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2/13/22, 8:31 AM Explanatory Data Visualizations - Strategic Finance
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EXPLANATORY DATA VISUALIZATIONS

BY ANN C. DZURANIN, PH.D., CPA
January 1, 2022
58
Data visualizations can be used to effectively communicate the

results of analyses and guide decision making.
Given the speed and volume of data collection in business, managers need ways
to make sense of large sets of data to help inform decision making and to help
communicate results. Data visualization is a powerful tool that can be used to
both facilitate and influence decision making. The power of data visualization is
https://sfmagazine.com/post-entry/january-2022-explanatory-data-visualizations/ 1/16
in the ability to identify what might have otherwise gone undetected. It not only
helps to make sense of large sets of data but can also help to uncover patterns or
trends that might otherwise go undetected.
There are two types of data visualizations used in management accounting:
1. Exploratory visualizations help provide insights into business performance.

2. Explanatory visualizations help managers communicate the results of their
analyses to influence changes and improvements.
Exploratory visualizations are used when you want or need to explore data to
find insights. You use these types of visualizations to help better understand your
underlying data.
Click to enlarge.
Explanatory visualizations are used to communicate the results of your analyses.

Well-designed explanatory visualizations convey the results of your analyses in a
clear and concise manner. The goal of explanatory data visualization is to
communicate findings and inspire action. In this adapted excerpt from the IMA®
(Institute of Management Accountants) Statement on Management Accounting
Data Visualization, we’ll take a closer look at the work and process that go into
creating explanatory data visualizations (see Figure 1).
PREPARATION STAGE
The first three steps in the explanatory data visualization process can be thought
of as the preparation stage. Here you’re making sure you have the right data and
that it meets the criteria for the analysis. You’re also considering the purpose of
the analysis and for whom the analysis is being prepared.
Step 1: Verify the data. The importance of this can’t be overemphasized. The
adage “garbage in, garbage out” is relevant in all data analyses, including data
visualization. If the data you’re using for your visualizations is incorrect or
incomplete, your visualizations will also be incorrect and potentially misleading.
Data should meet the following criteria:
1. Accuracy: Are the data error-free?

2. Completeness: Do you have all the data?
3. Consistency: Are the data in a consistent format?
4. Freshness: Are the data the most recent data available?
5. Timeliness: Will the data you need be accessible and available?
Accuracy of the data means that the data are error-free, reliable, and
representative of the phenomenon you’ll be presenting in the visualization.
Completeness of data means that you have all the data that you need and aren’t
missing any data. Consistency of data means there are no format inconsistencies.
For example, dates are formatted the same way from period to period, and values
are in the same denomination across time periods. Freshness of data means that
you’re using the most recent data in your visualizations. Finally, timeliness
means that the data you need for your visualization will be available and
accessible when you need it.
Step 2: Define the purpose. Before creating your explanatory data visualizations,
be sure you have specifically identified the purpose of your analysis. During the
exploratory phase of analysis, you’ll likely have identified your overall purpose
and prepared many visualizations as part of your discovery process. It’s very
tempting to use every visualization that you created during the exploratory
phase. Avoid falling into this trap. The purpose of exploration is to find insights.
Your goal is to share with your audience the insights, not the entire journey you
took to develop them.
Stephen Few, in his book Show Me the Numbers (Analytics Press, El Dorado Hills,
Calif., 2004), identifies four purposes for tables and graphs of quantitative
business information:
1. Analyzing
2. Communicating
3. Monitoring
4. Planning
Think about your purpose and choose only the visualizations that align with that
purpose. Also consider the audience for your data visualizations. For example, is
the purpose to inform the audience or to persuade the audience?
Step 3: Consider the audience. When preparing visualizations, always keep in

