Chp 2 : EXPLORATION & PRODUCTION

OF PETROLEUM

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Describe the formation of oil and gas trap.
2. Identify the important factors and types of rocks in oil and
gas trap.
3. Explain the methods to locate oil.
4. Identify the functions of the drilling tools.
5. Explain the techniques to enhance the oil recovery.
EXTRACTION OF PETROLEUM

Locate the Extract/

Drilling
oil field Recover the oil
WHO FINDS OIL?
Interpreting subsurface
Geoscientists structure or configuration
through gravity, seismic, etc.
-Geophysicists
-Geologists Understanding the rocks

-Geochemists
Understanding the subsurface
fluids (petroleum)
HOW TO LOCATE
OIL?
Sensitive gravity meters
-measure tiny changes in the
Earth's gravitational field that
could indicate flowing oil

Sensitive magnetometers
- measure tiny changes in the
Earth's magnetic field caused
by flowing oil
How to Locate Oil?
Satellite images
- record infrared and ultraviolet light
Seismology
- Creating shock waves that pass through hidden
rock layers and interpreting the waves that are
reflected back to the surface
- Computer processes the geophones data then
convert to Seismic lines/ Seismograph
- Structure, Density, Shapes of rocks
HOW TO LOCATE OIL?

Placing
Geophones

Seismograph
 Seismology (Onshore)

Thumper/Vibrator

- On land we used to use dynamite to create shock waves.

- ‘Thumper' truck drives to the site, raises itself up on hydraulic
lifts, and then begins vibrating.
- The sound waves travel downward, hit something solid,
reflected back to the surface where sensors (used to be called
stingers) are placed along the ground.
- Sensors are connected back to a recording device.
 SEISMOLOGY (OFFSHORE)

- Send down sound waves, let them reflect, and pick up the reflection
with sensors (hydrophones or, on land, seismographs).
- The speed will change depending on the make up of the rock type.
- The reflected wave returns at a speed characteristic of the material it
has been travelling through.
- The result is a set of seismic lines that the geologists and
hydrogeologists interpret.
Geophysical Survey

Acquire Seismic Data to “See”

Underground Features

Acquisition is about creating seismic

wave and recording how long it takes
to get back to surface.

Seismic wave passes into the earth

where it is filtered and modified based
on kind of strata it passes through and
fluids that strata are containing
Sidewall Sampling
 Taken by a device lowered into the well by wireline to a desired
depth and shot into the wall of the well by means of an explosion
 Determine;-
 Porosity, permeability, type of rocks/shale, source rock,
chemistry, mineral and cementation

Well Logging
 Measurement of certain properties of the penetrated formations
by running logging tools in the well.
 Information are simultaneously recorded
 Type and amount of fluid content can be estimated.
 Characteristics of the rock can be determined.
 Production potential of a reservoir can be evaluated.
 WELL LOG
Gamma Ray SWE PHIT, Total Porosity
Caliper PHE
How Gamma How
Resistivity Density
 Measure natural radioactive Ray  Calculate using equation
source of formation Neutron PHT SWT
Determine Sand
 Shale/sand bed
Shale
50 200 0.2 200 0.45 −0.15 0.5 0 1 0
Determine
 Porosity of sand

Resistivity
How
 Measure electrical Decrease
Increase
conductivity
Determine
 Hydrocarbon presence SWT, Total Water Saturation
 Permeability indication Increase How
(HC presence)  Measuring resistivity contrast &
calculate using equation

Determine
Increase
Density & Neutron  Fluids Saturation
(HC presence)
How Increase Decrease
 Measure bulk density &
hydrogen index of formation
Determine
 Lithology
Butterfly
 Fluid Types Effect
(Gas)
Exploratory Well Evaluation
Exploratory Well Evaluation
Exploratory Well Evaluation
A discovery well is very good news for exploration management

The full extent of the field productivity of the reservoir must be

determined , to make sure the economics of field development
are positive.

To established the reservoir limits, more well must be drilled in

this appraisal phase. This appraisal phase Is period of high
economic risk.

