Module 5 Lesson 1

NORTHERN ILOILO POLYTECHNIC STATE COLLEGE
Math 101: History of Mathematics CONCEPCION CAMPUS Solimar L. Amable Ed. D

BSEd Math 1 Concepcion, Iloilo Professor
SY 2020-2021 Concepcion, Campus
Module 5, Lesson 1
Babylonian, Egyptian & Greek Contribution to Mathematics
I. Introduction:
In this module you will be introduced the contribution to mathematics in the

period of Sumerian/Babylonian, Egyptian and Greek.
II. Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this module, you must have to:
I. Demonstrated understanding on the contribution to mathematics during

the a) Sumerian Babylonian period, b) Egyptian period, c) Greek period
II. Have awareness on the contribution on specific field of mathematics
during the a) Sumerian Babylonian period, b) Egyptian period, c) Greek
period.
III. Learning Content
Babylonian
The Babylonian system of mathematics was a sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system.
From this we derive the modern-day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an
hour, and 360 degrees in a circle. The Babylonians were able to make great advances
in mathematics for two reasons. Firstly, the number 60 is a superior highly composite
number, having factors of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60 (including those that are
themselves composite), facilitating calculations with fractions. Additionally, unlike the
Egyptians and Romans, the Babylonians had a true place-value system, where digits
written in the left column represented larger values (much as, in our base ten system,
734 = 7×100 + 3×10 + 4×1).
Sumerian Mathematics
The ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia developed a complex system of metrology from
3000 BC. From 2600 BC onwards, the Sumerians wrote multiplication tables on clay
tablets and dealt with geometrical exercises and division problems. The earliest traces
of the Babylonian numerals also date back to this period.[12]
Old Babylonian Mathematics (2000–1600 BC)

Most clay tablets that describe Babylonian mathematics belong to the Old Babylonian,
which is why the mathematics of Mesopotamia is commonly known as Babylonian
mathematics. Some clay tablets contain mathematical lists and tables, others contain
problems and worked solutions.
Arithmetic
The Babaylonians used pre-calculated tables to
assist with arithmetic. For example, two tablets
found at Senkerah on the Euphrates in 1854
, dating from 2000 BC, give lists of the squares
of numbers up to 59 and the cubes of numbers
up to 32. The Babylonians used the lists of
squares together with the formulae
to simplify multiplication.
The Babylonians did not have an algorithm
for long division Instead they based their method on
the fact that:
𝑎
=ax𝑏
𝑏
together with a table of reciprocals. Numbers

whose only prime factors are 2, 3 or 5 (known
as 5-smooth or regular numbers) have
finite reciprocals in sexagesimal notation, and
tables with extensive lists of these reciprocals
have been found.
Reciprocals such as 1/7, 1/11, 1/13, etc. do not

have finite representations in sexagesimal
notation. To compute 1/13 or to divide a
number by 13 the Babylonians would use an
approximation such as:
= =7x 7x
Algebra
The Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289 (c. 1800–1600 BC) gives an approximation
of √2 in four sexagesimal figures, 1;24,51,10,[14] which is accurate to about
six decimal digits,[15] and is the closest possible three-place sexagesimal representation
of √2:
As well as arithmetical calculations, Babylonian mathematicians also