mind the audience that will be viewing the visualization: Who will be
consuming the information? How much background do they have regarding the
topic? Will they be the decision maker?
Answering these questions will help you focus your visualizations so that they
achieve maximum impact. For example, if you prepared an analysis that will be
shared internally with colleagues who know the background information related
to the analysis, you don’t need to include a lot of background information. But if
the analysis is prepared for an audience unfamiliar with the topic, more detailed
background information will need to be provided for them to understand the

analysis. An important aspect of providing an analysis that your audience will
understand is to be sure to pick an effective visualization.
CREATION STAGE
Once you’re confident about your data, have clearly defined the purpose of the
analysis, and know your audience, you can begin to create the visualizations to
convey your results. In this stage, you’re choosing an effective visual, using best
practices, and telling a story to effectively convey your results.
Step 4: Pick an effective visual. Picking an effective visual is easier said than
done. Most of us have never been trained in data visualization and have little
knowledge as to what type of visual is most effective. It helps to break this down
into the following:
Consider the purpose of your analysis.

Identify visuals that will meet that purpose.
Understand the data that’s needed to create the visual you would like.
Match the purpose and the data to the appropriate visual.
Be sure to follow best practices for your chosen visual.
Determining the purpose of the analysis is critical so that you can pick an
effective visual. There are many potential purposes for data analysis. Figure 2 is a
decision tree that provides a way to identify appropriate visualizations if the
purpose of the analysis is to show composition, relationships, or distributions.
Figure 3 provides guidance when the purpose is to show trends or comparisons.
Click to enlarge.
Once you have identified your purpose, you can then narrow down to the types
of appropriate visualizations. At this point, you’ll need to be sure you understand
the type of data required for the possible visualizations. The best visualization
will be the one that matches the purpose and works with the data that you need
to visualize. Finally, you should follow best practices for the type of visualization
that you decide to use. Table 1 provides an explanation of each type of
visualization, how it’s used, the type of data needed, and best practices.
Click to enlarge.
Once you have chosen the type of visualization, there’s still work to do to create
an effective visualization. Edward Tufte, a pioneer in the field of data
visualization, states that “excellence in statistical graphics consists of complex
ideas communicated with clarity, precision and efficiency” (The Visual Display
of Quantitative Information, second edition, Graphics Press, Cheshire, Conn.,
2001). Tufte goes on to say that a well-designed data visualization should give
the viewer “the greatest number of ideas in the shortest time with the least ink in
the smallest space.”
Step 5: Follow best practices. Along with the best practices based on the type of
visualization, there are a couple of other important practices to consider.
The first is to avoid cluttering your visual with nonessential information. Clutter
is the enemy of a good visualization. Tufte recommends maximizing the data-to-
ink ratio, meaning you should remove any nondata-related ink and any
redundant ink. Basically, when it comes to the amount of ink in a visualization,
less is more.
Click to enlarge.
The second important practice is to help the audience focus its attention on what
is most important in the visualization. It’s important to keep in mind preattentive
attributes when creating explanatory data visualizations. Preattentive attributes
are visual properties that we notice without realizing we’re doing so. Attributes
such as size, color, and position can be leveraged to help direct your audience’s
attention to where you want them to focus. Studies have shown that an audience
will spend only three to eight seconds to decide whether they want to continue
to look at a visualization or turn their attention to something else (Cole
Nussbaumer Knaflic, Storytelling with Data, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, N.J.,
2015).
Size is an indication of importance. When creating visualizations, keep in mind

that relative size will be interpreted as relative importance. This is true in
individual visualizations as well as in dashboards. If one aspect of the dashboard
is larger than the other aspects, a user’s focus will be on the larger of the images.
For example, consider a dashboard showing daily sales volume, sales by model,
and a comparison of average net revenue by brand. If the visualization showing
daily sales volume is the largest visual in the dashboard, users will be drawn to
that aspect of the dashboard first. And given its size relative to the other two
visuals, it will appear to be the most important. (Note that it isn’t just the size of
the visualization that indicates importance—the size of the text in an illustration
relative to other text will indicate importance as well.)
Color should be used sparingly and consistently. A good general rule to consider
is that if adding color doesn’t add to the interpretation of the visualization, you
likely don’t need to add color. Also keep in mind that color evokes emotion, so be
thoughtful of what the tone of the color conveys. For example, red evokes a sense
of urgency. In general, avoid using too many colors together in a visualization
because it will make it more difficult for the audience to discern what you’re
trying to convey. Also keep in mind the view of colorblind users when creating
visualizations, as they may have trouble distinguishing between certain colors.

