakeholder, semakin tinggi juga
pengaruhnya terhadap proyek.
• Semakin tinggi interest yang dimiliki stakeholder, semakin tinggi juga
tingkat keaktifan stakeholder dalam suatu proyek.
Contoh Stakeholder Map Matrix
penjelasan dari masingmasing bagian.
1. Key Players
• Key players merupakan stakeholder yang berperan langsung dalam
pelaksanaan proyek karena memiliki tingkat power dan interest yang
tinggi. Jika terdapat kesalahan pada pekerjaan mereka, maka akan
langsung dapat terlihat hasilnya.
2. Keep Satisfied
• Kategori stakeholder ini memiliki tingkat power yang tinggi tetapi
interest yang rendah.
• Meskipun tingkat interest tergolong rendah, tapi dengan power yang
tinggi dapat mempengaruhi keberjalanan proyek.
3. Keep Informed
• Keep informed merupakan stakeholder yang memiliki tingkat power
yang rendah dan interest yang tinggi. Meskipun power yang dimiliki
terbatas, tapi dengan interest yang tinggi dapat memengaruhi proyek
secara tidak langsung.
4. Minimal Effort
• Kategori stakeholder ini memiliki dampak yang paling kecil terhadap
proyek jika dibandingkan dengan kategori stakeholder yang lain. Hal
ini karena tingkat power dan interest yang sama-sama rendah.
 Many corporate executives have said, “People are
our most important asset”
 People determine the success and failure of
organizations and projects

 Proactive organizations are addressing workforce
needs by
◦ improving benefits
◦ redefining work hours and incentives
◦ finding future workers

 Making the most effective use of the people
involved with a project
 Processes include
◦ Planning human resource management: identifying and
documenting project roles, responsibilities, and reporting
relationships
◦ Acquiring the project team: getting the needed personnel
assigned to and working on the project
◦ Developing the project team: building individual and
group skills to enhance project performance
◦ Managing the project team: tracking team member
performance, motivating team members, providing timely
feedback, resolving issues and conflicts, and coordinating
changes to help enhance project performance
 Psychologists and management theorists have
devoted much research and thought to the field of
managing people at work
 Important areas related to project management
include
◦ motivation theories
◦ influence and power
◦ Effectiveness
◦ Emotional intelligence
◦ Leadership

 Intrinsic motivation causes people to participate
in an activity for their own enjoyment
 Extrinsic motivation causes people to do
something for a reward or to avoid a penalty
 For example, some children take piano lessons for
intrinsic motivation (they enjoy it) while others take
them for extrinsic motivation (to get a reward or
avoid punishment)

 Abraham Maslow argued that humans possess
unique qualities that enable them to make
independent choices, thus giving them control of
their destiny
 Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs which
states that people’s behaviors are guided or
motivated by a sequence of needs

 Frederick Herzberg distinguished between
◦ motivational factors:
 achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility,
advancement, and growth, which produce job satisfaction
◦ hygiene factors:
 cause dissatisfaction if not present, but do not motivate
workers to do more. Examples include larger salaries, more
supervision, and a more attractive work environment

 Projects are more likely to succeed when project
managers influence with
◦ expertise
◦ work challenge
 Projects are more likely to fail when project
managers rely too heavily on
◦ authority
◦ money
◦ penalty

 Project managers can apply 7 habits to improve
effectiveness on projects
◦ Be proactive
◦ Begin with the end in mind
◦ Put first things first
◦ Think win/win
◦ Seek first to understand, then to be understood
◦ Synergize
◦ Sharpen the saw

 Involves
◦ identifying and documenting project roles,
responsibilities, and reporting relationships
 Contents include
◦ project organizational charts
◦ staffing management plan
◦ responsibility assignment matrixes
◦ resource histograms

 A responsibility assignment matrix (RAM) is a
matrix that maps the work of the project as
described in the WBS to the people responsible
for performing the work as described in the OBS
 Can be created in different ways to meet unique
project needs

R = responsibility
A = accountability, only one A per task
C = consultation
I = informed
Note that some people reverse the definitions of responsible and accountable.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1U2gngDxFkc
 A staffing management plan describes when
and how people will be added to and taken off the
project team
 A resource histogram is a column chart that
shows the number of resources assigned to a
project over time

 Acquiring qualified people for teams is crucial
 The project manager who is the smartest person
on the team has done a poor job of recruiting!
 It’s important to assign the appropriate type and
number of people to work on projects at the
appropriate times

 Staffing plans and good hiring procedures are important,
as are incentives for recruiting and retention
◦ Some companies give their employees one dollar for every hour a
new person they helped hire works
◦ Some organizations allow people to work from home as an
incentive

 Resource loading refers to the amount of
individual resources an existing schedule requires
during specific time periods
 Helps project managers develop a general
understanding of the demands a project will make
on the organization’s resources and individual
people’s schedules
 Overallocation means more resources than are
available are assigned to perform work at a given
time

 Resource leveling is a technique for resolving
resource conflicts by delaying tasks
 The main purpose of resource leveling is to create
a smoother distribution of resource usage and
reduce overallocation

 When resources are used on a more constant
basis, they require less management
 It may enable project managers to use a just-in-
time inventory type of policy for using
subcontractors or other expensive resources
 It often improves morale

 The main goal of team development is to help
people work together more effectively to improve
project performance
 It takes teamwork to successfully complete most
projects

 Training can help people understand themselves,
each other, and how to work better in teams
 Team building activities include
◦ physical challenges
◦ psychological preference indicator tools

 Team-based reward and recognition systems can
promote teamwork
 Focus on rewarding teams for achieving specific
goals
 Allow time for team members to mentor and help
each other to meet project goals and develop
human resources

 Project managers must lead their teams in performing
various project activities
 After assessing team performance and related
information, the project manager must decide
◦ if changes should be requested to the project
◦ if corrective or preventive actions should be recommended
◦ if updates are needed to the project management plan or
organizational process assets.