developed algebraic methods of solving equations. Once again, these were based on
pre-calculated tables.
To solve a quadratic equation, the Babylonians essentially used the standard quadratic
formula. They considered quadratic equations of the form:
x 2 + bx = c
where b and c were not necessarily integers, but c was always positive. They new that a
solution to yhis form of equations is :
and they found square roots efficiently using division and averaging. [16] They always
used the positive root because this made sense when solving "real" problems.
Problems of this type included finding the dimensions of a rectangle given its area and
the amount by which the length exceeds the width.
Tables of values of n3 + n2 were used to solve certain cubic equations. For example,
consider the equation
ax3 + bx2 = c.
Multiplying the equation by a2 and dividing by b3 gives:
Substituting y = ax/b gives:
which could now be solved by looking up the n3 + n2 table to find the value closest to the
right hand side. The Babylonians accomplished this without algebraic notation, showing
a remarkable depth of understanding. However, they did not have a method for solving
the general cubic equation.
Geometry
Babylonians knew the common rules for measuring volumes and areas. They measured
the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the
square of the circumference, which would be correct if π is estimated as 3. They were
aware that this was an approximation, and one Old Babylonian mathematical tablet
excavated near Susa in 1936 (dated to between the 19th and 17th centuries BCE) gives
a better approximation of π as 25/8 = 3.125, about 0.5 percent below the exact
value.[19] The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the base and the height,
however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken
as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. The Pythagorean
theorem was also known to the Babylonians.[20][21][22]
The "Babylonian mile" was a measure of distance equal to about 11.3 km (or about
seven modern miles). This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a
"time-mile" used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. [23]
The ancient Babylonians had known of theorems concerning the ratios of the sides of
similar triangles for many centuries, but they lacked the concept of an angle measure
and consequently, studied the sides of triangles instead. [24]
The Babylonian astronomers kept detailed records of the rising and setting of stars, the
motion of the planets, and the solar and lunar eclipses, all of which required familiarity
with angular distances measured on the celestial sphere.[25]
They also used a form of Fourier analysis to compute ephemeris (tables of astronomical
positions), which was discovered in the 1950s by Otto Neugebauer.[26][27][28][29] To make
calculations of the movements of celestial bodies, the Babylonians used basic
arithmetic and a coordinate system based on the ecliptic, the part of the heavens that
the sun and planets travel through.
Tablets kept in the British Museum provide evidence that the Babylonians even went so
far as to have a concept of objects in an abstract mathematical space. The tablets date
from between 350 and 50 B.C.E., revealing that the Babylonians understood and used
geometry even earlier than previously thought. The Babylonians used a method for
estimating the area under a curve by drawing a trapezoid underneath, a technique
previously believed to have originated in 14th century Europe. This method of
estimation allowed them to, for example, find the distance Jupiter had traveled in a
certain amount of time.
Ancient Egyptian Mathematics

Main article: Ancient Egyptian multiplication
Ancient Egyptian mathematics is the mathematics that was developed and used
in Ancient Egypt c. 3000 to c. 300 BCE, from the Old Kingdom of Egypt until roughly the
beginning of Hellenistic Egypt. The ancient Egyptians utilized a numeral system for
counting and solving written mathematical problems, often
involving multiplication and fractions. Evidence for Egyptian mathematics is limited to a
scarce amount of surviving sources written on papyrus. From these texts it is known
that ancient Egyptians understood concepts of geometry, such as determining
the surface area and volume of three-dimensional shapes useful for architectural
engineering, and algebra, such as the false position method and quadratic equations.
Multiplication and Division

Egyptian multiplication was done by repeated doubling of the number to be multiplied
(the multiplicand), and choosing which of the doublings to add together (essentially a
form of binary arithmetic), a method that links to the Old Kingdom. The multiplicand was
written next to the figure 1; the multiplicand was then added to itself, and the result
written next to the number 2. The process was continued until the doublings gave a
number greater than half of the multiplier. Then the doubled numbers (1, 2, etc.) would
be repeatedly subtracted from the multiplier to select which of the results of the existing
calculations should be added together to create the answer. [2]
As a short cut for larger numbers, the multiplicand can also be immediately multiplied by
10, 100, 1000, 10000, etc.
For example, Problem 69 on the Rhind Papyrus (RMP) provides the following
illustration, as if Hieroglyphic symbols were used (rather than the RMP's actual hieratic
script).[6]
The denotes the intermediate results that are added together to produce the final
answer.
The table above can also be used to divide 1120 by 80. We would solve this problem by
finding the quotient (80) as the sum of those multipliers of 80 that add up to 1120. In this
example that would yield a quotient of 10 + 4 = 14.[6] A more complicated example of
the division algorithm is provided by Problem 66. A total of 3200 ro of fat are to be
distributed evenly over 365 days
First the scribe would double 365 repeatedly until the largest possible multiple of 365 is
reached, which is smaller than 3200. In this case 8 times 365 is 2920 and further
addition of multiples of 365 would clearly give a value greater than 3200. Next it is noted
that (2/3/+ 1/10 + 1/12190) times 365 gives us the value of 280 we need. Hence we
[6]
find that 3200 divided by 365 must equal 8 + 2/3 + 1/10 + 1/2190.
Algebra
Main article: Egyptian algebra
Egyptian algebra problems appear in both the Rhind mathematical papyrus and
the Moscow mathematical papyrus as well as several other sources.[6]
Aha problems involve finding unknown quantities (referred to as