With a full set of economics, exploration management must decide

when to bring the appraisal phase to an end.
DRILLING
Drilling engineer is required to plan and drill a variety of well types, including the following
 Exploration/Wildcat
 Appraisal
 Development
 Relief Blowout
 Reentry (Sidetrack/Deepening)

Exploration / Appraisal well

 Gather geological and petrophysical data / information
 Prove presence of hydrocarbon

Development Wells
 Produce hydrocarbons
 Inject gas or water
 Workover/Deepening/Sidetracking
Drilling Rig

Land Rig Jack-up

Drill Ship Semi-Submersible

RIG COMPONENTS
Top Drive www.slideshare.net

Mud Circulation
System

www.shutterstock.com
Rotary Table

www.shutterstock.com
Blowout Preventor

www.link.springer.com

www.shutterstock.com
DRILLING SEQUENCE
If the well looks good on the logs, we will run a final string of casing across the production zone
and cement it in place. This is a crucial step to prepare the well for safe and efficient extraction of
oil or gas

Cost Per Foot

Penetration Rate

Non Productive Time

 Extraction of Petroleum

Risky and costly to Risk large

investors and amount of
governments due money up to
to commercial hundreds of
failures Exploration of millions
Petroleum

Could harm the

environment Property leasing

 This business is money driven hence business aspect of making

money drive the technical work, not the other way around
HOW OIL & GAS TRAP?
1 Source Rock
Heat from within earth
Decomposition of organisms with mud and ‘cooked’ the mud’s
silt, along with sand, clay and minerals, and organic remains into a
solidified into rocks soup of HC (petroleum
+ NG).

2 Reservoir Rock
Liquids and vapors emitted from the source HC expelled from
rocks moved upward through sediment pores source rockmove
and accumulated between the grains of (migrates) through
sediment reservoir rock

Seal Rock/
3 Impermeable Rock
Contained water which pushed the lighter oil and gas
upward until they hit the impermeable rock
PETROLEUM MIGRATION AND ACCUMULATION
 Migration is a complicated process.
 Rate depends on the permeability of the rocks
and size of the molecules: gas molecules rise
more quickly than oil molecules, because they
are smaller and more mobile.

 Hydrocarbon accumulated near source

rocks, and is charged pervasively in large
areas.
 Accumulated through hydrocarbon
primary migration and secondary
migration of short distance.
POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY
Reservoir fluids are trapped in formations of various layer of rock
and each individual grains of reservoir rock have a space which
called PORES to hold reservoir fluids

Pore space is expressed as a fraction or percentage of

www.slideplayer.com
Porosity the total volume of rock (example, 0.45 or 45%) and
called reservoir 'POROSITY'

POROSITY – measure of the number of pores in a give

volume of rock

When the pores in a rock formation are connected, any fluid

trapped in them can flow from one pore to another and the
www.dmp.wa.gov.au formation is said to be PERMEABLE

Petroleum reservoirs are sealed by impermeable rock

Permeability layers, the immediate uppermost impermeable layer is
called the CAP ROCK

PERMEABILITY - measure of the ease with which fluids

can pass through
www.socratic.org
How Oil & Gas Trap?
 3 important elements for oil & gas trap:

1. A source for the oil & gas (black waxy

shales)
2. A porous reservoir/ sedimentary rock to
accumulate the oil & gas (storing hence
porous) (IMPORTANT FACTOR : Porosity &
Permeability)
3. An overlying seal rock/impermeable rock
to prevent the oil & gas from escaping
POROSITY VALUES FOR AN OIL RESERVOIR

Percentage Description
0-5% Insignificant
5-10% Poor
10-15% Fair
15-20% Good
20-25% Excellent
Ref: Levorsen, 1967

• POROSIMETER  measure porosity

•NG compresses and needs less porosity than an oil
reservoir.
•As the gas reservoirs located deeper, it will need very
little porosity because of the very high pressure.
PERMEABILITY VALUES FOR AN OIL RESERVOIR
Percentage Description
(millidarcy)
1-10 md Poor

10-100 md Good

100-1000 md Excellent
Ref: Levorsen, 1967

• PERMEAMETER  measure permeability

•The greater permeability of a rock, easier it is for

the fluids to flow thru rock.

•HIGHER POROSITY, GREATER PERMEABILITY

OIL & GAS TRAP

Sand grains

Pore spaces
(Contained Oil)

Conventional sedimentary rock:

1. Sandstones (intergranular porosity)
2. Limestones (moldic porosity)
3. Dolostones (intercrystalline porosity)
Source: Petroleum Museum, Miri, Sarawak
RESERVOIR TRAP

Exploration Geologists identify trap styles.

There are many possible hydrocarbon trap models of varying styles, rock types and sizes.
How Oil & Gas Trap?
Structural Trap: Understand the subsurface
deformation processes
- Anticline traps: Formed by a folding of rock
- Fault traps: Formed when reservoir rock is split along
a fault line
- Salt domes: Formed because the below ground salt
which is less dense than the above rock, is moving
upwards slowly hence deform and break up rock along
the way

Stratigraphic Trap: Study of the origin, composition

and distribution of the rock layers. Hydrocarbon traps
result from changes in rock type or pinch-outs,
unconformities or other sedimentary features
How Oil & Gas Trap?
Different types of oil rigs used for various depths.
DRILLING FOR
OIL & GAS
DRILLING FOR OIL & GAS
Wells were drilled with cable tools in which a heavy
drill bit on a cable was repeatedly dropped up and down
on the ground to literally "chop" a hole down to the trap.

Rotary drilling: a
bit on the end of a
of drill pipe is
rotated.
 Drilling for Oil & Gas
Drilling fluid (water & mud) is Drilling fluids
pumped down the pipe to flow through
the bit & lubricates the bit, washes
away the cuttings, and maintains
pressure in the hole to prevent the well
from becoming a blowout.

The mud flows back to the surface

through the gap between the drill pipe
and the hole.

This gap is called the Annulus. Annulus

Mud circulation in the hole

DRILLING FLUIDS
Also called ‘MUD’
Functions :
1.Lubricates the drilling tools
2.Washes up rock cuttings
3.Balances pressure of fluids in
the rock formations below

WHY?
To prevent BLOWOUT
Drilling Process
turntable

 Place the bit, drill collar and

drill pipe in the hole.
 Attach the kelly and turntable
and begin drilling.
 As drilling progresses, circulate
mud through the pipe and out
of the bit to float the rock
cuttings out of the hole.
 Add new sections (joints) of
drill pipes as the hole gets
deeper.
 Remove (trip out) the drill pipe,
collar and bit when the pre-set
depth (from a few hundred to
a couple-thousand feet) is
reached.
Drill pipes

Christmas tree @
Well head
-blowout
preventer (BOP)
Nodding Donkey/Pump Jack (Onshore)
Drilling Wells
 RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISM
 Water Alternate Gas (EUR: 10% - 20%)  Solution Gas Drive (EUR: 5% - 30%)
 CO2 Injection/Flooding (EUR: 10% - 20%)  Gas Cap Drive (EUR: 20% - 40%)
 Nitrogen (N2) Injection/Flooding (EUR: 10% - 20%)  Water Drive (EUR: 30% - 50%)
 Chemical Injection/Flooding (EUR: 10% - 20%)  Combination Drive (EUR : 30% - 60%)
 Steam Injection (EUR: 10% - 20%)  Rock and Fluid Expansion (EUR: 3% - 10%)
 In-situ Combustion  Gravity segregation (EUR: 5% - 50%)

Tertiary Primary
Drive Drive
Mechanism Mechanism

Secondary Drive
Mechanism

 Water Injection (EUR: 20% - 40%)

 Gas Injection (EUR: 20% - 40%)
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (EOR)
Primary Recovery
- Makes use of the natural conditions in the reservoir to
drive out the oil after a well is drilled
- Pressure from the underground will help to bring the
fluids to the top
- After that, technology such as pumps will be used to help
continue to bring fluids to the top
- Oil recovered : 15 - 20% of the original oil in place

1. Solution Gas Drive 2. Gas Cap Drive 3. Water Drive

Solution gas

Solution Gas Drive

Gas Cap Drive
Well head

Water
underpressure

Water Drive
OIL RECOVERY
Secondary Recovery
Enhance or replace the primary recovery techniques
Recovery factor after primary and secondary: 35-45%
Rely on the supply of external energy into the reservoir

1. Water flooding
Involve injecting water into the
underground reservoir to
displace the oil where it can be
lifted to the surface by pumps.