 Observation and conversation
 Project performance appraisals
 Interpersonal skills
 Conflict management

 Be patient and kind with your team
 Fix the problem instead of blaming people
 Establish regular, effective meetings
 Allow time for teams to go through the basic
team-building stages
 Limit the size of work teams to three to seven
members

Management Resiko
Dinar M K Nugraheni, ST, MInfo Tech (Comp), PhD
Manajemen Proyek pertemuan ke 11
S1 – Informatika FSM UNDIP
Semarang Mei 2020
Project Procurement
Management
Dinar Mutiara Kusumo Nugraheni, ST, Minfo Tech (Comp), PhD
Project Management ( for Information Technology)
• Procurement management is
• the strategic approach to managing and optimizing organizational spend. It
involves acquiring quality goods and services from preferred vendors within a
stipulated budget, on or before the deadline
• Acquiring goods and services for a project from outside the performing
organization
• Procurement means acquiring goods and/or services from an outside

source
• Other terms include purchasing and outsourcing
Why Outsource?
• To access skills and technologies
• To reduce both fixed and recurrent costs
• To allow the client organization to focus on its core business
• To provide flexibility
Project Procurement Management Processes
• Processes include:
• Planning procurement management: Determining what to procure and
when and how to do it
• Conducting procurements: Obtaining seller responses, selecting sellers, and
awarding contracts
• Controlling procurements: Managing relationships with sellers, monitoring contract
performance, and making changes as needed
• Closing procurements: Completing and settling each contract or agreement, including
resolving of any open items
Planning procurement management
• Identifying which project needs can best be met by using products
or services outside the organization
• If there is no need to buy any products or services from outside the

organization, then there is no need to perform any of the other
procurement management processes
Tools and Techniques for Planning Purchases
and Acquisitions
• Expert judgment
• Market research
• Make-or-buy analysis: General management technique used to
determine whether an organization should make or perform a
particular product or service inside the organization or buy from
someone else
Make-or-Buy Example
• Assume you can lease an item you need for a project for IDR
800.000/day. To purchase the item, the cost is IDR 12.000.000 plus
a daily operational cost of IDR 400.000/day
• How many days the operational cost will help project manager to
decide .....for buying or renting an item ?
Make-or Buy Solution
• Set up an equation so both options, purchase and lease, are equal
• In this example, use the following equation. Let d be the number of days to
use the item:
12.000.000 + 400.000 d = 800.000d
12.000 +400 d = 800 d
12.000 = 800 d -400 d
12,000 = 400d
d = 12.000/ 400
d = 30
• If you need the item for more than 30 days, it is more economical to
purchase it
Conducting Procurements (Contracts)
• A contract is a mutually binding agreement that obligates the seller to
provide the specified products or services and obligates the buyer to
pay for them
• Contracts can clarify responsibilities and sharpen focus on key
deliverables of a project
• Because contracts are legally binding, there is more accountability for
delivering the work as stated in the contract
Types of Contracts ( utk pembayaran
• Different types of contracts can be used in different situations:
• Fixed price or lump sum contracts: Involve a fixed total price for a well-defined
product or service
• Cost reimbursable contracts: Involve payment to the seller for direct and indirect
costs
• Time and material contracts: Hybrid of both fixed price and cost reimbursable
contracts, often used by consultants
• Unit price contracts: Require the buyer to pay the seller a predetermined amount
per unit of service
• A single contract can actually include all four of these categories, if it
makes sense for that particular procurement
Contract Statement of Work (SOW)
berdasarkan pekerjaan
• A statement of work is a description of the work required for the
procurement
• If a SOW is used as part of a contract to describe only the work
required for that particular contract, it is called a contract statement
of work
• A SOW is a type of scope statement
• A good SOW gives bidders a better understanding of the buyer’s
expectations
Statement of Work (SOW) Template
Controlling Procurements
• Ensures that the seller’s performance meets contractual
requirements
• Contracts are legal relationships, so it is important that legal and
contracting professionals be involved in writing and administering
contracts
• It is critical that project managers and team members watch for
constructive change orders, which are oral or written acts or
omissions by someone with actual or apparent authority that can be
construed to have the same effect as a written change order
Closing Procurements
• Involves completing and settling contracts and resolving any open
items
• The project team should:
 Determine if all work was completed correctly and satisfactorily
 Update records to reflect final results
 Archive information for future use
• The contract itself should include requirements for formal acceptance
and closure
Tools to Assist in Contract Closure
• Procurement audits identify lessons learned in the procurement
process
• A records management system provides the ability to easily organize,
find, and archive procurement-related documents
Summary
• Project procurement management involves acquiring goods and
services for a project from outside the performing organization
• Processes include:
• Plan procurement management
• Conduct procurements
• Control procurements
• Close procurements
Manajemen kualitas proyek
(Project Quality Management)
• Manajemen kualitas proyek merupakan knowledge area yang sulit
untuk didefinisikan.
• The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines
quality as “the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills
requirements” (ISO9000:2000)  kualitas sebagai penilaian terhadap
karakteristik dari sebuah kesatuan yang berhubungan dengan
kemampuanya untuk memenuhi spesifikasi kebutuhan stakeholder
dan pengguna.
Para ahli lainnya mendefinisikan :
• kualitas berdasarkan keselarasan terhadap kebutuhan dan
kesesuaian untuk digunakan. (Conformance to
requirements: the project’s processes and products meet
written specifications)
• kesesuaian untuk digunakan berarti produk dapat
digunakan sebagiamana mestinya. ( Fitness for use: a
product can be used as it was intended)
• Tujuan utama dari manajemen kualitas proyek adalah memastikan
bahwa proyek akan memuaskan spesifikasi kebutuhan perangkat
lunak atau sistem.
• Dan untuk mendapatkan kualitas yang diinginkan oleh Stakeholder,
tim proyek harus memahami kebutuhan stakeholder baik yang
diungkapkan secara lisan maupun tertulis.
• Terdapat tiga aktivitas utama dari manajemen kualitas proyek:
• Perencanaan kualitas (Quality Planning), mengidentifikasikan standard
kualitas yang sesuai dengan desain proyek dan bagaimana memberikan
rekomedansi agar perangkat lunak memuaskan stake holder .
• Jaminan kualitas (Quality Assurance), evaluasi periodic terhadap keseluruhan
performa proyek untuk memastikan proyek akan memuaskan standard
kualitas yang relevan.
• Pengendalian kualitas (Quality Control), memonitor hasil proyek tertentu
untuk memastikan hasil tersebut sesuai dengan standard kualitas relevan
serta mengidentifikasikan cara untuk meningkatkan kualitas keseluruhan.
Quality Planning
• Perencanaan kualitas (Quality Planning), mengidentifikasikan standard
kualitas yang sesuai dengan desain proyek dan bagaimana memberikan
rekomedansi agar perangkat lunak memuaskan stake holder .
• Cara untuk melakukan quality plannging adalah dengan :
• Mendesain suatu experiment yang berfungsi untuk mengidentifikasi variable apa yang
paling berpengaruh dari project tersebut.
• Dalam hal perangkat lunak yang paling berpengaruh dalam hal kualitas adalah mampu
untuk memenuhi kebutuhan dari pemakai, pengembang dan pemelihara perangkat
lunak.
Quality Planning
• Implies the ability to anticipate situations and prepare actions to
bring about the desired outcome
• Important to prevent defects by:

• Selecting proper materials
• Training and indoctrinating people in quality
• Planning a process that ensures the appropriate outcome
Quality Planning
• Important scope aspects of IT projects that affect quality include:
• Functionality is the degree to which a system performs its intended function
• Features are the system’s special characteristics that appeal to users. It is important to
specify which are required and which are optional
• System outputs are the screens and reports the system generates. Need to
define clearly what they look like
• Performance addresses how well a product or service performs the
customer’s intended use.
• Need to know volumes of data and transactions, number of simultaneous users, required
response time, etc.
• Reliability is the ability of a product or service to perform as expected under
normal conditions (customers must define expected level of service)
• Maintainability addresses the ease of performing maintenance on a product
Quality Assurance
• Jaminan kualitas (Quality Assurance), evaluasi periodic terhadap keseluruhan
performa proyek untuk memastikan proyek akan memuaskan standard
kualitas yang relevan.
• Teknik yang digunakan :

• Benchmarking generates ideas for quality improvements by comparing
specific project practices or product characteristics to those of other
projects or products within or outside the performing organization
• A quality audit is a structured review of specific quality management
activities that help identify lessons learned that could improve
performance on current or future projects
Quality Control
• Pengendalian kualitas (Quality Control), memonitor hasil proyek tertentu
untuk memastikan hasil tersebut sesuai dengan standard kualitas relevan
serta mengidentifikasikan cara untuk meningkatkan kualitas keseluruhan.
Tools & Techniques for Quality Control
Cause-and-effect diagrams trace complaints about quality problems back to
the responsible production operations
• They help you find the root cause of a problem
• Also known as fishbone or Ishikawa diagrams
• Can also use the 5 whys technique where you repeat the question “Why”
(five is a good rule of thumb) to peel away the layers of symptoms that can
lead to the root cause
1. Why the users can not get into the system
2. Why they keep forgetting passwords
3. Why didn’t they reset their passwords
4. Why didn’t they check the box to save their password, etc.
Sample Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Flowcharts
• Flowcharts are graphic
displays of the logic and
flow of processes that help
you analyze how problems
occur and how processes
can be improved
• They show activities,
decision points, and the
order of how information
is processed
13
Out put
• Acceptance decisions- are the products/services
acceptable or should they be rejected and
rework is then necessary
• Rework – action taken to bring rejected items
into compliance with products specs. Can be
very expensive
• Process adjustments – correct or prevent
further quality problems based on quality
control measurements (purchase faster server if
response time is too slow)
14
Expectations and Cultural Differences in
Quality
• Project managers must understand and manage stakeholder
expectations
• Expectations also vary by:

• Organization’s culture – even within the organization
• Geographic regions
Contoh : software quality factors dari
Hewlett-Packard
• Functionality : diukur denganmengevaluasi fasilitas dan kemampuan
dari program
• Usability : diukur dari faktor manusia yang memakai sistem (estetika,
konsistensi dan dokumentasi)
• Reliability : dievaluasi dengan mengukur frekuensi kegagalan (error),
akurasi output, MTBF(mean time between failure) dan kemampuan
mengatasi error
Hewlett-Packard (2)
• Performance : diukur dari kecepatan proses, respon, pemakaian
sumber daya dan efisiensi
• Supportability : gabungan dari extensibility, adaptability dan
serviceability (ketiganya lebih dikenal dengan istilah maintainability)
beserta testability, compatibility, configurability, kemudahan instalasi
dan identifikasi problem
Hewlett-Packard (3)
• Product Operation Correctness: Software must exactly perform as
specified
• Robustness: Software must function even in abnormal circumstances
Extendability: Software must be adaptable to changes in
specifications
• Reusability: Software must be used (in whole or in part) in new
applications Compatibility: Software must ease with which sofware
can be combined with others
Testing
• Many IT professionals think of testing as a stage that
comes near the end of IT product development
• Testing should be done during almost every phase of

the IT product development life cycle
Chapter 8 - Project Quality Management 19

Types of Tests
• Unit testing tests each individual component (often a
program) to ensure it is as defect-free as possible
• Integration testing occurs between unit and system

testing to test functionally grouped components
• System testing tests the entire system as one entity
• User acceptance testing is an independent test

performed by end users prior to accepting the delivered
system

Who’s Responsible for the
Quality of Projects?
• Project managers are ultimately responsible for quality
management on their projects
• Several organizations and references can help project
managers and their teams understand quality
• International Organization for Standardization (www.iso.org)
• When products, systems, machinery and devices work well and safely, it is often
because they meet standards. The organization responsible for many thousands
of the standards which benefit the world is ISO (derived from the Greek isos,
meaning “equal”)
• IEEE – Standards Association (www.ieee.org)
• A leading, developer of industry standards in a broad-range of industries (Power
and Energy, Information Technology, Telecommunications, Transportation,
Medical and Healthcare, nanotechnology, cybersecurity, information assurance,
and green technology) . Globally recognized

Project Communications
Management
Communications Management
• “The processes required to ensure timely and
appropriate generation, collection,
distribution, storage, retrieval, and ultimate
disposition of project information”
Why Do We Manage Communications?
• Project Managers spend most of their time
communicating
• Communication is complex; requiring choices
between:
– Sender-Receiver models
– Choice of media
– Writing style
– Presentation techniques
– Meeting management
PMBOK Communication Model
• Encode – Translate thought to language
• Message – Output of encoding
• Medium – Method to convey message
• Noise – Interference with transmission/understanding
• Decode – Translation back to thought/idea
Noise
Message
Encode Decode
Sender Noise
MEDIUM Receiver
Decode Encode
Feedback - Message
Communication Model
• Communications model implies feedback
required
• Key Terms
– Nonverbal – 55% of Communication
– Paralingual – Pitch and tone of voice
– Active listening – Receiver confirms message and
asks for clarification
– Effective listening – Receiver pays attention,
thoughtfully responds, and provides feedback
How Do We Manage Communications?
• Five processes
– Identify Stakeholders
– Plan Communications
– Distribute Information
– Manage Stakeholder Expectations
– Report Performance
Plan Distribute Manage Report

Identify Stakeholder
Stakeholders Communications Information Performance
Expectations
Identify Stakeholders
Inputs Tools & Techniques
Project Charter  Stakeholder analysis
 Expert Judgment Stakeholder
Procurement Outputs
Documents Register
Enterprise Stakeholder
Environmental Management
Factors Strategy
Organizational
Process Assets

Expectations
Plan Communications
Inputs Tools & Techniques
Stakeholder
Register  Communications
requirement analysis
Stakeholder Communications
Management  Communications technology Outputs
Management
Strategy Plan
 Communications models
Enterprise
Environmental  Communications methods Project Document
Factors Updates
Organizational
Process Assets

Expectations
Com Requirement Analysis
• Who needs to know and how much?
• Communicate good and bad, but not too much
to overwhelm team
• Communication channels grows exponentially
not linearly as team members are added!
# of Com Channels = N(N-1)/2

Where N = # of Stakeholders
Communications Mgmt Plan
• Who, what, when, and how information is to be
distributed
• Issue escalation process
Information
ue n
n
y
on
ar nd
eq tio
tio
g
nc
er
tin
an t
Type
pi
Fr ibu
bu
M sa
M jec
ag
ke
m
tri
&D
tr
le
o
ha
le
is
is
Pr
Sa
Fi
D
D
Charter Revision      
Project Plan Revision      
Launch Plan Revision   
Product Specifications Revision    
Schedule Monthly      
Weekly Updates Weekly      
Project Minutes Weekly  
Project emails As-Appropriate 
Project Memos As-Appropriate  
Vendor Info As-Appropriate  
Progress Update Quarterly      
Contractor Info   
Distribute Information
Tools & Techniques
 Communications methods Outputs Organizational

Project Process Assets
Inputs  Information distribution tools
Management Plan Updates
Performance
Reports
Organizational
Process Assets

Expectations
Distribution Techniques - Written
• PM Sort and Distribute
– Small projects only, issues with timely delivery of info
• Document Control Sort & Distribute
– Mid sized projects, issues with retention of staff qualified
to sort info
• Document Control Notification
– Daily list of all docs received emailed to team, who are
directed to central location for document review
Distribution Techniques - Verbal
• Where do team members get their information1?
– 7% from words
– 38% from tone
– 55% non-verbal cues
• Your presentation style is extremely important
1) From PMI Mile High Chapter PMP Prep Course

Manage Stakeholder Expectations
Stakeholder Register Tools & Techniques
Organizational
Stakeholder
 Communications methods Process Assets
Management Strategy
Inputs Outputs Updates
Project Management  Interpersonal skills
Change Requests
Plan  Management skills
Project
Issue Log
Management Plan
Change Log Updates
Organizational Project Document
Process Assets Updates

