Task VI

PARACHOR

I. Aim of the task

The aim of the task is experimental determination of parachors for chosen liq-
uids and their comparison with those determined by summing of atom and bond para-
chors.

II. Introduction

1. Cohesive forces, the radius of molecular interaction.

2. Surface energy, surface layer.
3. Definitions of the surface tension:
a) in terms of force (unit),
b) in terms of work (unit).
4. Dependence of the liquid surface tension on temperature.
5. Methods of the surface tension measurement:
a) capillary rise method,
b) drop weight method (stalagmometric method),
c) maximum bubble pressure method,
d) ring method (tensiometric method).
6. Parachor.
7. Additivity.

References:
1. J. Ościk, Adsorption, PWN Warszawa, 1982.
2. D. J. Shaw, Introduction to Colloid and Surface Chemistry, Butterworth-
Heinemann, London 1992.
3. J. Lyklema, Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science, vol.III: Liquid-Fluid Inter-
faces, Academic Press, 2000.
4. E. T. Dutkiewicz, Fizykochemia powierzchni, WNT Warszawa, 1998, pp. 70–72.
5. Task VIII.
6. J. Demichowicz-Pigoniowa, Obliczenia fizykochemiczne, PWN Warszawa, 1984,
pp. 259–260.
7. A. Danek, Chemia fizyczna, PZWL Warszawa, 1972, pp. 444–445.
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 Task VI — Parachor

III. Theory

III.1. Surface tension of liquids

Molecules liquid state experience strong intermolecular attractive forces. When
those forces are between like molecules, they are referred to as cohesive forces. The
cohesive forces between molecules are unbalanced at a phase boundary. In the case of
the liquid/gas interface the resultant force acting on the surface molecules from the liq-
uid side exceeds that from the gas side (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Surface layer at the liquid/gas interface (http://www.chem1.com).

Surface molecules of the liquid are therefore drawn into the liquid phase, whose
surface area tends to diminish. As a consequence of interactions among liquid mole-
cules, the force directed normal to the surface into the liquid is accompanied by another
force directed tangentially to the surface and preventing its area from increasing. This
latter force per unit length (the cross section of the surface is a line) is a measure of the
surface tension (denoted by γ or σ).
Since the liquid tends to diminish its surface area, increase of that area requires
work against the surface tension. Fig. 2 shows a hypothetical system consisting of a
liquid filling a container having a sliding cover. It is assumed that the nature of the lid is
such that there is no surface tension between it and the liquid. We shift the lid to uncov-
er a part of the liquid surface of area equal to dA.

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 Task VI — Parachor

Fig. 2. Formation of a new surface of the liquid.

If the operation is performed quasistatically at constant temperature and pres-

sure, the work will be equal to the increase of Gibbs free energy:
dG s = γdA (1)
where Gs is the Gibbs free energy of formation of the new area of surface. In general:
G s = γA (2)
or
Gs
γ= (3)
A
It follows that the units of surface tension are N/m (newton per meter) or J/m2 (joules
per meter squared) (dyne/cm or erg/cm2 in the CGS system. The conversions are: 1
dyne = 10-5 N, 1 erg = 10-7 J; 1 dyne/cm = 1 mN/m; 1 erg/cm2 = 1 mJ/m2).
Surface tension represents the work necessary to form unit area of new surface or,
equivalently, the increase of Gibbs free energy corresponding to the formation of unit
area of surface.
In accordance with the second law of thermodynamics the Gibbs free energy
tends to a minimum (under the given conditions of constant temperature and pressure).
It follows from equation (2) that the surface free energy may change in two ways:
(I) As a result of changes in surface area A only, as in the case of pure liquids,
where the surface tension depends only on the nature of the liquid.
(II) As a result of changes in both surface area and surface tension, as in the case of
solutions.