Aha) if the sum of the quantity and part(s) of it are given.
The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus also contains four of these
type of problems. Problems 1, 19, and 25 of the Moscow
Papyrus are Aha problems. For instance problem 19 asks one
Aha
in hieroglyphs
to calculate a quantity taken 1 and 1⁄2 times and added to 4 to
make 10.[6] In other words, in modern mathematical notation we
are asked to solve the linear equation:
.
Solving these Aha problems involves a technique called method of false position. The
technique is also called the method of false assumption. The scribe would substitute an
initial guess of the answer into the problem. The solution using the false assumption
would be proportional to the actual answer, and the scribe would find the answer by
using this ratio.[6]
The mathematical writings show that the scribes used (least) common multiples to turn
problems with fractions into problems using integers. In this connection red auxiliary
numbers are written next to the fractions. [6]
The use of the Horus eye fractions shows some (rudimentary) knowledge of geometrical
progression. Knowledge of arithmetic progressions is also evident from the
mathematical sources.[6]
Quadratic Equations
The ancient Egyptians were the first civilization to develop and solve second-degree
(quadratic) equations. This information is found in the Berlin Papyrus fragment.
Additionally, the Egyptians solve first-degree algebraic equations found in Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus.[7]
Geometry
Main article: Egyptian geometry
There are only a limited number of problems from ancient Egypt that concern geometry.
Geometric problems appear in both the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus (MMP) and in
the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (RMP). The examples demonstrate that the Ancient
Egyptians knew how to compute areas of several geometric shapes and the volumes of
cylinders and pyramids.
 Area:
o Triangles: The scribes record problems computing the area of a triangle (RMP
and MMP).[6]
o Rectangles: Problems regarding the area of a rectangular plot of land appear in
the RMP and the MMP.[6] A similar problem appears in the Lahun Mathematical
Papyri in London.[8][9]
o Circles: Problem 48 of the RMP compares the area of a circle (approximated by
an octagon) and its circumscribing square. This problem's result is used in
problem 50, where the scribe finds the area of a round field of diameter 9 khet. [6]
o Hemisphere: Problem 10 in the MMP finds the area of a hemisphere. [6]
 Volumes:
o Cylindrical granaries: Several problems compute the volume of cylindrical
granaries (RMP 41–43), while problem 60 RMP seems to concern a pillar or a
cone instead of a pyramid. It Is rather small and steep, with a seked (reciprocal
of slope) of four palms (per cubit).[6] In section IV.3 of the Lahun Mathematical
Papyri the volume of a granary with a circular base is found is using the same
procedure as RMP 43.
o Rectangular granaries: Several problems in the Moscow Mathematical
Papyrus (problem 14) and in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (numbers 44, 45,
46) compute the volume of a rectangular granary.[6][8]
o Truncated pyramid (frustum): The volume of a truncated pyramid is computed
in MMP 14.[6]
Contributions of Ancient Greek Civilization

Greeks refined analytical methods by introducing deductive reasoning and
mathematical rigor in proofs. Rigor was a thoroughness and attention to detail for
improving accuracy. Proofs established analytical methods as having a formalized
structure.
Of importance was the suitability of mathematics to analytical methods. They saw
mathematics as efficient, precise and exacting. As having an absolute purpose to
describe and document aspects of the observed natural world and universe. This nicely
fit their objective for accuracy. That mathematics itself could be studied, as pure
mathematics, to reveal or uncover knowledge by logic and reason was seen as a
unique and distinct quality.
Greek Methods were not limited to mathematics. Methods are processes, practices and
structures defining a framework of something that has been or is being studied. A
method describes something of importance and is used to document and inform.
Methods are a means to facilitate or enhance understanding and knowledge. As
importantly, the ancient Greeks also considered methods as to their purpose, the
manner in which a method is used or applies.
To this day many scientific and academic discoveries depend upon analytical methods
and mathematics founded by Ancient Greeks.
Socrates Plato and Aristotle
Socrates, 470/469 - 399 B