Expectations
Why Manage Stakeholders?
• We Retain1 • How Long1
– 10% from reading – 50% now
– 20% hearing – 25% in 2 days
– 30% read and hear – 10% after 7 days
– 50% that we discuss
– 80% of experiences
– 90% that we teach
Agreements without documentation will come

back to haunt you!
1) From PMI Mile High Chapter PMP Prep Course
Report Performance
Tools & Techniques
Outputs
 Variance analysis
Performance
 Forecasting methods reports
Project Management
Plan  Communications methods
Inputs Organizational
Work Performance  Reporting systems
Process Assets
Information
Work Performance Change
Measures Requests
Budget Forecasts
Organizational
Process Maps

Expectations
Performance Reports
Communication Summary
• An effective message must survive the noise
and return as feedback to the sender
• Channels increase exponentially with additional
people [ # = N(N-1)/2 ]
• Communicate and document to keep the team
and stakeholders happy and productive!
Chapter 3 – Agile Software Development
30/10/2014 Chapter 3 Agile Software Development 1

Topics covered
 Agile methods
 Agile development techniques
 Agile project management
 Scaling agile methods

Rapid software development
 Rapid development and delivery is now often the most

important requirement for software systems
 Businesses operate in a fast –changing requirement and it is
practically impossible to produce a set of stable software
requirements
 Software has to evolve quickly to reflect changing business needs.
 Plan-driven development is essential for some types of
system but does not meet these business needs.
 Agile development methods emerged in the late 1990s
whose aim was to radically reduce the delivery time for
working software systems

Agile development
 Program specification, design and implementation are

inter-leaved
 The system is developed as a series of versions or
increments with stakeholders involved in version
specification and evaluation
 Frequent delivery of new versions for evaluation
 Extensive tool support (e.g. automated testing tools)
used to support development.
 Minimal documentation – focus on working code

Plan-driven and agile development

Plan-driven and agile development
 Plan-driven development
 A plan-driven approach to software engineering is based around
separate development stages with the outputs to be produced at
each of these stages planned in advance.
 Not necessarily waterfall model – plan-driven, incremental
development is possible
 Iteration occurs within activities.
 Agile development
 Specification, design, implementation and testing are inter-
leaved and the outputs from the development process are
decided through a process of negotiation during the software
development process.

Agile methods

Agile methods
 Dissatisfaction with the overheads involved in software

design methods of the 1980s and 1990s led to the
creation of agile methods. These methods:
 Focus on the code rather than the design
 Are based on an iterative approach to software development
 Are intended to deliver working software quickly and evolve this
quickly to meet changing requirements.
 The aim of agile methods is to reduce overheads in the
software process (e.g. by limiting documentation) and to
be able to respond quickly to changing requirements
without excessive rework.

Agile manifesto
 We are uncovering better ways of developing software

by doing it and helping others do it. Through this work
we have come to value:
 Individuals and interactions over processes and tools
Working software over comprehensive documentation
Customer collaboration over contract negotiation
Responding to change over following a plan
 That is, while there is value in the items on the right, we
value the items on the left more.

The principles of agile methods
Principle Description
Customer involvement Customers should be closely involved throughout the
development process. Their role is provide and prioritize new
system requirements and to evaluate the iterations of the
system.
Incremental delivery The software is developed in increments with the customer
specifying the requirements to be included in each increment.
People not process The skills of the development team should be recognized and
exploited. Team members should be left to develop their own
ways of working without prescriptive processes.
Embrace change Expect the system requirements to change and so design the
system to accommodate these changes.
Maintain simplicity Focus on simplicity in both the software being developed and
in the development process. Wherever possible, actively work
to eliminate complexity from the system.

Agile method applicability
 Product development where a software company is

developing a small or medium-sized product for sale.
 Virtually all software products and apps are now developed
using an agile approach
 Custom system development within an organization,
where there is a clear commitment from the customer to
become involved in the development process and where
there are few external rules and regulations that affect
the software.

Agile development techniques

Extreme programming
 A very influential agile method, developed in the late

1990s, that introduced a range of agile development
techniques.
 Extreme Programming (XP) takes an ‘extreme’ approach
to iterative development.
 New versions may be built several times per day;
 Increments are delivered to customers every 2 weeks;
 All tests must be run for every build and the build is only
accepted if tests run successfully.

The extreme programming release cycle

Extreme programming practices (a)
Principle or practice Description

Incremental planning Requirements are recorded on story cards and the stories to be
included in a release are determined by the time available and
their relative priority. The developers break these stories into
development ‘Tasks’. See Figures 3.5 and 3.6.
Small releases The minimal useful set of functionality that provides business
value is developed first. Releases of the system are frequent
and incrementally add functionality to the first release.
Simple design Enough design is carried out to meet the current requirements
and no more.
Test-first development An automated unit test framework is used to write tests for a
new piece of functionality before that functionality itself is
implemented.
Refactoring All developers are expected to refactor the code continuously as
soon as possible code improvements are found. This keeps the
code simple and maintainable.
Extreme programming practices (b)
Pair programming Developers work in pairs, checking each other’s work and
providing the support to always do a good job.
Collective ownership The pairs of developers work on all areas of the system, so that
no islands of expertise develop and all the developers take
responsibility for all of the code. Anyone can change anything.
Continuous integration As soon as the work on a task is complete, it is integrated into
the whole system. After any such integration, all the unit tests in
the system must pass.
Sustainable pace Large amounts of overtime are not considered acceptable as
the net effect is often to reduce code quality and medium term
productivity
On-site customer A representative of the end-user of the system (the customer)
should be available full time for the use of the XP team. In an
extreme programming process, the customer is a member of
the development team and is responsible for bringing system
requirements to the team for implementation.
XP and agile principles
 Incremental development is supported through small,

frequent system releases.
 Customer involvement means full-time customer
engagement with the team.
 People not process through pair programming, collective
ownership and a process that avoids long working hours.
 Change supported through regular system releases.
 Maintaining simplicity through constant refactoring of
code.

