THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

A three phase induction motor runs on a three phase AC supply. 3 phase induction
motors are extensively used for various industrial applications because of their following
advantages-

● They have very simple and rugged (almost unbreakable) construction.

● They are very reliable and having low cost.
● They have high efficiency and good power factor.
● Minimum maintenance is required.
● 3 phase induction motor is self-starting hence extra starting motor or any special starting
arrangement is not required.

They also have some disadvantages-

▪ Speed decreases with increase in load, just like a DC shunt motor.

▪ If speed is to be varied, we have to sacrifice some of its efficiency.

Construction of a 3 phase induction motor

Just like any other motor, a 3 phase induction motor also consists of a stator and a rotor.
Basically there are two types of 3 phase induction motor –

1. Squirrel cage induction motor and

2. Phase Wound induction motor (slip-ring induction motor).

Both types have similar constructed stator, but they differ in construction of rotor. This is
explained further.

Stator
The stator of a 3 phase IM (Induction Motor) is made up of a number of stampings, and these
stampings are slotted to receive the stator winding. The stator is wound with a 3 phase winding
which is fed from a 3 phase supply. It is wound for a defined number of poles, and the number
of poles is determined from the required speed. For greater speed, a lesser number of poles is
used and vice versa. When stator windings are supplied with 3 phase ac supply, they produce
alternating flux which revolves with synchronous speed. The synchronous speed is inversely
proportional to number of poles (Ns = 120f / P). This revolving or rotating magnetic
flux induces current in rotor windings according to Faraday's law of mutual induction.
 Fig.1 Stator of three phase induction motor

Rotor
As described earlier, rotor of a 3 phase induction motor can be of either two types, squirrel
cage rotor and phase wound rotor (or simply - wound rotor).

Squirrel cage rotor

Most of the induction motors (almost 90%) are of squirrel cage type. Squirrel cage type
rotor has very simple and almost indestructible construction. This type of rotor consists of a
cylindrical laminated core, having parallel slots on it. These parallel slots carry rotor
conductors. In this type of rotor, heavy bars of copper, aluminium or alloys are used as rotor
conductors instead of wires.

Rotor slots are slightly skewed to achieve following advantages -

1. It reduces locking tendency of the rotor, i.e. the tendency of rotor teeth to remain under stator
teeth due to magnetic attraction.
2. Increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor
3. Increases rotor resistance due to increased length of the rotor conductor.

The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded to short circuiting end rings at both ends. Thus
this rotor construction looks like a squirrel cage and hence we call it. The rotor bars are
permanently short circuited; hence it is not possible to add any external resistance to armature
circuit.

Fig. 2 Squirrel cage rotor

Phase wound rotor

Phase wound rotor is wound with 3 phase, double layer, distributed winding. The number of
poles of the rotor is kept the same to the number of poles of the stator. The rotor is always
wound 3 phase even if the stator is wound two phase.
The three phase rotor winding is internally star connected. The other three terminals of the
winding are taken out via three insulated sleep rings mounted on the shaft and the brushes
resting on them. These three brushes are connected to an external star connected rheostat.

This arrangement is done to introduce an external resistance in the rotor circuit for starting
purposes and for changing the speed / torque characteristics. When the motor is running at its
rated speed, slip rings are automatically short circuited by means of a metal collar and brushes
are lifted above the slip rings to minimize the frictional losses.

Fig. 3 Three phase Slip ring induction motor

ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD

In this section we study the magnetic field produced by currents flowing in the polyphase
windings of an ac machine. In Fig. 4a, the three-phase windings, represented by aa', bb', and
cc', are displaced from each other by 120 electrical degrees in space around the inner
circumference of the stator. A two-pole machine is considered. The concentrated coils
represent the actual distributed windings. When a current flows through a phase coil, it
produces a sinusoidally distributed mmf wave centered on the axis of the coil representing the
phase winding. If an alternating current flows through the coil, it produces a pulsating mmf
wave, whose amplitude and direction depend on the instantaneous value of the current flowing
through the winding. Figure 4b illustrates the mmf distribution in space at various instants due
to an alternating current flow in coil aa'. Each phase winding will produce similar sinusoidally
distributed mmf waves, but displaced by 120 electrical degrees in space from each other.
 Fig. 4 Pulsating mmf

Let us now consider a balanced three-phase current flowing through the three-phase windings.
The currents are
𝑖𝑎 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 (1)

𝑖𝑏 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 − 1200 ) (2)

𝑖𝑐 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 1200) (3)

These instantaneous currents are shown in Fig. 4c. The reference directions, when positive-
phase currents flow through the windings, are shown by dots and crosses in the coil sides in
Fig. 4a. When these currents flow through the respective phase windings, each produces a
sinusoidally distributed mmf wave in space, pulsating along its axis and having a peak located
along the axis. Each mmf wave can be represented by a space vector along the axis of its phase
with magnitude proportional to the instantaneous value of the current. The resultant mmf wave
is the net effect of the three component mmf waves, which can be computed either graphically
or analytically.

GRAPHICAL METHOD

Let us consider situations at several instants of time and find out the magnitude and direction
of the resultant mmf wave. From Fig. 4c, at instant t = t0, the currents in the phase windings
are as follows:
𝑖𝑎 = 𝐼𝑚 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 (4)

𝐼𝑚
𝑖𝑏 = − 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏 (5)
2
𝐼𝑚
𝑖𝑏 = − 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐 (6)
2

The current directions in the representative coils are shown in Fig. 5a by dots and crosses.
Because the current in the phase-a winding is at its maximum, its mmf has its maximum value
and is represented by a vector Fa = Fmax along the axis of phase a, as shown in Fig. 3.5a. The
mmfs of phases b and c are shown by vectors Fb and Fc , respectively, each having magnitude
Fmax/2 and shown in the negative direction along their respective axes. The resultant of the
three vectors is a vector F = (3/2)Fmax acting in the positive direction along the phase-a axis.
Therefore, at this instant, the resultant mmf wave is a sinusoidally distributed wave which is
the same as that due to phase-a mmf alone but with (3/2) the amplitude of the phase-a mmf
wave. The component mmf waves and the resultant mmf wave at this instant (t = t0 ) are shown
in Fig. 3.5b.

At a later instant of time t1, (Fig. 4c), the currents and mmfs are as follows:

𝑖𝑎 = 0 𝐹𝑎 = 0 (7)

√3 √3
𝑖𝑏 = 𝐼 𝐹𝑏 = 𝐹 (8)
2 𝑚 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥

√3 √3
𝑖𝑐 = − 𝐼 𝐹𝑐 = − 𝐹 (9)
2 𝑚 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Fig.5 Rotating magnetic field by graphical method: mmfs at various instances

The current directions, component mmf vectors, and resultant mmf vector are shown in Fig.
5c. Note that the resultant mmf vector F has the same amplitude (3/2)Fmax at t = t1 as it had
at t = t0 , but it has rotated counterclockwise by 90° (electrical degrees) in space.