Plato, 428/427 BC - 348/347 BC
Aristotle, 384 - 322 BC

In Greek history the importance of Plato is for his inspiring and guiding others, primarily
from his academy. His importance is also from having a living relationship with Socrates
and Aristotle.
During the 4th century BC Plato’s Academy in Athens became the mathematical center
of the world. From this school leading mathematicians emerge, including Eudoxus.
At his academy Plato contemplates what developed into the foundations of math. He
applied rigor to improve mathematical explanations by organizing assumptions based
on deductive reasoning. From Plato’s work we attribute an analytic method, a formula
for obtaining Pythagorean triples.
Socrates is recognized as a founder of Western Philosophy. Most of what we know of
Socrates is from writings by his students, Plato and Xenophon.
One of Plato’s writings describes the Socratic Method of Socrates, a form of debate in
use today. It is a type of pedagogy, an art or science of teaching in which a series of
questions are presented to draw individual answers and encourage fundamental insight
of issue. By quantity and quality the writings suggest that Socrates, as a teacher,
influenced Plato’s philosophical thought. This influence could be considered as
contributing to Plato developing his analytic methods. However, Socrates was not a
mathematician.
Aristotle attended Plato’s Academy from age 18 for nearly 20 years. During this period
his writings cover many subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic,
ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, linguistics, politics and government.
Collectively they represent the first comprehensive system of Western Philosophy.
Though Aristotle is not known for mathematical contribution he is often cited as the first
genuine scientist. He studied and described the physical world. Attempting to define
gravity he drops a feather and rock, and observes the rock, as the heavier object,
descends more quickly. He concludes that greater weight objects, heavier objects, fall
at greater rate. This conclusion was incorrect, however survived until Galileo’s
experiment in 1589 AD disproved Aristotle.
For Plato and Aristotle the goal was to realize ultimate reality which can be thought of
as a pure and absolute understanding of something.
Plato believed the process to attain ultimate reality was by abstract contemplation using
ideas or external forms knowable only through reflection and reason.
Aristotle believed ultimate reality could be discovered from physical objects, knowable
through experience and study by detailed observation of physical world objects.
Plato and Aristotle each held adamant and strong self-conviction to their individualized
perspectives. Their methods opposed, they fundamentally disagreed. As a result,
frequent, long, intense and often loud arguments between Aristotle and teacher Plato
erupted. However, within their disagreements is somewhat a virtual glimpse to years
later when mathematical content categorically separates into the studies of pure and
applied mathematics.
Eudoxus
Eudoxus developed the mathematical Method of
Exhaustion, a precursor of modern integral calculus.
This method permitted calculation of area and volume
for curvilinear figures.
He also developed a theory for ratios that avoid the
problem of incommensurable magnitude that later
assists major advancements in geometry.
Eudoxus never made a specific mathematical
discovery, however he provided important contributions
to developing the foundations of mathematical logi
Eudoxus, 408 - 355 BC
Euclid Elements
In the 3rd century BC, the premier center of
mathematical education and research is the
Museum of Alexandria. Unlike museums
today, it was a cultural community
gathering for scholars to pursue their
study, research and experimentation. It is
here Euclid wrote and taught Elements that
introduced mathematical rigor by the
Axiomatic Method: the axiom, theorem and
proof.
Aside from the Axiomatic Method most
other content of Elements was already
known. What Euclid provided was subject
content logically organized into a single
coherent 13 volume set of texts.
.
Euclid
The primary purpose of Elements was as a text book to impart theorems of Euclidean
Geometry. It also introduced all mathematical subjects including number
theory, algebra and solid geometry
Euclid wrote extensively on conic sections, optics, spherical geometry, and mechanics.
Unfortunately, not more than 50 percent of his writings survive.
The Golden Age

The 3rd century BC is the Golden Age of Ancient Greek Mathematics. It is from this
period and forward that important contributions of trigonometry are recognized.
During the Golden Age advancements of pure mathematics dwindle and the applied
mathematical studies of astronomy and science become primary.
Archimedes
Archimedes is considered the greatest
mathematician of antiquity.
Archimedes applied the Method of
Exhaustion to calculate the area under the
arc of a parabola by summation of an
infinite series using a somewhat similar
method of modern calculus. He also used
the Method of Exhaustion to calculate the
value of pi (π) obtaining 3 10/71 < π < 3
10/70, then the most accurate value known.
Archimedes studied the spiral (Archimedes
Spiral) and obtained formulas for volumes
of the parabolic, ellipsoid and hyperbola
Archimedes, 287 - 212 BC