Influential XP practices
 Extreme programming has a technical focus and is not

easy to integrate with management practice in most
organizations.
 Consequently, while agile development uses practices
from XP, the method as originally defined is not widely
used.
 Key practices
 User stories for specification
 Refactoring
 Test-first development
 Pair programming

User stories for requirements
 In XP, a customer or user is part of the XP team and is

responsible for making decisions on requirements.
 User requirements are expressed as user stories or
scenarios.
 These are written on cards and the development team
break them down into implementation tasks. These tasks
are the basis of schedule and cost estimates.
 The customer chooses the stories for inclusion in the
next release based on their priorities and the schedule
estimates.

A ‘prescribing medication’ story

Examples of task cards for prescribing
medication

Refactoring
 Conventional wisdom in software engineering is to

design for change. It is worth spending time and effort
anticipating changes as this reduces costs later in the life
cycle.
 XP, however, maintains that this is not worthwhile as
changes cannot be reliably anticipated.
 Rather, it proposes constant code improvement
(refactoring) to make changes easier when they have to
be implemented.

Refactoring
 Programming team look for possible software

improvements and make these improvements even
where there is no immediate need for them.
 This improves the understandability of the software and
so reduces the need for documentation.
 Changes are easier to make because the code is well-
structured and clear.
 However, some changes requires architecture
refactoring and this is much more expensive.

Examples of refactoring
 Re-organization of a class hierarchy to remove duplicate

code.
 Tidying up and renaming attributes and methods to make
them easier to understand.
 The replacement of inline code with calls to methods that
have been included in a program library.

Test-first development
 Testing is central to XP and XP has developed an

approach where the program is tested after every
change has been made.
 XP testing features:
 Test-first development.
 Incremental test development from scenarios.
 User involvement in test development and validation.
 Automated test harnesses are used to run all component tests
each time that a new release is built.

Test-driven development
 Writing tests before code clarifies the requirements to be

implemented.
 Tests are written as programs rather than data so that
they can be executed automatically. The test includes a
check that it has executed correctly.
 Usually relies on a testing framework such as Junit.
 All previous and new tests are run automatically when
new functionality is added, thus checking that the new
functionality has not introduced errors.

Customer involvement
 The role of the customer in the testing process is to help

develop acceptance tests for the stories that are to be
implemented in the next release of the system.
 The customer who is part of the team writes tests as
development proceeds. All new code is therefore
validated to ensure that it is what the customer needs.
 However, people adopting the customer role have limited
time available and so cannot work full-time with the
development team. They may feel that providing the
requirements was enough of a contribution and so may
be reluctant to get involved in the testing process.

Test case description for dose checking

Test automation
 Test automation means that tests are written as

executable components before the task is implemented
 These testing components should be stand-alone, should
simulate the submission of input to be tested and should check
that the result meets the output specification. An automated test
framework (e.g. Junit) is a system that makes it easy to write
executable tests and submit a set of tests for execution.
 As testing is automated, there is always a set of tests
that can be quickly and easily executed
 Whenever any functionality is added to the system, the tests can
be run and problems that the new code has introduced can be
caught immediately.

Problems with test-first development
 Programmers prefer programming to testing and

sometimes they take short cuts when writing tests. For
example, they may write incomplete tests that do not
check for all possible exceptions that may occur.
 Some tests can be very difficult to write incrementally.
For example, in a complex user interface, it is often
difficult to write unit tests for the code that implements
the ‘display logic’ and workflow between screens.
 It difficult to judge the completeness of a set of tests.
Although you may have a lot of system tests, your test
set may not provide complete coverage.

Pair programming
 Pair programming involves programmers working in

pairs, developing code together.
 This helps develop common ownership of code and
spreads knowledge across the team.
 It serves as an informal review process as each line of
code is looked at by more than 1 person.
 It encourages refactoring as the whole team can benefit
from improving the system code.

Pair programming
 In pair programming, programmers sit together at the

same computer to develop the software.
 Pairs are created dynamically so that all team members
work with each other during the development process.
 The sharing of knowledge that happens during pair
programming is very important as it reduces the overall
risks to a project when team members leave.
 Pair programming is not necessarily inefficient and there
is some evidence that suggests that a pair working
together is more efficient than 2 programmers working
separately.
Agile project management

Agile project management
 The principal responsibility of software project managers

is to manage the project so that the software is delivered
on time and within the planned budget for the project.
 The standard approach to project management is plan-
driven. Managers draw up a plan for the project showing
what should be delivered, when it should be delivered
and who will work on the development of the project
deliverables.
 Agile project management requires a different approach,
which is adapted to incremental development and the
practices used in agile methods.

Scrum
 Scrum is an agile method that focuses on managing

iterative development rather than specific agile practices.
 There are three phases in Scrum.
 The initial phase is an outline planning phase where you
establish the general objectives for the project and design the
software architecture.
 This is followed by a series of sprint cycles, where each cycle
develops an increment of the system.
 The project closure phase wraps up the project, completes
required documentation such as system help frames and user
manuals and assesses the lessons learned from the project.