Currents at other instants t = t2 and t =t3, are also considered, and their effects on the resultant
mmf vector are shown in Figs. 5d and 5e, respectively. It is obvious that as time passes, the
resultant mmf wave retains its sinusoidal distribution in space with constant amplitude but
moves around the air gap. In one cycle of the current variation, the resultant mmf wave comes
back to the position of Fig. 5a. Therefore, the resultant mmf wave makes one revolution per
cycle of the current variation in a two-pole machine. In a p pole machine, one cycle of variation
of the current will make the mmf wave rotate by 2/p revolutions. The revolutions per minute n
(rpm) of the traveling wave in a p-pole machine for a frequency f cycles per second for the
currents are

2 120𝑓
𝑛= 𝑓60 = (10)
𝑝 𝑝

It can be shown that if ia flows through the phase-a winding but ib flows through the phase-c
winding and ic flows through the phase-b winding, the traveling mmf wave will rotate in the
clockwise direction. Thus, a reversal of the phase sequence of the currents in the windings
makes the rotating mmf rotate in the opposite direction.

ANALYTICAL METHOD
Again we shall consider a two-pole machine with three phase windings on the stator. An
analytical expression will be obtained for the resultant mmf wave at any point in the air gap,
defined by an angle θ. The origin of the angle θ can be chosen to be the axis of phase a, as
shown in Fig. 6a. At any instant of time, all three phases contribute to the air gap mmf along
the path defined by θ. The mmf along θ is
𝐹(𝜃) = 𝐹𝑎 (𝜃) + 𝐹𝑏 (𝜃)+𝐹𝑐 (𝜃) (11)

Fig. 6 Motion of the resultant wave

At any instant of time, each phase winding produces a sinusoidally distributed mmf wave with
its peak along the axis of the phase winding and amplitude proportional to the instantaneous
value of the phase current. The contribution from phase a along θ is

𝐹𝑎 (𝜃) = 𝑁𝑖𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (12)

where N is the effective number of turns in phase a

ia is the current in phase a

Because the phase axes are shifted from each other by 120 electrical degrees, the contributions
from phases b and c are, respectively,

𝐹𝑏 (𝜃) = 𝑁𝑖𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃 − 1200 ) (13)

𝐹𝑐 (𝜃) = 𝑁𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃 + 1200 ) (14)

The resultant mmf at point 𝜃 is

𝐹𝑎 (𝜃) = 𝑁𝑖𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑁𝑖𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃 − 1200 ) + 𝑁𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃 + 1200 ) (15)

The currents ia , ib , and ic are functions of time and are defined by Eqs. (1), (2), and (3), and
thus
𝐹(𝜃, 𝑡) = 𝑁𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑁𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 − 1200)𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃 − 1200 )

+𝑁𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 1200 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃 + 1200 ) (16)

Using the trigonometric identity
cos A cos B = (1/2)cos(A — B) + (1/2)cos(A + B) (17)

1 1
𝐹(𝜃, 𝑡) = 𝑁𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) + 𝑁𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
2 2
1 1
+ 𝑁𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) + 𝑁𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 − 2400)
2 2
1 1
+ 𝑁𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) + 𝑁𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 2400) (18)
2 2

3
= 𝑁𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) (19)
2

The expression of Eq. 19 represents the resultant mmf wave in the air gap. This represents an
mmf rotating at the constant angular velocity ω (= 2Πf). At any instant of time, say t1 , the wave
is distributed sinusoidally around the air gap (Fig. 6b) with the positive peak acting along θ =
ωt1. At a later instant, say t2 , the positive peak of the sinusoidally distributed wave is along θ
= ωt2, that is, the wave has moved by ω (t2 – t1) around the air gap.

The angular velocity of the rotating mmf wave is ω = 2Πf radians per second and its rpm for a
p-pole machine is given by Eq. 10.

It can be shown in general that an m-phase distributed winding excited by balanced m-phase
currents will produce a sinusoidally distributed rotating field of constant amplitude when the
phase windings are wound 2Π/m electrical degrees apart in space. Note that a rotating magnetic
field is produced without physically rotating any magnet. All that is necessary is to pass a
polyphase current (ac) through the polyphase windings of the machine.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

If the stator windings are connected to a three-phase supply and the rotor circuit is closed, the
induced voltages in the rotor windings produce rotor currents that interact with the air gap field
to produce torque. The rotor, if free to do so, will then start rotating. According to Lenz’s law,
the rotor rotates in the direction of the rotating field such that the relative speed between the
rotating field and the rotor winding decreases. The rotor will eventually reach a steady-state
speed nr that is less than the synchronous speed, ns at which the stator rotating field rotates in
the air gap. It is obvious that at nr = ns there will be no induced voltage and current in the rotor
circuit and hence no torque.

The difference between the rotor speed nr and the synchronous speed ns of the rotating field is
called the slip s and is defined as
𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛𝑟
𝑠= (20)
𝑛𝑠

If you were sitting on the rotor, you would find that the rotor was slipping behind the rotating
field by the slip rpm = ns - nr = sns . The frequency f2 of the induced voltage and current in the
rotor circuit will correspond to this slip rpm, because this is the relative speed between the
rotating field and the rotor winding. Thus
𝑝
𝑓2 = (𝑛 − 𝑛𝑟 )
120 𝑠
𝑝
= 𝑠𝑛
120 𝑠
= 𝑠𝑓𝑠 (21)

This rotor circuit frequency f2 is also called slip frequency. The voltage induced in the rotor
circuit at slip s is
𝐸2𝑠 = 4.44𝑓2𝑁2 ∅𝑃 𝐾𝑊2

= 4.44𝑠𝑓1𝑁2 ∅𝑃 𝐾𝑊2

= 𝑠𝐸2 (22)

Where, E2 is the induced voltage in the rotor circuit at standstill, that is, at the stator frequency
f1 .
The induced currents in the three-phase rotor windings also produce a rotating field. Its speed
(rpm) n2 with respect to the rotor is
120𝑓2
𝑛2 =
𝑝

120𝑠𝑓1
=
𝑝

= 𝑠𝑛𝑠 (23)

Because the rotor itself is rotating at nr rpm, the induced rotor field rotates in the air gap at
speed nr + n2 = (1 — s)ns + sns = ns rpm. Therefore, both the stator field and the induced rotor
field rotate in the air gap at the same synchronous speed ns . The stator magnetic field and the
rotor magnetic field are therefore stationary with respect to each other. The interaction between
these two fields can be considered to produce the torque. As the magnetic fields tend to align,
the stator magnetic field can be visualized as dragging the rotor magnetic field.