Thermodynamically, the interfacial tension is interpreted as the increase in the Helm-

holtz or Gibbs energy of the system when the area of the interface under consideration
is increased reversibly by an infinitesimal amount dA at constant temperature and com-
position, and at constant volume or constant pressure, respectively. One can express this
as:

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 Task VI — Parachor

∂F
γ=( ) V ,T ,n (4)
∂A

∂G
γ=( ) p ,T , n (5)
∂A

where n in an abbreviation for the set of amounts n1, n2, …, that define the composition
of the system. The dimensions of γ are [energy/area]; we shall express them in mJ/m2.
As F and G are in principle measurable, so is γ.
Mechanically, the interfacial tension is the contractive force per unit length, acting in
the interface and parallel to it. The dimensions are [force/length], and our usual unit is
mN/m = mJ/m2. Interfacial tensions are mechanically measurable as the forces required
to enlarge an interface by an infinitesimal amount. For isotropic interfaces this force is
the same in each direction. Since mechanical systems try to find a state of minimum
potential energy, a free droplet of liquid naturally assumes a spherical shape, which has
the minimum surface area for a given volume.
At equilibrium the thermodynamical and mechanical interpretations should be
equivalent.

III. 2. Dependence of the surface tension on temperature

Dependence of the surface tension on temperature was given by Eötvös. This re-
lationship can be written in the following form:

γ ⋅Vm2 / 3 =k (TC −T ) (6)

where: Vm – the molar volume of liquid; Vm2 / 3 – the sphere surface of 1 mole liquid; TC
– the critical temperature (at this temperature meniscus between the liquid and its va-
pour disappears); k – the constant of proportionality, which is nearly constant for most
not associating liquids and equals 2.1⋅10–7 J/K (dimension: energy per temperature,
joule/kelvin).
In the case of associating liquids, e.g. water, alcohols, organic acids, and amides
the constant k is significantly lower. Comparison of these values gives possibility to
evaluate the degree of association.
Dependence of the surface tension γ on temperature is a linear function with a
negative coefficient, i.e. the surface tension of most liquids decreases with the increas-
ing temperature. The surface tension depends on the energy of intermolecular attraction.
The kinetic energy of liquid molecules increases with the increasing temperature, that
is, more molecules are brought from the interior of the phase into the surface region
(from the bulk phase to its surface). It causes an increase of the liquid surface corre-
sponding to a decrease of the surface tension.

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 Task VI — Parachor

Ramsay and Shields claimed that the surface tension disappears near the critical
temperature and they modified the Eötvös equation which can be given by:

γ ⋅Vm2 / 3 =k (TC −T−6 ) (7)

III. 3. Dependence of the surface tension on liquid density

Baczyński and McLeod published an empirical relationship between the liquid

surface tension and the liquid density:

γ = c (d c − d p ) 4 (8)

where: c – the constant; dc – the liquid density, and dp – the vapour density.

III. 4. Parachor

In 1924 Suggden observed the dependence of constant c in equation (8) on the

structural properties of a molecule and defined a quantity P that he called the parachor
P:

M ⋅ γ1 / 4
P= (9)
dc − dp

where: M – the molecular weight.

Taking into account the fact, that the vapour density is neglectably small in
comparison to the liquid density equation (9) can be expressed in the form:

M
P = γ1 / 4 (10)
dc

Because

M
= Vm (11)
dc

where: Vm – the molar volume of liquid, equation (10) can be given by:

P = γ1 / 4 ⋅ Vm (12)

The parachor can be considered to be a molar volume corrected for the compres-
sive effects of intermolecular forces.

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 Task VI — Parachor

In practice, it is a quantity whose value for a given substance is nearly temperature

independent. The parachor is also an approximately additive property of atoms and bonds
in a molecule in agreement with the equation:

P = ∑ nPa + ∑ nPw + ∑ nPp (13)

in which: Pa, Pw i Pp denote the parachors of atoms, bonds and rings in a molecule of a
given compound, respectively, and n their quantity.
This fact can be used, in some cases, to fix a structure of organic compounds by
determination of their parachor from equation (10) or (12) and comparison of the ob-
tained value with that found by summing parachors occurring in the proposed structural
formulas for a given compound. The most probable is the structure for which the para-
chor value calculated from equation (10) is close to that found experimentally from the
surface tension measurement, density and molar mass, e.g. the total formula C2H6O can
be attributed to the formulas: CH3CH2OH i CH3OCH3, i.e. ethyl alcohol or dimethyl
ether. As the parachors PCH 3 , PCH 2 , POH and PO are different, one can attribute the com-
pound to the correct formula by comparing the parachor determined experimentally
with that calculated (parachor values are tabularized).