He formulated an ingenious system for expressing very large numbers.
While known for his contributions to physics and several advanced mechanical
apparatus, Archimedes placed far greater value on his thought and general
mathematical aptitude. He regarded his greatest achievement the mathematical proof
for a relationship of surface area and volume of a sphere as two-thirds its surface area
and the volume of a cylinder circumscribing the sphere.
Apollonius
Apollonius made significant advances to the
study of conic sections. He obtained three
types by varying the angle of the plane cutting
a double-napped cone. He named the conic
sections: parabola (place beside), ellipse
(deficiency), and hyperbola (a throw beyond).
His Conics is one of the best preserved
mathematical writings of Greek antiquity.
Apollonius derived many theorems concerning
conic sections that later became invaluable to
mathematicians and astronomers who
Apollonius, 262 - 190 BC
Apollonius and other Greek mathematicians did not introduce coordinate systems of
today’s analytical geometry though some of their works look as if to anticipate
development of Rene Descartes’ analytical geometry in 1637, nearly 1800 years later
Hipparchus
Hipparchus, 190 - 120 BC, is considered the father of trigonometry for compiling the first
trigonometric table and systematic use of the 360 degree circle.
Heron
Heron (or Hero), 10 - 70 AD, is credited with Heron's Formula for finding the area of a
scalene triangle and being first to recognize the possibility that a root number for a
number squared could be negative, that a negative number multiplied by itself would be
positive: (−2) (−2) = +4
The Silver Age

The period between 250 and 350 AD is the Silver Age of Ancient Greek Mathematics.
During this period Diophantus made significant advances in algebra, particularly
indeterminate analysis. It is known as Diophantine Analysis. A Diophantine equation
and a polynomial are one and the same.
After this period of ancient Greece its scientific and mathematical innovations cease.
Summary
Based on the discussion above, every periods have their own contribution in the
field of Mathematics.
IV. Learning Assessment:

Name:_________________________ Date:___________
Course & Year___________________ Score:__________
Module 2, Lesson 1
Answer the following questions:
1. What contributions did Egyptians make to the field of mathematics?
2. Why did Babylon use base 60?
3. What did the Sumerians contribute to mathematics?

IV. Enrichment
Name:_________________________ Date:___________
Module 2, Lesson 1
1. In your point of view, how did math help us in ancient times?
2. Who used base 60? And where do you think would base 60 be useful?
End of Module 1, Lesson 1
Reference:
Mastin, L. (2020). The Story of Mathematics. Retrieved at August 7, 2020 from

https://www.storyofmathematics.com/greek.html
Enrichment Activity
Name:_________________________ Date:___________
Module 2, Lesson 1

1. In your point of view, how did math help us in ancient times?
2. Who used base 60? And where do you think would base 60 be useful?
Assessment Worksheet 1
Name:_________________________ Date:___________
Module 2, Lesson 1
1 What contributions did Egyptians make to the field of mathematics?
2 Why did Babylon use base 60?
3. What did the Sumerians contribute to mathematics?

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NORTHERN ILOILO POLYTECHNIC STATE COLLEGE

Math 101: History of Mathematics CONCEPCION CAMPUS Solimar L. Amable Ed. D

In this module you will be introduced the contribution to mathematics in the

II. Learning Outcomes:

Upon completion of this module, you must have to:

I. Demonstrated understanding on the contribution to mathematics during

Old Babylonian Mathematics (2000–1600 BC)

The Babaylonians used pre-calculated tables to

assist with arithmetic. For example, two tablets

found at Senkerah on the Euphrates in 1854

, dating from 2000 BC, give lists of the squares

of numbers up to 59 and the cubes of numbers

up to 32. The Babylonians used the lists of

squares together with the formulae

together with a table of reciprocals. Numbers

Reciprocals such as 1/7, 1/11, 1/13, etc. do not

As well as arithmetical calculations, Babylonian mathematicians also

Substituting y = ax/b gives:

Ancient Egyptian Mathematics

Multiplication and Division

Main article: Egyptian algebra

Aha problems involve finding unknown quantities (referred to as

Contributions of Ancient Greek Civilization

Socrates Plato and Aristotle

Socrates, 470/469 - 399 B

Aristotle, 384 - 322 BC

Eudoxus, 408 - 355 BC

The Golden Age

Archimedes, 287 - 212 BC

The Silver Age

IV. Learning Assessment:

2. Why did Babylon use base 60?

3. What did the Sumerians contribute to mathematics?

End of Module 1, Lesson 1

Mastin, L. (2020). The Story of Mathematics. Retrieved at August 7, 2020 from

Answer the following questions:

2 Why did Babylon use base 60?

3. What did the Sumerians contribute to mathematics?

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