Voltage and Current Equations of Induction motor

The stator and rotor voltage equations of an induction motor are similar to those for the
primary and secondary windings of a transformer.
Voltage equation for the stator winding,
𝑉1 = −𝐸1 + 𝐼1 (𝑟1 + 𝑗𝑥1 ) (24)

Where V1=Supply voltage per phase.

I1=Stator current per phase.
r1=stator resistance per phase.
x1= stator leakage reactance per phase.
and E1=Induced e.m.f. per phase in the stator.
Again,
𝐸1 = 4.44∅𝑚 𝑓𝑁1 𝑘𝑏1 𝑘𝑝1 (25)

Where ∅𝑚 =Mutual flux per pole.

f=stator frequency.
T1=stator no. of turns per phase
kb1=Breath factor of the stator winding.
kp1=pitch factor of the stator winding.

Voltage equation for the short-circuited rotor winding,

𝑉2 = 0 = 𝐸2𝑠 − 𝐼2 (𝑟2 + 𝑗𝑥2𝑠 ) (26)

Where I2=Rotor current per phase

r2=Rotor resistance per phase
X2s=Rotor leakage reactance at slip frequency per phase
= 2𝜋𝑓2 𝑙2
= 2𝜋𝑠𝑓𝑙2
= 𝑠𝑥2

and 𝑥2 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑙2
=Rotor leakage reactance at standstill.
s=slip
and E2s=Induced e.m.f. per phase in the rotor.
= 4.44∅𝑚 𝑓2 𝑁2 𝑘𝑏2 𝑘𝑝2
= 4.44∅𝑚 𝑠𝑓𝑁2 𝑘𝑏2 𝑘𝑝2
= 𝑠𝐸2 (27)
Where E2=Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase at standstill
= 4.44∅𝑚 𝑓𝑁2 𝑘𝑏2 𝑘𝑝2 (28)
T2=Rotor no. of turns per phase.
kb2=Breath factor of the rotor winding.
kp2=Pitch factor of the rotor winding.
Now, from Eqns. (25) and (28)
𝐸1 𝑁1 . 𝑘𝑏1 . 𝑘𝑝1 𝑁′1
= = =𝑎 (29)
𝐸2 𝑁2 . 𝑘𝑏2 . 𝑘𝑝2 𝑁′2

Here, N1’ and N2’ are called the effective number of stator and rotor turns respectively and ‘a’
is called the effective turns ratio of an induction motor similar to that of a transfer.
Induction Motor Phasor Diagram
Fig. 7 shows rotor m.m.f. F2 lagging behind air-gap flux by a space angle of 90 + θ2. The rotor
m.m.f. reacts on the stator and calls for a compensating load component of stator current I2’
such that
load component of stator m.m.f. F1’= rotor m.m.f. F 2

or 𝐼2′ 𝑁1′ = 𝐼2 𝑁2′

𝑁2′ 𝑁2 𝑘𝑤2
𝐼2′ = 𝐼2 ′ = (30)
𝑁1 𝑁1 𝑘𝑤1

Here N1’ and N2’ are the effective number of stator and rotor turns respectively. In Fig. 7, load
component of m.m.f. F1’ =𝐼2′ 𝑁1′ , of the total stator m.m.f. F1 , is shown opposing rotor m.m.f.
F2. Similarly, load-component current I2’, of the total stator current I1 is shown opposite to
rotor current I2. In Fig. 7, per-phase rotor induced e.m.f. E2 lags Φ by a time-phase angle of
90° as shown in Fig. 7.

If hysteresis is neglected, then air-gap flux is in phase with the resultant air-gap m.m.f. Fr. As
in a transformer, the no-load magnetizing m.m.f. of the motor does not differ from resultant
air-gap m.m.f. Fr. It is because of this reason that motor magnetizing current Im is shown in
phase with Fr in Fig. 7. The phasor sum of F1' and Fr gives the total stator m.m.f. F1 Similarly
the phasor sum of the stator-load component of current I2’ and motor magnetizing current Im
gives the total stator current I1 as illustrated in Fig. 7. The stator (or the primary) induced e.m.f.
E1, and rotor (or secondary) induced e.m.f. E2 are shown lagging Φ by 900 as in a transformer.

Complete induction motor phasor diagram at standstill is drawn in Fig 8(a) where m.m.fs. are
not shown for the sake of clarity. At standstill, E2 is shown equal to I2(r2+jx2). The core-loss

component of stator current, i.e. IC , is in phase with V1 or − E1 . At standstill, friction and

'

windage loss is zero. The stator no-load current is I 0 = I m + I C and the stator load current is
I1 = I 2' + I 0 . The stator applied voltage V1 must balance the stator counter e.m.f V1' ( = − E1 ) and

the stator leakage impedance drop I1 (r1 + jx1 ) as shown in Fig. 8 (a). The power factor angle
θ1 , (between V1 and I1) at the stator terminals is very high, i.e. stator power factor is very poor
at the time of starting a 3-phase induction motor.

Fig. 8 Induction motor phasor diagram at (a) standstill and (b) at a full speed s

At normal operating speed, slip s is small. The rotor voltage equation now becomes,
sE2 = I 2 (r2 + jsx2 ) and this is illustrated in the phasor diagram of Fig. 8 (b). In this figure,

I 0 = I m + I fc , where I is the friction, windage and core-loss component of stator current. The
fc

rest of the phasor diagram is drawn in the same manner as illustrated in Fig 8 (a). Fig. 8 (b)
reveals that the full load power factor at the stator terminals has considerably improved (0.8 to
0.9 lagging) from its power factor at starting.

In the phasor diagrams of Figs. 8 and 9, all quantities have per-phase values.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

An induction motor has been shown equivalent to a transformer, naturally induction motor
equivalent circuit should be similar to the transformer equivalent circuit. The only difference
is on account of the fact that the secondary winding (i.e. rotor winding) of an induction motor
rotates and, therefore, involves the development of mechanical power. The derivation of
induction motor equivalent circuit proceeds in the same manner as in the case of a transformer.
All the equivalent circuit parameters have per phase values.