(Example: A. Danek, „Chemia fizyczna”)

Knowing the surface tension of a compound of the total chemical formula
C5H8O2 (γ = 0.0433 N/m) and density (d = 1.1094⋅103 kg/m3), choose which of the
structures given below is correct: a) or b)?

a) H2C CH2 b) O O
O
H2C CH C H3C C CH2 C CH3
O H

Calculating the parachor from the experimental data included in equation (10)
you obtain:

1/ 4
100 − 4 kg ⋅ m3
P= (0.0433)
1/ 4
⋅ = 411. 2 ⋅ 10
1.1094 ⋅ 10 3 kmol ⋅ s1 / 2

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 Task VI — Parachor

Applying the additivity rule and equation (13) one can obtain the parachor in the
following way:

for the structure a)

parachor value for 5 carbon atoms 5 x 8.5 ⋅ 10–4 = 42.5 ⋅ 10-4
parachor value for 8 hydrogen atoms 8 x 30.4 ⋅ 10–4 = 243.2 ⋅ 10–4
parachor value for 2 oxygen atoms 2 x 35.6 ⋅ 10–4 = 71.2 ⋅ 10–4
parachor value of double bond 1 x 41.3 ⋅ 10–4 = 41.3 ⋅ 10–4
parachor value of 5-membered ring 1 x 15.1 ⋅ 10–4 = 15.1 ⋅ 10–4
kg1 / 4 ⋅ m 3
P = 413.3 ⋅10–4
kmol ⋅ s1 / 2

and for the structure b)

parachor value for 5 carbon atoms 5 x 8.5 ⋅ 10–4 = 42.5 ⋅ 10–4
parachor value for 8 hydrogen atoms 8 x 30.4 ⋅ 10–4 = 243.2 ⋅ 10–4
parachor value for 2 oxygen atoms 2 x 35.6 ⋅ 10–4 = 71.2 ⋅ 10–4
parachor value of 2 double bonds 2 x 41.3 ⋅ 10–4 = 82.6 ⋅ 10–4
kg1 / 4 ⋅ m 3
P = 439.5 ⋅10–4
kmol ⋅ s1 / 2

As follows from the comparison of the theoretical and experimental parachor values
the correct structure is the structure a).

III.5. The capillary rise method of the surface tension measure-

ment
Capillary rise techniques are some of the best methods for measuring surface
tensions. They provide a bridge to wetting studies and their analysis anticipates that of
other techniques of γ measurement.
When an object is partly immersed in a wetting liquid, a concave meniscus is
spontaneously formed where solid and liquid meet. The resulting negative capillary
pressure ∆p may be interpreted as the upward force on the liquid (Fig. 3a). The rise con-
tinues until ∆p is just balanced by the gravity pressure. So, the surface tension can in
principle be obtained from the curvature of the meniscus, the capillary rise, the density
difference between the two fluids and the gravitational constant. Similar reasoning can be
applied to capillary depression, the situation encountered for non-wetted objects (Fig. 3b).

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 Task VI — Parachor

(a) (b)

Fig. 3. Capillary rise (a) and depression (b) (www.kekule.science.upjs.sk)

The force of the surface tension can be written:

f1 = 2πrγ cos θ (14)

where r is the capillary radius and θ is the contact angle.

At equilibrium this force is equal to the weight of the liquid column f2 increased or de-
creased in the capillary till the height h:

f 2 = πr 2 hρg (15)

where ρ denotes the liquid density and g is acceleration of free fall.