2. Immiscible gas injection (CO2, nitrogen)

Injection of low pressure gas to
maintain reservoir pressure
OIL RECOVERY
Tertiary Recovery
- Generic term : Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
- Take over when secondary recovery no longer
effective
- Increase the mobility of oil by heating the oil,
reducing its viscosity hence easier to be extracted
- Cogeneration plant: Uses gas turbine to
generate electricity and the waste heat to
produce steam, then injected into the reservoir
- Oil Recovery : 30 – 60% of the original oil in place.
1. Steam injection /Thermal processes
- Raise the temperature of the oil
- Reduces the oil's viscosity
- Improves its ability to flow through the reservoir
2. Miscible techniques
- Injection of a gas such as NG, N2, LPG or CO2
- Raising the pressure within the reservoir
- Expand in the reservoir
- Push the additional oil to the wellbore
3. Chemical injection
- Involves "polymers" to increase the effectiveness
of water injection
DRILLING FOR OIL & GAS
DEEP WATER PLATFORMS(OFFSHORE)
 JACK UP RIG PLATFORM

Can be jacked up above the sea

using legs that can be lowered,
much like jacks.
Water depths : 400-550 feet
(120-170 m)
They are designed to move from
place to place, and then anchor
themselves by deploying the legs
to the ocean bottom using a rack
and pinion gear system on each
leg
FIXED PLATFORM

Built on concrete or steel

legs, or both, anchored
directly onto the seabed,

A deck for drilling rigs,

production facilities and
crew quarters.

Water depths :1,700 ft

(520 m).
The Grane Platform, Norway
SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE PLATFORM
Hulls (columns and pontoons) for
the structure to float and sufficient
weight to keep the structure upright.

It can be moved from place to

place

Can be ballasted up or down by

altering the amount of flooding in
buoyancy tanks

Anchored by chain, wire rope

Water depths : 200 to 10,000 Oil Platform P-51 off the

Brazilian coast
feet (60 to 3,000 m).
TENSION LEG PLATFORM (TLP)

Floating platforms tethered

to the seabed in a manner
that eliminates most vertical
movement of the structure.

Water depths : 6,000 feet

Conventional TLP
(2,000 m).

The "conventional" TLP is a

4-column design which looks
similar to a semisubmersible.
SPAR PLATFORM
Spars are similar with the seabed like
TLPs

Spars designed in three configurations:

1."conventional" one-piece cylindrical hull
2."truss spar" - midsection is composed of
truss elements connecting the upper
buoyant hull with the bottom soft tank
(permanent ballast)
3."cell spar" - multiple vertical cylinders.

The spar has more inherent stability than Devil's Tower Spar Platform
a TLP since it has a large counterweight at
the bottom

Ability to move horizontally and to

position itself over wells at some distance
from the main platform location.

Water depth : 2000-10000 ft

MAIN FUNCTIONS & COMMON UTILITIES ON
TYPICAL OFFSHORE PLATFORMS

MAIN FUNCTIONS COMMON UTILITIES

Exploration/ drilling Power generation
Oil & gas production Living quarters
Storage Communication
system
Processing Compressed air
system
Housing of crew Fuel storage/ supply
system
DRILLING BARGE
Used mostly for inland, shallow water
drilling
(ex: lakes, swamps, rivers, and canals)

Drilling barges are large, floating

platforms

Towed by tugboat from location to

location.
DRILLING SHIP
A drillship is a maritime vessel that
has been fitted with drilling
apparatus.

It is most often used for exploratory

drilling of new oil or gas wells in deep
water but can also be used for
scientific drilling.

Most drillships are outfitted with a

dynamic positioning system to maintain
position over the well

Water depths :12,000 ft (3,700 m).

Moveable Rigs (for exploratory wells)

Drilling Barge Drillingship

Jack Up Rig Semi-submersible rig

FIELD PROCESSING
Objectives:
- purify the oil and gas
- dispose any harmful contaminants
• Desalting/Dehydration - removal of water bound in an
oil-water emulsion and is carried out through a
combination of chemicals, application of heat and
electricity and the proper retention time in the
demulsifier.

• Sweetening - refers to the removal of H2S, typically by

means of stripping with natural gas available from the
reservoir.

• Stabilization - refers to the removal of light gas

components dissolved in the oil in order to increase its
vapor pressure. There are various techniques for
accomplishing this. Note that removal of light gases
occurs at conditions where H2S can also vaporize, so
some sweetening occurs simultaneously.
NEW OIL & GAS FIELD DISCOVERY IN MIRI
JANUARY 2013