We shall develop here first the circuit model for stator and then for the rotor. These two circuit
models are then combined to obtain the equivalent circuit of a 3-phase induction motor.
stator-circuit model
When a voltage V1 is applied to the stator terminals of a 3-phase induction motor, a rotating
air-gap flux Φ is established. The flux Φ generates counter e.m.fs of all the three phases of
stator ( or the primary) winding. The stator terminal voltage V1 has to overcome counter e.m.f.
V1' (= − E1 ) and the stator leakage impedance drop I1 (r1 + jx1 ). therefore, just like a transformer,
the stator or primary voltage is given by,
V1 = V1' + I1 (r1 + jx1 ) (3.31)
As in the case of a transformer, the stator current I1 consists of two components. One
component I2’ is the load component and counteracts the rotor m.m.f. I2N2’ completely, see Eq.
(30). The other component is the exciting current Ie , whose function is to create the resultant
air-gap flux Φ and to provide the core loss. As in a transformer, the exciting current Ie can be
resolved into two components, core loss component Ic in phase with V1’ and a magnetizing
component Im lagging V1’ by 900. In a transformer, the exciting current is also called the no-
load current; but in a three phase induction motor, it is not so. It is because the no-load current
I0 in a 3-phase induction motor, as shown in Fig. 8, has to create resultant air gap flux Φ and
to supply the no load losses (=core loss+ friction, windage loss+ small stator and rotor I2R loss),
whereas function of Ie in a transformer is to create Φ and to provide only the core loss.

Fig. 9 Stator equivalent circuit for a polyphase induction motor

In a 3-phase induction motor, product V1’Ic gives core loss (=no-load loss-friction, windage
loss-negligible stator and rotor I2R loss at no load). In the equivalent circuit, Ic and Im are
accounted for by a shunt branch, consisting of core loss resistance Rc (=V1’/Ic) in parallel with
magnetizing reactance (=V1’/Im) as illustrated in Fig. 9.Once Rc and Xm are calculated under
normal operating condition, these are then treated constant, even though the counter e.m.f. V1’
or E1 (across Rc and Xm) may depart slightly over the normal operating region. Parameters Rc
and Xm simulated respectively the core loss (= no-load loss-friction and windage loss-small I2R
loss at no load) and air gap flux as in a transformer.

Rotor circuit model.

The per phase rotor current is
𝑠𝐸2
𝐼2 = (32)
𝑟2 + 𝑗𝑠𝑥2

Dividing the denominator and numerator by s gives

𝐸2
𝐼2 = 𝑟 (33)
2
𝑠 + 𝑗𝑥2
Note that the magnitude and phase of I2 obtained from the Eqs. (32) and (33) are the same.
There is, however, a significant difference between these two equations. In Eq. (32), slip-
frequency generated e.m.f. sE2 , when divided by r2+jsx2 gives slip-frequency current, but in
Eq.(33) line-frequency e.m.f. E2 when divided by r2/s+jx2 gives line-frequency current.
Equivalent circuits of Fig. 10(a) and (b) are obtained from Eqs.(32) and (33) respectively.

In Fig. 10 (a), the rotor circuit consists of (i) a constant resistance r2 (ii) a variable leakage
reactance sx2 (iii) slip frequency emf sE2 and (iv) rotor current I2 at slip frequency sf1 . This
interpretation is in line with the actual physical facts existing in the rotor circuit of a 3-phase
induction motor.

In Fig. 10 (b), the rotor circuit consists of (i) a constant leakage reactance x2 (ii) a variable
resistance r2/s (iii) line-frequency emf E2 and (iv) rotor current I2 at line frequency. This
interpretation is useful in drawing the complete equivalent circuit of a 3-phase induction motor
which is used for further analysis of and induction motor under different operating conditions.

Fig. 10 (a) Actual rotor circuit (b) equivalent rotor circuit (c) equivalent rotor circuit referred to stator
and (d) exact induction motor equivalent circuit.

Complete Equivalent Circuit

The line-frequency e.m.f. E2 applied to the rotor circuit of Fig. 10(b), differs from the
magnitude E1 or V1’ by the turns ratio, as in a transformer. Therefore, rotor voltage E2 must be
referred to the stator or primary. Thus,

Rotor voltage when referred to stator

𝐸2 ′
= . 𝑁 = 𝐸1 .
𝑁2′ 1

Similarly, rotor leakage impedance and rotor current I2 when referred to stator are
2
𝑟2 𝑁1′ 𝑟2′ 𝑁′
= ( 𝑠 + 𝑗𝑥2 ) (𝑁′ ) = 𝑠
+ 𝑗𝑥2′ and 𝐼2 (𝑁2′ ) = 𝐼2′
2 1
The voltage appearing across terminals ab of Fig. 10(c) is of the line frequency and has the
same magnitude as at terminals ab of Fig. 9. These terminals can, therefore, be connected
together to give the complete equivalent circuit of an induction motor as shown in Fig. 10(d).
Note that in this figure, rotor quantities referred to stator have been primed. A more general
equivalent circuit of an induction motor has been redrawn in Fig. 11(a) where, for simplicity.

(i) Prime rotation used for referred quantities have been dropped and
(ii) The complex notation (bar over I, j with reactance etc.) has been given up.

But one must keep in mind that in Fig. 11(a), all the rotor quantities have been referred to the
stator side. Note that all the quantities in Fig. 11(a) are at stator frequency.

Fig. 11 (a) Equivalent circuit for a polyphase induction motor (b) modified form of induction motor
equivalent circuit

Another form of equivalent circuit is drawn in Fig. 11(b), where the resistance r2/s has been
1−𝑠 𝑟2 1−𝑠
split into r2 and 𝑟2 ( ), i.e. = 𝑟2 + 𝑟2 ( )
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
The equivalent circuit emphasises the similarity between transformer and induction motor
equivalent circuits. For example, at standstill s=1, the circuit of Fig. 11(b) becomes the
equivalent circuit of a short-circuited two-winding transformer. In case s=0 (at synchronous
speed), the circuit becomes the equivalent circuit of an open-circuited transformer.

In Fig. 11(b), r2 is the actual rotor resistance (referred to stator), whereas the variable resistance
r2[(1-s)/s] is the electrical analogue of the variable mechanical load.

Power Equations
Rotor leakage impedance at standstill = √𝑟22 + 𝑥22
at any slip s, rotor leakage impedance = √𝑟22 + 𝑠𝑥22
Per phase generated e.m.f. divided by the per phase rotor leakage impedance gives the per
phase rotor current.
𝐸2
Per phase rotor current at standstill, .
√𝑟2 +𝑥2
2
2
Per phase rotor current at any slip s is given by
𝑠𝐸2 𝐸2
𝐼2 = = … (34)
√𝑟22 + (𝑠𝑥2 )2 √(𝑟2 )2 + 𝑥 2
𝑠 2

Fig. 12 Rotor equivalent circuit of an induction motor

The rotor current I2 lags the rotor voltage E2 by rotor power factor angle θ2 given by
𝑠𝑥2
𝜃2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 .
𝑟2

Rotor equation can be represented by a simple series circuit as shown in Fig. 12. It is seen from
this circuit that per phase power input to rotor,
𝑃𝑔 = 𝐸2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2

𝑟2
𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠
But, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 = =
𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟
√( 𝑠2 )2 +(𝑥2 )2

⸫
𝐸2 𝑟2 𝑟2
𝑃𝑔 = . 𝐼2 = 𝐼22 … (35)
𝑟 𝑠 𝑠
√( 𝑠2 )2 +(𝑥2 )2

𝑟2
An examination of Fig. 3.12 also reveals that per phase power input to rotor is equal to 𝐼22 𝑠
as
the reactance x2 consumes no power.