At equilibrium f1=f2, thus:

2πrγ cos θ = πr 2 hρg (16)
hence:
1 rhρg
γ= (17)
2 2 cos θ
In the case of liquids wetting capillary walls, the contact angle θ is practically equal to
zero, then cosθ = 1 and one can use the following equation:
1
γ= rhρg (18)
2

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 Task VI — Parachor

III.6. The drop weight (stalagmometric) method of the surface

tension measurement

This is a fairly accurate method and perhaps the most convenient laboratory one
for measuring the surface tension. This method is based on determining the weight of a
drop (or its volume) flowing out from a capillary of a stalagmometer ended with a flat
or a conical tip (Fig.4).

Fig. 4. Stalagmometer (www.magiste.republika.pl).

The method is based on the Tate's formula associating the drop weight W with
the liquid surface tension γ:

W = 2πrγ (19)

where: r – the inner capillary radius.

Actually, the weight W’ is obtained, which is less than the „ideal” value W,
which results from the process of drop formation at the end of a capillary. Harkins and
Brown introduced a correction factor f, which is a function of the inner capillary radius,
the falling drop volume (v) and a constant (a) characteristic of a given stalagmometer.
Accordingly, f = f (r, a, v), and W’ can be given by:

W ' = 2πrγf (20)

Simultaneously, W' = m⋅g (m – the drop weight, g – acceleration of free fall), and then:
m⋅g
γ= (21)
2πr ⋅ f

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 Task VI — Parachor

Because m = v⋅d, and k = 2πr⋅f (constant for a given stalagmometer), this equa-
tion can be written in the form:
v⋅d ⋅g
γ= (22)
k

If V cm3 liquid leaks out from the stalagmometer giving n drops of liquid, the
V⋅d
mass of one drop equals m = , or:
n
V⋅d ⋅g
γ= (23)
n⋅k

The surface tension measurements are often performed as relative ones, taking
water as a reference liquid, because its surface tension was measured in a wide range of
temperatures.
Thus, the surface tension of water is:
V ⋅ dw ⋅ g
γw = (24)
nw ⋅ k

V⋅d⋅g
γ d ⋅ nw
= n⋅k = (25)
γw V ⋅ dw ⋅ g n ⋅ dw
nw ⋅ k
hence:
d ⋅ nw
γ = γw ⋅ (26)
dw ⋅ n

where: nw, dw and γw denote the number of drops, the density and the surface tension of
the standard liquid – water, respectively, n, d and γ are the number of drops, the density
and the surface tension of the studied liquid, respectively.

III.7. The maximum bubble pressure method of the surface

tension measurement

This method is very attractive because it attempts to measure the capillary pres-
sure directly. So, if the radii of curvature are known in one point of the interface, the
interfacial tension can be computed. By applying an internal pressure, the meniscus can
be pushed down till at p = pmax the bubble starts to grow spontaneously. The principle is
sketched in Fig. 5. The gas bubbles are produced and enter the liquid through a capillary
whose radius is known. During this process the pressure passes through a maximum
(Fig. 5). The bubble finally escapes from the capillary and rises. The cycle begins again
with the formation of the next bubble.
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 Task VI — Parachor

Fig. 5. Principle of the method of maximum bubble pressure (www.en.wikipedia.org).

There is a relationship between the liquid surface tension and the minimum pressure
needed to pick the bubble from the capillary dipped in the liquid. According to the Can-
tor equation:
rp
γ= (27)
2

where r denotes the capillary radius and p is the minimum pressure (in mN/m2), at
which the bubble is released.
This technique is often applied to liquid-liquid interfaces if the density of the liquid to
be measured is lower than that of the external one.

III.8. The ring (tensiometric) method of the surface tension

measurement

This method is based on directly measuring the force needed to keep an object (a
ring) at an interface and pull it upward from a liquid (Fig. 6). The force has a gravity
and a capillary contribution, the latter depending on surface tension and contact angle.
So, if the former is accounted for, the product of surface tension and contact angle can
be obtained. When the object is completely wetted by the liquid, the surface tension is
accessible. Instruments by which such forces are measured are called tensiometers. The
ring method got its name through the work of Du Noüy, who described a convenient
apparatus for the surface tension measurement.