Scrum terminology (a)
Scrum term Definition
Development team A self-organizing group of software developers, which should be no more than
7 people. They are responsible for developing the software and other
essential project documents.
Potentially shippable The software increment that is delivered from a sprint. The idea is that this
product increment should be ‘potentially shippable’ which means that it is in a finished state and
no further work, such as testing, is needed to incorporate it into the final
product. In practice, this is not always achievable.
Product backlog This is a list of ‘to do’ items which the Scrum team must tackle. They may be
feature definitions for the software, software requirements, user stories or
descriptions of supplementary tasks that are needed, such as architecture
definition or user documentation.
Product owner An individual (or possibly a small group) whose job is to identify product
features or requirements, prioritize these for development and continuously
review the product backlog to ensure that the project continues to meet critical
business needs. The Product Owner can be a customer but might also be a
product manager in a software company or other stakeholder representative.
Scrum terminology (b)
Scrum term Definition

Scrum A daily meeting of the Scrum team that reviews progress and prioritizes
work to be done that day. Ideally, this should be a short face-to-face
meeting that includes the whole team.
ScrumMaster The ScrumMaster is responsible for ensuring that the Scrum process is
followed and guides the team in the effective use of Scrum. He or she is
responsible for interfacing with the rest of the company and for ensuring
that the Scrum team is not diverted by outside interference. The Scrum
developers are adamant that the ScrumMaster should not be thought of
as a project manager. Others, however, may not always find it easy to
see the difference.
Sprint A development iteration. Sprints are usually 2-4 weeks long.
Velocity An estimate of how much product backlog effort that a team can cover in
a single sprint. Understanding a team’s velocity helps them estimate
what can be covered in a sprint and provides a basis for measuring
improving performance.

Scrum sprint cycle

The Scrum sprint cycle
 Sprints are fixed length, normally 2–4 weeks.

 The starting point for planning is the product backlog,
which is the list of work to be done on the project.
 The selection phase involves all of the project team who
work with the customer to select the features and
functionality from the product backlog to be developed
during the sprint.

The Sprint cycle
 Once these are agreed, the team organize themselves to

develop the software.
 During this stage the team is isolated from the customer
and the organization, with all communications
channelled through the so-called ‘Scrum master’.
 The role of the Scrum master is to protect the
development team from external distractions.
 At the end of the sprint, the work done is reviewed and
presented to stakeholders. The next sprint cycle then
begins.

Teamwork in Scrum
 The ‘Scrum master’ is a facilitator who arranges daily

meetings, tracks the backlog of work to be done, records
decisions, measures progress against the backlog and
communicates with customers and management outside
of the team.
 The whole team attends short daily meetings (Scrums)
where all team members share information, describe
their progress since the last meeting, problems that have
arisen and what is planned for the following day.
 This means that everyone on the team knows what is going on
and, if problems arise, can re-plan short-term work to cope with
them.

Scrum benefits
 The product is broken down into a set of manageable

and understandable chunks.
 Unstable requirements do not hold up progress.
 The whole team have visibility of everything and
consequently team communication is improved.
 Customers see on-time delivery of increments and gain
feedback on how the product works.
 Trust between customers and developers is established
and a positive culture is created in which everyone
expects the project to succeed.

Distributed Scrum

Scaling agile methods

Scaling agile methods
 Agile methods have proved to be successful for small

and medium sized projects that can be developed by a
small co-located team.
 It is sometimes argued that the success of these
methods comes because of improved communications
which is possible when everyone is working together.
 Scaling up agile methods involves changing these to
cope with larger, longer projects where there are multiple
development teams, perhaps working in different
locations.

Scaling out and scaling up
 ‘Scaling up’ is concerned with using agile methods for

developing large software systems that cannot be
developed by a small team.
 ‘Scaling out’ is concerned with how agile methods can
be introduced across a large organization with many
years of software development experience.
 When scaling agile methods it is importaant to maintain
agile fundamentals:
 Flexible planning, frequent system releases, continuous
integration, test-driven development and good team
communications.

Practical problems with agile methods
 The informality of agile development is incompatible with

the legal approach to contract definition that is commonly
used in large companies.
 Agile methods are most appropriate for new software
development rather than software maintenance. Yet the
majority of software costs in large companies come from
maintaining their existing software systems.
 Agile methods are designed for small co-located teams
yet much software development now involves worldwide
distributed teams.

Contractual issues
 Most software contracts for custom systems are based

around a specification, which sets out what has to be
implemented by the system developer for the system
customer.
 However, this precludes interleaving specification and
development as is the norm in agile development.
 A contract that pays for developer time rather than
functionality is required.
 However, this is seen as a high risk my many legal departments
because what has to be delivered cannot be guaranteed.

Agile methods and software maintenance
 Most organizations spend more on maintaining existing

software than they do on new software development. So,
if agile methods are to be successful, they have to
support maintenance as well as original development.
 Two key issues:
 Are systems that are developed using an agile approach
maintainable, given the emphasis in the development process of
minimizing formal documentation?
 Can agile methods be used effectively for evolving a system in
response to customer change requests?
 Problems may arise if original development team cannot
be maintained.
Agile maintenance
 Key problems are:

 Lack of product documentation
 Keeping customers involved in the development process
 Maintaining the continuity of the development team
 Agile development relies on the development team
knowing and understanding what has to be done.
 For long-lifetime systems, this is a real problem as the
original developers will not always work on the system.

Agile and plan-driven methods
 Most projects include elements of plan-driven and agile

processes. Deciding on the balance depends on:
 Is it important to have a very detailed specification and design
before moving to implementation? If so, you probably need to use
a plan-driven approach.
 Is an incremental delivery strategy, where you deliver the software
to customers and get rapid feedback from them, realistic? If so,
consider using agile methods.
 How large is the system that is being developed? Agile methods
are most effective when the system can be developed with a small
co-located team who can communicate informally. This may not be
possible for large systems that require larger development teams
so a plan-driven approach may have to be used.

Agile principles and organizational practice
Principle Practice
Customer involvement This depends on having a customer who is willing and able to
spend time with the development team and who can represent all
system stakeholders. Often, customer representatives have other
demands on their time and cannot play a full part in the software
development.
Where there are external stakeholders, such as regulators, it is
difficult to represent their views to the agile team.
Embrace change Prioritizing changes can be extremely difficult, especially in

systems for which there are many stakeholders. Typically, each
stakeholder gives different priorities to different changes.
Incremental delivery Rapid iterations and short-term planning for development does
not always fit in with the longer-term planning cycles of business
planning and marketing. Marketing managers may need to know
what product features several months in advance to prepare an
effective marketing campaign.

Agile principles and organizational practice
Principle Practice
Maintain simplicity Under pressure from delivery schedules, team members may not have
time to carry out desirable system simplifications.
People not process Individual team members may not have suitable personalities for the
intense involvement that is typical of agile methods, and therefore may
not interact well with other team members.

Agile and plan-based factors

System issues
 How large is the system being developed?

 Agile methods are most effective a relatively small co-located team
who can communicate informally.
 What type of system is being developed?
 Systems that require a lot of analysis before implementation need
a fairly detailed design to carry out this analysis.
 What is the expected system lifetime?
 Long-lifetime systems require documentation to communicate the
intentions of the system developers to the support team.
 Is the system subject to external regulation?
 If a system is regulated you will probably be required to produce
detailed documentation as part of the system safety case.
People and teams
 How good are the designers and programmers in the

development team?
 It is sometimes argued that agile methods require higher skill
levels than plan-based approaches in which programmers simply
translate a detailed design into code.
 How is the development team organized?
 Design documents may be required if the team is dsitributed.
 What support technologies are available?
 IDE support for visualisation and program analysis is essential if
design documentation is not available.

Organizational issues
 Traditional engineering organizations have a culture of

plan-based development, as this is the norm in
engineering.
 Is it standard organizational practice to develop a
detailed system specification?
 Will customer representatives be available to provide
feedback of system increments?
 Can informal agile development fit into the organizational
culture of detailed documentation?

Agile methods for large systems
 Large systems are usually collections of separate,

communicating systems, where separate teams develop each
system. Frequently, these teams are working in different
places, sometimes in different time zones.
 Large systems are ‘brownfield systems’, that is they include
and interact with a number of existing systems. Many of the
system requirements are concerned with this interaction and
so don’t really lend themselves to flexibility and incremental
development.
 Where several systems are integrated to create a system, a
significant fraction of the development is concerned with
system configuration rather than original code development.

Large system development
 Large systems and their development processes are

often constrained by external rules and regulations
limiting the way that they can be developed.
 Large systems have a long procurement and
development time. It is difficult to maintain coherent
teams who know about the system over that period as,
inevitably, people move on to other jobs and projects.
 Large systems usually have a diverse set of
stakeholders. It is practically impossible to involve all of
these different stakeholders in the development process.

Factors in large systems

IBM’s agility at scale model

Scaling up to large systems
 A completely incremental approach to requirements

engineering is impossible.
 There cannot be a single product owner or customer
representative.
 For large systems development, it is not possible to focus only
on the code of the system.
 Cross-team communication mechanisms have to be designed
and used.
 Continuous integration is practically impossible. However, it is
essential to maintain frequent system builds and regular
releases of the system.

Multi-team Scrum
 Role replication
 Each team has a Product Owner for their work component and
ScrumMaster.
 Product architects
 Each team chooses a product architect and these architects
collaborate to design and evolve the overall system architecture.
 Release alignment
 The dates of product releases from each team are aligned so
that a demonstrable and complete system is produced.
 Scrum of Scrums
 There is a daily Scrum of Scrums where representatives from
each team meet to discuss progressand plan work to be done.
Agile methods across organizations
 Project managers who do not have experience of agile

methods may be reluctant to accept the risk of a new approach.
 Large organizations often have quality procedures and
standards that all projects are expected to follow and, because
of their bureaucratic nature, these are likely to be incompatible
with agile methods.
 Agile methods seem to work best when team members have a
relatively high skill level. However, within large organizations,
there are likely to be a wide range of skills and abilities.
 There may be cultural resistance to agile methods, especially in
those organizations that have a long history of using
conventional systems engineering processes.
Key points
 Agile methods are incremental development methods that focus on

rapid software development, frequent releases of the software,
reducing process overheads by minimizing documentation and
producing high-quality code.
 Agile development practices include
 User stories for system specification
 Frequent releases of the software,
 Continuous software improvement
 Test-first development
 Customer participation in the development team.

Key points
 Scrum is an agile method that provides a project

management framework.
 It is centred round a set of sprints, which are fixed time periods
when a system increment is developed.
 Many practical development methods are a mixture of
plan-based and agile development.
 Scaling agile methods for large systems is difficult.
 Large systems need up-front design and some documentation
and organizational practice may conflict with the informality of
agile approaches.

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Job in project management

• Evaluation is the periodic assessment of a project's relevance,

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• Procurement means acquiring goods and/or services from an outside

• If there is no need to buy any products or services from outside the

• Important to prevent defects by:

• Teknik yang digunakan :

• Expectations also vary by:

• Testing should be done during almost every phase of

Chapter 8 - Project Quality Management 19

• Integration testing occurs between unit and system

• System testing tests the entire system as one entity

• User acceptance testing is an independent test

Chapter 8 - Project Quality Management 20

Chapter 8 - Project Quality Management 21

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