Pg is the power transferred from stator to rotor across the air gap. In view of this, Pg is called
the air-gap power. The expression for Pg may be written as

2𝑟 2 2 1−𝑠
𝑃𝑔 = 𝐼2 𝑠2 = 𝐼2 𝑟2 + 𝐼2 𝑟2 ( 𝑠 )

=(Rotor ohmic loss)+Internal mechanical power developed in rotor (Pm)

= 𝑠𝑃𝑔 + (1 − 𝑠)𝑃𝑔 (36)
 1−𝑠
⸫ 𝑃𝑚 = (1 − 𝑠)𝑃𝑔 = 𝐼22 𝑟2 ( ) (37)
𝑠
𝑠
Rotor ohmic loss =( ) 𝑃𝑚 = 𝑠𝑃𝑔
1−𝑠
2
Eq. (3.36) reveals that rotor ohmic loss = 𝐼2 𝑟2 = 𝑠𝑃𝑔 = 𝑠(𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟)
Internal (or gross) torque developed per phase is given by
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑇𝑒 =
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑. 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑃𝑚 (1−𝑠)𝑃𝑔 𝑃𝑔
⸫ 𝑇𝑒 = = = (38)
𝜔𝑟 (1−𝑠)𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝑠
4𝜋𝑓1
Here 𝜔𝑠 (= 2𝜋𝑛𝑠 ) = is the synchronous speed in electrical radians per second.
𝑃

Also electromagnetic torque Te is

𝑃𝑔 1 𝐼22 𝑟2 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑒 = = . =
𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝑠 𝑠 (𝜔𝑠 )𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑝

1 2 𝑟2
= 𝐼 (39)
2𝜋𝑛𝑠 2 𝑠

The power available at the shaft can be obtained from Pg as follows:

Output or shaft power, 𝑃𝑠ℎ = 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠(𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠).
𝑃𝑠ℎ = 𝑃𝑔 − 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠.
=Net mechanical power output or net power output (40)
𝑃𝑠ℎ 𝑃𝑠ℎ
Output or shaft torque, 𝑇𝑠ℎ = = (41)
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (1−𝑠)𝜔𝑠

If the stator input is known, then air-gap power Pg is given by

𝑃𝑔 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐼 2 𝑅 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠.

Use of the equivalent circuit

At the time of starting, large currents flow in stator and rotor windings. These heavy inrush
currents cause magnetic saturation and as a result, leakage reactances are less than their values
at full-load operating conditions. The rotor frequency varies from line frequency at the time
of starting to a low value of slip frequency at full-load speed. Therefore, the distribution of
current in the rotor conductors is different at high and low rotor frequencies; consequently the
rotor resistance varies significantly over this speed range. In view of this the equivalent circuit
parameters should be determined at those values of rotor frequency and current, at which the
performance calculations are to be carried out by using the equivalent circuit.

Note that Rc in the induction motor equivalent circuit does not represent the no-load loss, it
represents only the core loss of the induction motor.
Analysis of the Equivalent Circuit

All the important performance characteristics of an induction motor can be determined from
its equivalent circuit. Expressions for the air-gap power Pg, internal mechanical power Pm
developed in rotor have already been obtained.

The use of the exact equivalent circuit of Fig. 11(b) is quite laborious. Some simplifications
can , however, be made in this equivalent circuit. In transformers, an analysis of the equivalent
circuit is carried out either by neglecting the shunt branch consisting of Rc and Xm in parallel,
or by moving the shunt branch across the primary terminals. This simplification is however not
permissible in case of induction motor equivalent circuits. This is due to the fact that the
exciting current in transformers varies 2 to 6% of full-load current and per unit leakage
reactances are small; but in case of induction motors, the exciting current varies from 30 to 60
per cent of full-load current and per unit stator leakage reactances are comparatively higher.
On account of this, large errors are introduced in the determination of power and torque, in
case the shunt branch is neglected, or connected across the stator terminals in a 3-phase
induction motor.

Fig. 13 Induction motor equivalent circuit without core loss

Under normal operating conditions of constant voltage and frequency, core loss in induction
motors is usually constant. In view of this fact, core-loss resistance Rc representing the motor
core loss, can be omitted from the equivalent circuit of Fig. 11(b). But, for determining the
shaft power or shaft torque, the constant core loss must be taken into consideration, along with
the friction, windage and stray load losses. With this simplification, equivalent circuit of Fig.
13 is obtained with negligible loss of accuracy.

The equivalent circuit of Fig. 11(b) is redrawn in Fig. 14 where the various losses in a 3-phase
induction motor are indicated. The shaft power is equal to mechanical power developed in
[r2(1-s)/s] minus the mechanical loss(friction and windage losses). In Fig. 13, Rc is ignored, but
loss represented by Rc, i.e. core loss, must be accounted for along with friction and windage
losses while utilizing this equivalent circuit for computation of machine performance.
 Fig. 14 Power distribution in a 3-phase induction motor

Note that all the quantities used in equivalent circuits are per phase quantities.

Steady-state performance parameters of the induction motor, such as current, speed, torque,
losses etc. can be computed from the equivalent circuit of Fig. 13. In this figure, Zf is the per-
phase impedance offered to the stator by the operating air-gap field. Note that Zf includes the
reflected effect of rotor leakage impedance r2/s+jx2 and the magnetizing reactance Xm. From
Fig. 13,
𝑟
( 𝑠2 + 𝑗𝑥2 )(𝑗𝑋𝑚 )
𝑍𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑗𝑋𝑓 = 𝑟 (42)
2
𝑠 + 𝑗(𝑥 2 + 𝑋𝑚 )

Impedance Z1 as seen by the stator applied voltage V1 is Z1=r1+jx1+Zf

Therefore, stator current, I1=V1/Z1

Total power lost in the parallel combination of r2/s+jx2 and jXm is I22r2/s. Since Zf=Rf+jXf , the
power lost in Zf is I12Rf and it must be equal to I22r2/s.

𝑟2
Therefore, per phase air-gap power, 𝑃𝑔 = 𝐼22 = 𝐼12 𝑅𝑓
𝑠

Once air-gap power is known, shaft output, torque, efficiency etc. can be determined by
referring to the previous article.

TORQUE-SLIP CHARACTERISTICS

When torque-slip or power-slip characteristics are required, application of Thevenin’s theorem

to the induction motor equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.13 reduces the computation labour
considerably.