For example, avoid relying on color combinations like red and green, blue and
purple, or green and blue.
The position of the items in your visualizations and dashboards matters. Most of
your audience is going to start at the top left of the visual and then scan with
their eyes in a zigzag motion. Therefore, be sure to put the most important
information at the top left of the visualization.
Following these best practices will help you to create effective visualizations. The
true power of data visualization doesn’t end here. The real power comes when
great data visualizations are used to tell a story that the reader will not only
remember but act upon.
Step 6: Tell a story. The last step in explanatory data visualization is to tell a story.
Storytelling with data is an essential skill for finance professionals (see Fatema
El-Wakeel, Loreal Jiles, and Raef Lawson, “Storytelling with Data Visualization,”
Strategic Finance, December 2020.
According to cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner, we are 22 times more likely

to remember facts that have been told in a story (Vanessa Boris, “What Makes
Storytelling So Effective for Learning?” Harvard Business Publishing, Corporate
Learning, December 20, 2017. The reason is that stories are memorable and help
us to understand an idea more quickly.
When we hear or read a story, our brains are activated at many levels. The
emotional part of the brain releases chemicals to stimulate feelings of
connection, reward, and recognition (Pamela Rutledge, “The Psychological
Power of Storytelling,” Psychology Today, January 16, 2011. According to Kate
Harrison, the powerful combination of data into an engaging story will help to
ignite your audience into action (“A Good Presentation Is about Data and Story,”
Forbes, January 20, 2015.
There are three elements to a data story: data, narrative, and visuals. In Effective
Data Storytelling (John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, N.J., 2020), Brent Dykes
describes how these elements explain, enlighten, and engage the audience. The
combination of all three elements is what leads to change. Figure 4 portrays the
connection among the three elements.
Click to enlarge.
The intersection of data and narrative explains your data story. It provides the
context and commentary needed to understand the results of your analysis. The
intersection of data and visuals enlightens the reader to the insights they may
not have had were it not for the visualizations.
The combination of narrative with your visuals engages your audience in the
story. Throughout our lives, much of our learning is based on a combination of
narrative and visuals. A good story can hold the attention of the reader and
increases the likelihood of action.
The key to a good data story is to include all three elements and then to structure
your story effectively. You want to be sure you create a memorable and relatable
story that leads to action. A best practice for developing your data story is to first
create a visual outline of the content you plan to create and use.
Create the outline on paper or a whiteboard rather than starting with creating
slides. That will help you avoid getting sucked into creating slide after slide or
visual after visual without direction. Although you may believe every visual you
created and every step you took in a data analysis is critical, only the key
analyses and visuals should be included in the data story.
A common structure used in storytelling is called Freytag’s Pyramid, sometimes

referred to as a storytelling arc. The pyramid was developed by the German
playwright and novelist Gustav Freytag in 1863.
The basic structure begins with the exposition, which introduces the characters
and sets the scene for the story. Next, the rising action is introduced via a series
of events that build to the most climactic or important point of the story at the
top of the pyramid. After the climax, you see the rest of the events that unfold
after the main conflict has occurred. Finally, all conflicts are resolved in the
conclusion of the story.
How do we apply this structure to a data story? Let’s use the fictitious
automobile manufacturing company Huskie Motor Corporation (HMC) as an
example (see Table 2). Imagine you have been asked to do an analysis of the
model performance for the Tatra brand. The Tatra brand is the lowest average net
revenue HMC brand. You need to determine why and make recommendations for
improvement.
Click to enlarge.
Following a structure like Freytag’s Pyramid is a clear way to structure your