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 Task VI — Parachor

Fig. 6. Du Noüy ring for the surface tension measurement (www.maist.com.cn).

The force required to detach the ring from the liquid can be expressed by the equation:

f = 2lγ (28)

where l is the ring perimeter.

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 Task VI — Parachor

IV Experimental

A. Apparatus and materials

1. Apparatus: stalagmometer.
2. Equipment:
– hair drier,
– attachment for pipettes,
– vessel for liquid,
– filter paper.
3. Substances:
– acetone,
– octane,
– C6H12,
– ethyl acetate,
– C4H8O2,
– isobuthylmethylketone,
– methanol,
– water.

B. Program
1. Determination of the surface tension of the studied organic liquids by means of
the comparative stalagmometric method.
2. Calculation of experimental parachor values of the studied liquids on the basis
of the measured values of the surface tension.
3. Calculation of theoretical parachor values for given liquids by summing of the
atom and bond parachors in molecules of these liquids.
4. Establishing the correct structure of the compound on the basis of the measured
surface tensions.

C. Methods
The surface tension should be measured by the stalagmometric method for
the following liquids: acetone, octane, C6H12, ethyl acetate, C4H8O2, methanol,
isobuthylmethylketone and water.
For this case it is needed to:
– dip a tip of the stalagmometer in liquid and fill the stalagmometer with liq-
uid 1 cm above the bulb vessel,
– put a vessel under the tip of the stalagmometer,
– determine three times the number of drops released from the stalagmome-
ter for the same volume of liquid.

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 Task VI — Parachor

Before putting liquid the stalagmometer must be thoroughly washed,

rinsed with acetone and dried.

D. Results and conclusions

1. Calculate the surface tensions of the studied liquids using equation (26). Den-
sities of the studied liquids at 200C are listed in Table I. The surface tension of
water at 200C is γw = 72.75 mN/m.
2. Calculate the parachors of the studied liquids applying equation (10) and com-
pare with the values obtained by summing the atom and bond parachors in mol-
ecules of these liquids (equation (13)), using the data from Table II.

Table I. Densities of the studied liquids at 200C.

Liquid Density, d20 ⋅ 103 kg/m3

acetone 0.7899
octane 0.7027
C6H12 0,7791
ethyl acetate 0.9010
C4H8O2 1.0337
methanol 0.7915
isobuthylmethylketone 0.8000
water 0.9992

kg1 / 4 ⋅ m3
Table II. Atom parachors and bond parachors, [P] – in 10–4
kmol ⋅ s1 / 2
Atom P Atom P Atom P Bond P
C 8.5 P 67.0 Se 111.1 single 0
H 30.4 F 45.7 Si 44.5 double 41.3
H in OH 20.1 Cl 96.5 As 89.1 triple 82.9
ring 29.7
O 35.6 Br 120.9 Sb 117.3
3-membered
N 22.2 I 161.8 Sn 102.9 4-membered 20.6
S 85.7 B 29.2 Hg 122.2 5-membered 15.1
6-membered 10.8
O2 in esters 106.7
and acids

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 Task VI — Parachor

3. Put the measurement results together with those calculated in Table:

Substance Drop Surface tension  kg 1 / 4 ⋅ m 3 

Parachor  1/ 2 
name number [N/m]  kmol ⋅ s 
experimental calculated

4. Draw conclusions about additivity of the studied liquid parachors.

5. On the basis of the measured values of surface tension of the compounds charac-
terized by the chemical formulas:
a) C6H12 b) C4H8O2
choose which of the structures given below is correct:

C6H12

H2
a) CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH2 b)
C
H2C CH2

H2C CH2
C
H2

C4H8O2

a) O b) O
H2C CH2
CH3 CH2 CH2 C
H2C CH2 OH
O

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