For applying Thevenin’s theorem to Fig. 13, consider two points a,b as shown. From these two
points view towards the voltage source V1. As per Thevenin’s theorem, the circuit consisting
of r1,x1,Xm and source voltage V1 can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source Ve and
equivalent impedance 𝑍𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒 , as shown in Fig. 15, where

𝑉1 (𝑗𝑋𝑚 )
𝑉𝑒 = (43)
𝑟1 + 𝑗(𝑥1 + 𝑋𝑚 )

(𝑟1 +𝑗𝑥1 )(𝑗𝑋𝑚)

and 𝑧𝑒 = 𝑟1 +𝑗(𝑥1 +𝑋𝑚 )
(44)

Fig. 15 Thevenin’s equivalent circuits of an induction motor

Here 𝑉𝑒 is the voltage appearing across terminals a,b with the rotor circuit disconnected from
these two points. Equivalent stator impedance 𝑧𝑒 is the impedance viewed from terminal a,b
towards the voltage source and with the source voltage short circuited.

For most induction motors, (x1+Xm) is much greater than r1. In view of this, r1 can be neglected
in the denominator of both the Eqs. (43) and (44), without causing any noticeable error.

𝑉𝑋 𝑉1 𝑋𝑚
Thus, 𝑉𝑒 = 𝑥 1+𝑋𝑚 = 𝑋1
(45)
1 𝑚

and 𝑍𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒 = 𝑥𝑟1+𝑋

𝑋𝑚
+ 𝑥𝑗𝑥+𝑋
1 𝑋𝑚
= 𝑟1𝑋𝑋𝑚 + 𝑗 𝑥1𝑋𝑋𝑚 (46)
1 𝑚 1 𝑚 1 1

Here X1=x1+Xm, is the self -reactance per phase.

From the equivalent circuit of Fig. 15(a), rotor current is given by

𝑉𝑒
𝐼2 = 𝑟 (47 𝑎)
(𝑅𝑒 + 𝑠2 ) + 𝑗(𝑥2 + 𝑋𝑒 )

and from Eq. (39), the total torque is

1 2 𝑟2 𝑚 𝑉𝑒 2 𝑟2
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑚 𝐼 = . . 𝑁𝑚 … (47 𝑏)
2𝜋𝑛𝑠 2 𝑠 𝜔𝑠 𝑟 2 𝑠
(𝑅𝑒 + 𝑠2 ) + (𝑥2 + 𝑋𝑒 )2

Hence m is the number of stator phases.

For convenience, Eq. (47 b) is re-written as,

 𝐾𝑡 𝑟2
𝑇𝑒 = . 𝑁𝑚 (48)
𝑟 2 𝑠
(𝑅𝑒 + 2 ) + 𝑋 2
𝑠

𝑚𝑉𝑒2 𝑚𝑉𝑒2
Where 𝐾𝑡 = = and 𝑋 = 𝑥2 + 𝑋𝑒
𝜔𝑠 2𝜋𝑛𝑠

The variation of torque with slip, or speed, of an induction motor can be plotted from Eq. (47)
for difference values of slip s and with the motor connected to the constant-frequency voltage
source. A general shape of the torque speed or torque slip curve is shown in Fig. 3.16.
Depending upon the values of slip an induction motor can have the following operating region
ort modes:

(a) Motoring Mode: 0<s≤1.

Under normal operation, the rotor revolves in the direction of the rotating field produced
by the stator currents. As such, the slip varies from 1 at standstill to zero at synchronous
speed, i.e. 1≥s≥0. The corresponding speed values are zero(s=1.0) and
synchronous speed(s=0.0).

Fig. 16 Torque-slip curve for an induction machine showing its braking, motoring and
generating region

(b) Generating Mode: s<0.

For this operating mode, slip is negative, i.e. s<0. An induction motor will operate in this
region only when its terminals are connected to a constant-frequency voltage source and its
rotor is driven above synchronous speed by a prime mover. The connection of stator
terminals to the voltage source is essential in order to establish the rotating air-gap field at
synchronous speed. In case the stator is disconnected from the voltage source and the rotor
is driven above synchronous speed by the prime mover, no generating action would take
place.
(c) Braking mode: s>1.

For this mode, slip is greater than 1. A slip more than one can be obtained by driving the
rotor, with a prime mover, opposite to the direction of the rotating field. But such a use in
practice is rare. A practical utility of slip more than 1 is obtained by bringing the rotor to a
quick stop by braking action, called plugging. For obtaining s>1, or for obtaining plugging
any two stator leads are interchanged. With this the phase sequence is reversed and,
therefore, the direction of the rotating magnetic field becomes suddenly opposite to that of
the rotor rotation. The electro-magnetic torque Te, now acting opposite to rotor rotation,
produces the braking action. Thus the motor can be quickly brought to rest by plugging,
but the stator must be disconnected from the supply before the rotor can start in the other
direction.

All the three region of operation (braking region, s=2.0 to s=1.0; motor region, s=1.0 to s=0
and generator region, s=0 to s=-1) are illustrated in Fig. 3.16.

Maximum Internal Torque

This is also referred to as stalling torque, pull-out torque or breakdown torque Tem. The
condition for maximum internal torque can be obtained by using maximum power transfer
theorem of circuit theory. As per Eq. (3.48), torque is maximum when I22r2/s is maximum,
i.e. when power delivered to r2/s is maximum. Applying this theorem to Fig. 15(a), power
absorbed by r2/s will be maximum when impedance r2/s becomes equal to the magnitude
of impedance seen by r2/s towards the voltage source Ve, i.e when

𝑟2
= √𝑅𝑒2 + (𝑋𝑒 + 𝑥2 ) = √𝑅𝑒2 + 𝑋 2 (49)
𝑠𝑚 𝑇

Where X=x2+Xe

Thus the slip smT at which maximum torque occurs is given by

𝑟2
𝑠𝑚𝑇 = (50)
√𝑅𝑒2 + 𝑋 2

Substituting of r2/smT in place of r2/s in Eq. (48) gives maximum torque Tem as

𝐾𝑡 [√𝑅𝑒2 + 𝑋 2 ]
𝑇𝑒𝑚 =
[𝑅𝑒 + √𝑅𝑒2 + 𝑋 2 ]2 + 𝑋 2

𝐾𝑡 [√𝑅𝑒2 + 𝑋 2 ]
=
[𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋 2 + 2𝑅𝑒 √𝑅𝑒2 + 𝑋 2 ] + 𝑋 2
 𝐾𝑡 [√𝑅𝑒2 + 𝑋 2 ]
=
2√𝑅𝑒2 + 𝑋 2 [𝑅𝑒 + √𝑅𝑒2 + 𝑋 2 ]

𝐾𝑡
⸫ 𝑇𝑒𝑚 = …(51)
2[𝑅𝑒 +√𝑅𝑒2 +𝑋 2 ]

Eq. (50) shows that the slip at which maximum torque occurs is directly proportional to the
stator resistance r2, but Eq. (51) indicates that maximum torque Tem is independent of r2.
This means that if r2 is increased by inserting external resistance in the rotor circuit of a
wound-rotor induction motor, the magnitude of maximum internal torque is unaffected but
the slip at which it occurs is affected proportionally.