story. Once you have a structure, you can then apply the elements of a story
(data, narrative, and visuals) to bring your story to life.
DON’T MISLEAD THE AUDIENCE
An important element in creating any data visualization is to ensure that it isn’t

misleading. Unintentionally misleading visualizations are often the result of not
following best practices or not providing relative context to the visual, whereas
intentionally misleading visualizations are often used to promote a point of view
rather than present an unbiased picture. Knowing how to interpret visualizations
and spotting potentially misleading visualizations are increasingly important
skills.
The following are examples of practices that can mislead the reader:
Omitting the baseline: If the y-axis of a graph doesn’t begin at 0, it could cause
results to look more dramatic than they really are. For instance, in a bar graph
with the y-axis beginning at 1,000, a bar showing results of 1,400 would
appear twice as big as a bar showing 1,200. If the y-axis began at 0 instead, the
difference in size between the bars would be much more appropriate.
Manipulating the y-axis: The y-axis can also be manipulated in other ways to
make changes in the data seem more or less significant. The y-axis scale
should be proportionate to the data. For example, using a larger scale can
smooth out results and make them appear less volatile.
Selectively picking the data: Don’t pick only the data points that will provide
the story you want to tell. For instance, don’t show the data by year when
monthly or quarterly data would provide a clearer illustration of the volatility
in the data.
Using the wrong type of graph: As discussed earlier, comparisons are best
shown with bar or column charts. But if you use the wrong visual for
comparison, the reader will have difficulty comparing the data.
Going against conventions: Always be cognizant of standard conventions when

creating your visualizations. For example, in the accounting and finance
profession, the color red is associated with losses. You wouldn’t want to use
red to illustrate gains in a visualization because your readers will assume red
means losses.
A NECESSARY SKILL
Whether exploring your data for insights or communicating your insights to

others, data visualization can be a powerful tool. The amount of data available to
analyze will continue to grow, and the ability to harness that data is necessary to
be successful.
Communicating the results and implications of your data analyses is the last step
in the data analysis process. For your analysis to be effective, the audience must
understand your data story. Following best practices for creating data
visualizations and then using those visualiations to tell a story with data can help
to create change in your organization and to provide value to your stakeholders.
Investing now in building your data visualization skills will reap long-term
benefits for your career.
Ann C. Dzuranin, Ph.D., CPA, is the KPMG Endowed Professor of

Accountancy at Northern Illinois University. She can be reached at
(815) 753-6212 or [email protected].
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2/13/22, 8:31 AM Explanatory Data Visualizations - Strategic Finance

MAGAZINE TOPICS BLOGS ABOUT US

EXPLANATORY DATA VISUALIZATIONS

Data visualizations can be used to effectively communicate the

There are two types of data visualizations used in management accounting:

1. Exploratory visualizations help provide insights into business performance.

Explanatory visualizations are used to communicate the results of your analyses.

1. Accuracy: Are the data error-free?

Step 3: Consider the audience. When preparing visualizations, always keep in

background information will need to be provided for them to understand the

Consider the purpose of your analysis.

Size is an indication of importance. When creating visualizations, keep in mind

visualizations, as they may have trouble distinguishing between certain colors.

According to cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner, we are 22 times more likely

A common structure used in storytelling is called Freytag’s Pyramid, sometimes

Following a structure like Freytag’s Pyramid is a clear way to structure your

DON’T MISLEAD THE AUDIENCE

An important element in creating any data visualization is to ensure that it isn’t

Going against conventions: Always be cognizant of standard conventions when

Whether exploring your data for insights or communicating your insights to

Ann C. Dzuranin, Ph.D., CPA, is the KPMG Endowed Professor of

SF MAGAZINE TOPICS TOPICS

CURRENT ISSUE CARL MENCONI CASE WRITING LEADERSHIP & CAREERS

Accountants, Inc. 1760

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