Now Kt (∞ Ve2) is proportional to the square of stator voltage V1, Re is proportional to

stator resistance r1 and X is proportional to x1 and x2. In view of these facts, an examination
of Eq. (51) shows that

i) Tem is directly proportional to the square of the stator voltage

ii) Tem is reduced by an increase in stator resistance r1 (i.e. Re) and
iii) Tem is reduced by an increase in stator leakage reactance x1 and rotor leakage
reactance x2.

For obtaining a higher value of maximum torque, the air-gap is kept as small as possible.
A small air gap allows more flux to be mutual between stator and rotor winding. As a
consequence, leakage fluxes and therefore leakage reactances are reduced and the
magnitude of maximum torque becomes more.

Typical torque-slip curves for an induction motor with variable rotor-circuit resistances are
shown in Fig. 17 (a). For the load torque curve TL as shown, the speed is n1 for a rotor-
circuit resistance r2, speed is reduced to n2 for r2’>r2 etc. For rotor circuit resistance r2’’, Fig.
17(a) reveals that it is not possible to obtain maximum torque during motoring mode of the
three-phase induction machine. Thus value rotor resistance can, however, give maximum
torque only during braking mode of the induction machine. From the torque-slip curves of
Fig. 17(a), it can be concluded for a wound-rotor induction motor that
i) The speed of the motor can be controlled by varying the rotor-circuit resistance
but maximum torque remains unaffected.
ii) The starting torque can be varied by changing the rotor-circuit resistance.
iii) The current taken by the motor shall also vary with rotor-circuit resistance, Fig.
3.17(b) shows the effect of rotor-circuit resistance on the stator input current as
a function of slip and
iv) The power factor at starting is also affected by rotor-circuit resistance.
 Fig. 17(a) induction motor torque-slip curves Fig. 17(b) Effect of rotor resistance on stator current
with different values of rotor circuit resistances verus slip characteristics of 3-phase induction motor

In order to get better performance of the induction motor, starting torque is increased by
inserting suitable external resistance in the rotor circuit at starting. As the motor accelerates,
external resistance is cut out in steps so as to maintain maximum torque during the accelerating
period. Finally, external resistance is reduced to zero and the rotor attains normal speed.

Starting Torque
At starting, slip s=1.00. From Eq. (3.48), starting torque Te.st is given by
𝐾𝑡
𝑇𝑒.𝑠𝑡 = .𝑟 … (52)
(𝑅𝑒 + 𝑟2 )2 + 𝑋 2 2

Starting torque Test can be controlled by varying rotor circuit resistance as illustrated in Fig. 17.
In order to get maximum starting torque, the rotor-circuit resistance must be increased to
√(𝑅𝑒2 + 𝑋 2 ) , refer to Eq. (50) where smT=1.00. This new value of rotor-circuit resistance can
be obtained by inserting external resistance equal to (√(𝑅𝑒2 + 𝑋 2 ) − 𝑟2 ) in the rotor circuit at
the time of starting.

Determination of Equivalent Circuit Parameters

The parameter of the equivalent circuit and the different losses of a polyphase induction motor
can be determined from a no-load and a blocked rotor test as in the case of the transformer.
These are discussed below in detail.

(a) No-load test (or running light test).

The no-load test is a very informative test as it gives the core losses, friction and windage
losses, magnetizing current, no-load power factor and parameters of the magnetizing
branch of the equivalent circuit. Moreover, it also reveals any mechanical fault, noises etc.

For this test the stator terminals of the induction motor are connected to a variable voltage
rated frequency supply and the input voltage, input power and input current are measured.
Note that in all the subsequent discussion per phase values of all quantities will be
considered. Let the input voltage be V1 and the corresponding input current and input power
be I0 and P0 respectively. This input power P0 is equal to stator losses at no-load. These are
the copper losses in the stator winding I02r1, the core losses due to the main flux Pc, and the
friction and windage losses Pfw, i.e.,
𝑃0 = 𝐼02 𝑟1 + 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑓𝑤 (53)

𝑃0
The power factor at no-load, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 = (54)
𝑉1 𝐼0
Normally, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 is small, about 0.05 to 0.15.

Only a very small rotor current is required to account for Pf and the rotor circuit can
therefore be considered to be open. This is also evident from the magnitude of rotor
𝑟2′
resistance . This resistance becomes very high because the slip at no-load is negligibly
𝑠
small and hence, the rotor circuit is practically open at no-load. Thus the equivalent circuit
of the motor at no-load will be shown in Fig. 18.

Fig. 18. Equivalent circuit of the polyphase induction motor at no-load

Knowledge of Pc is necessary in order to determine efficiency, for the latter is dependent

on this loss, and also to determine RC. The friction and windage losses Pfw can be determined
by carrying out the no-load test by varying the input voltage over a wide range upto 20%
above the rated voltage, giving curves as shown in Fig. 19.

Fig. 19 Prediction of friction and windage losses

If it were possible to make an induction motor run at zero voltage, its input power would
represent practically friction and windage losses. Thus, by extending the curve of input
voltage vs. no-load loss to the zero voltage axis, this condition can be predicted. Hence, the
intercept OA as shown in Fig. 19 represents friction and windage losses.
 The d.c. stator resistance r1 at room temperature is measured by circuiting a suitable direct
current and measuring the voltage drop between the stator terminals. The value of hot
resistance r1 at 750C is then calculated from the measured value of r1 at room temperature.
Having determined r1 and Pf, the core losses PC can be determined from Eq. (3.55). That
is,
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃0 − 𝑃𝑓 − 𝐼02 𝑟1 (55)

Now 𝐸1 = 𝑉1 − 𝐼0 𝑍1 = 𝑉1 − 𝐼0 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 )(𝑟1 + 𝑗𝑥1 ) (56)

However, the phase difference between V1 and E1 is negligible at no-load as the power
factor is low. Hence
𝐸1 = 𝑉1 − 𝐼0 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 − 𝐼0 𝑥1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 (57)

On the same assumption, 𝐼∅ = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 (58)

𝐸1
So 𝑋0 = … (59)
𝐼∅

𝑃
and 𝑅0 = 𝐸𝑐2 … (60)
1

If this friction and windage loss is not determined by aforesaid test, Ih+e and R0 will include
the effect of Pf in addition to the core loss Pc. No load power minus stator copper loss, i.e.,
stray power loss or fixed losses will be lost in R0. In place of Eqns.(3.58) and (3.59), R0 and
X0 are computed in the following manner.
𝑃0 − 𝐼02 𝑟1
𝐼ℎ+𝑒 = … (61)
𝐸1

𝐼∅ = √𝐼02 − 𝐼ℎ+𝑒
2
… (62)

𝐸1
Hence, 𝑅0 = 𝐼 … (63)
ℎ+𝑒

𝐸1
𝑋0 = … (64)
𝐼∅

Thus the no-load test yields the main flux parameter R0 and X0 of the equivalent circuit provided
that the primary leakage reactance x1 in Eq. (57) is known. This reactance and the secondary
parameters r2’ and x2’ are obtained with the help of a blocked rotor test.

(b) Blocked-Rotor test

This test is analogous to the short circuit test of a transformer and hence, is often called the
short circuit test of an induction motor. For this test the rotor is held stationary and short-
circuited as under its normal running condition. The stator is supplied with low voltage of
variable magnitude to avoid excessively high current and the input voltage, current and power
are measured. The test, therefore, does not reveal any mechanical defect but is of importance
because the short circuit and power factor along with the no-load current and power factor
enables the circle diagram to be drawn. In addition the copper losses measured by this test are
necessary for the estimation of efficiency.

Fig. 20 Curves obtained from the blocked rotor test data

The relationship between applied voltage and current under blocked-rotor conditions is
approximately linear and by taking a series of reading by increasing voltage in steps a curve
can be plotted as shown in Fig. 20 and the short circuit current at rated voltage can be predicted
from this curve. To avoid overheating the reading are taken quickly. For greater accuracy, the
temperature of the stator winding should also be noted during this test so that appropriate
corrections can be made to the recommended temperature of 750C.

Fig.21 Equivalent circuits for blocked rotor tests

The power input for this test can be considered to be entirely copper losses because of the
following reasons. Under blocked-rotor condition, the pulsation losses naturally vanish and
mechanical losses are also absent. The main flux is considerably reduced under short circuit at
the low short circuit test voltage and hence, the core losses due to it is very small and can be
neglected for practical purposes. Therefore, the resistance R0 of the equivalent circuit which
represents core losses can also be omitted and equivalent circuit under blocked-rotor condition
will be as shown in Fig. 21(a).

Actually, |𝑗𝑋0 | > |𝑟2′ + 𝑗𝑥2′| and hence, the magnetising branch of the equivalent circuit can be
considered to be open circuited and the approximate equivalent circuit under blocked rotor test
condition will be as shown in Fig. 21(b).

Let the short circuit current, which is equal to the rated current be Isc, and the corresponding
input voltage and input power be Vsc and Psc respectively. Note that for all the analysis in this
section per phase values of all the quantities are considered.

Now the short circuit impedance Zsc is given by,

𝑉𝑠𝑐
𝑍𝑠𝑐 = (65)
𝐼𝑠𝑐

Let 𝑍𝑠𝑐 = 𝑅𝑠𝑐 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠𝑐 (66)

𝑃𝑠𝑐 2 − 𝑅2
Then 𝑅𝑠𝑐 = and 𝑋𝑠𝑐 = √𝑍𝑠𝑐 𝑠𝑐 (67)
(𝐼𝑠𝑐 2)

From the equivalent circuit shown in Fg. 21(b),

𝑍𝑠𝑐 = 𝑅𝑠𝑐 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠𝑐 = (𝑟1 + 𝑟2′ ) + 𝑗(𝑥1 + 𝑥2′) (68)

Equating real and imaginary parts,

𝑅𝑠𝑐 = (𝑟1 + 𝑟2′ ) and 𝑋𝑠𝑐 = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2′) (69)

With the knowledge of r1, the determination of which has been described under no-load test,
r2’ can be calculated from, Eq. (17.82). However, there is no practical method of separating x1
𝑋𝑠𝑐
and x2’. For wound rotor motor, x1 and x2’ are assumed to be equal to 2
. For squirrel cage
motors, Xsc is suitably distributed between the stator and the rotor depending upon the motor
characteristics.

LOSSES AND EFICIENCY

For small motors efficiency can be calculated directly with the help of a direct load test.
However, it is not convenient to perform a load test on a large motor and the efficiency of such
motors can be calculated by the method of loss summation. The losses which are taken into
account are (i) fixed losses (ii) copper losses and (iii) stray losses.

Fixed losses
These losses mainly consist of (a) core loss, (b) bearing friction loss, (c) brush friction
loss for wound rotor motors only and (d) windage loss. In most of the cases these losses are
assumed to be constant regardless of the load. However, friction loss varies slightly with the
load and also with the speed. But since the speed varies slightly over the working range, these
losses can be assumed to be constant without involving noticeable error.

Since the frequency of the rotor flux is small at motor speeds over the working range,
practically all the core losses can be assumed to occur in the stator except the rotor teeth losses.
The core losses occur due to both the main and leakage fluxes. The magnitude and distribution
of each of these losses vary with the load. With the increase of the load, the main flux decreases
and the leakage flux increases. The core loss due to the main flux is less and that due to the
leakage fluxes is higher at higher loads. Because of this partial neutralisation, it is reasonably
accurate for practical purposes to regard the core losses as constant at all loads and speeds
within the working range of the motor under constant conditions. These fixed losses can be
obtained directly from the no-load test. Fixed or constant losses are also called stray power
loss.

Copper Losses
The losses consist of (a) stator copper loss, (b) rotor copper loss and (c) brush contact
loss for the wound rotor motors only. The stator and rotor copper losses can be calculated from
the values of stator and rotor winding resistances measured directly by direct current. However,
the d.c. resistance should be corrected for its a.c. value to take into account the skin effect as
described in Sec. 10.4. Total copper losses can be obtained directly from the blocked-rotor test.
The rotor copper loss of the squirrel cage motor cannot be measured directly. It can be obtained
from the total copper loss as determined by the blocked-rotor test by subtracting from it the
calculated stator copper loss. The brush contact loss for wound rotor motors for all brushes
together is generally taken as the slip-ring current x 1 volt.

Stray Load Losses

Some stray load losses occur in the core and also in the conductors. However, these
losses cannot be determined exactly and are, therefore, covered by deducting 0.5% from the
efficiency as calculated on full-load and proportion for other loads.

Efficiency
The efficiency of an induction motor is given by
𝑃𝑚
𝜂= × 100
𝑃𝑚 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 + 𝑃𝑐𝑢

Where Pm=mechanical power output

Pconst=fixed losses
=Pc+Pf
Pc=core losses
Pf=friction and windage losses
Pcu=copper losses
= 𝐼12 𝑟1 + 𝐼22′ + 𝐵𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦)