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WHAT is RESEARCH? in the nature ( its assumptions, definition and procedural
Research is exploration combined with learning.  It is a rules are all subject to re-examination).
"detailed study of a subject in order to discover information 3. Logical
or achieve a new understanding of it." It makes use of the rules of logic in reasoning and drawing
Research is a process of searching, discovering, and conclusions and inferences. The structure of scientific
investigating information, as well as collecting, argument follows the rules of logic.
interpreting, and evaluating the information you find. 4. Operational
One must know how to apply the tools and techniques for It follows operational procedure.
finding, evaluating, and using information effectively— a The process of establishing the connection and
set of skills known as information literacy. correspondence between logical and abstract thinking with
Research contributes to an expansion of knowledge that which is empirical or directly observable.
through inquiry, investigation or experimentation aimed at 5. Public
the discovery of facts, theories, or laws. must be communicated from the researcher/ author to
Survivor Tip: To be a successful researcher, you will need another.
to develop knowledge and skills in information literacy and Thus, it allows other researchers to replicate by research
research and build upon those skills year after year. study.
6. Objective
Therefore:
RESEARCH is a SYSTEMATIC and ORGANIZED way to FIND Scientific inquiry is marked by impartiality and
ANSWERS to QUESTIONS. disinterestedness.
SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of Data gathered are always based on empirical observations.
procedures and steps which you will follow. There are 7. Self-correcting and Cumulative
certain things in the research process that are always done It offers a system of revalidating available findings under
in order to get the most accurate results. various times and circumstances, and therefore of
ORGANIZED in that there is a structure or method in correcting and improving on existing knowledge.
going about doing research. It uses scientific rules thereby assuring cumulative build-
 It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is up of scientific knowledge.
focused and limited to a specific scope.
FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all research. What are the Steps in the Research Process?
 Whether it is the answer to a hypothesis or even a Selecting a research topic:
simple question. What are some of the resources you can use to help you
 Research is successful when we find answers. select a topic?
QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no  Your classmates and friends
question, then the answer is of no use.  Your professor
 Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important  A reference librarian
questions. Without a question, research has no focus,  Specialized encyclopedias, dictionaries, &
drive, or purpose. handbooks
 Current topics in the classroom discussion
WHY do RESEARCH?  Subject research guides/ agenda
1. Educational benefits include:
Working closely with a faculty mentor Exercise 1: Individual Presentation of Working Research Title/
Learning about issues, and methods in students' chosen Topic
fields
Applying concepts learned in coursework to "real life" Chapter 1
situations THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
Sharpening problem-solving skills The problem and its setting normally contains a reason,
Learn to read primary literature justification and/or the background with respect to the
2. Professional benefits include: problem, the importance of which should be established.
Exploring and preparing for future careers If controversial findings have evolved from related studies
Developing marketable skills completed in the past then you have a valid reason for
Enhancing professional communication skills pursuing your investigation since it should enable you to
Collaborating with others and working effectively as part present additional information, which may clarify the
of a team controversy.
3. Personal benefits include: In other words, it is also appropriate in this part to provide
Growing as a critical, analytical, and independent thinker a very brief critical review of previous investigations
Meeting challenges and demonstrating the ability to relevant to your problem as well as presenting relevant
complete a project experiences in the workplace that has something to do
Discovering personal interests with the conception of the present problem to investigate
which serves as the anchor point of the study.
Developing internal standards of excellence 1. Introduction
Nature of Research It provides readers with the background information for
1. Empirical the research.
It rests on data. Normally a short one that varies from one to four pages in
length.
It is concerned with a knowable real world.
It provides answer to the questions: "What are you doing;
It is assessed on the basis of evidence. and why are you doing it?
It often involves testing and retesting in an effort to
discover the validity and the limits of propositions or the
conditions under which they may or may not hold. Exercise 2: Writing of “Introduction”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
2. Propositional
It deals with statements which share a truth-value about 2. Research Locale
things, but these propositions may be rejected or modified
This part describes the locale of the study with figure 1 as
the location map.
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The researcher must consider only the relevant provide the reader foundation in analyzing the conclusions
characteristics of the place/ locale that have something to that result from the assumptions.
do with the research. Hypotheses . The researchers commonly use null
hypothesis because it is a denial of difference of an effect,
Exercise 3: Writing of “Research Locale” which is easy to reject or accept. Bear in mind that
Presentation & Critiquing hypotheses are based on the statement of the problem.
Re-writing Hypotheses are relevant to theoretical research and are
generally used in quantitative inquiry.
3. Framework of the Study Hypotheses must be grounded in the theoretical
Framework of the study gives vivid explanations regarding framework.
the relationship of the variables. A hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the
The conceptual framework of the investigation presents the relations between two or more variables.
researcher’s own way of understanding and concepts based
upon the previous readings and experiences. A. Null Hypothesis: A "no difference" form in terms of theoretical
The theoretical framework uses abstract concepts, facts or constructs and a "no difference" form in terms of the operation
laws, variables and relations that explain and predict how required to test the hypothesis.
observed phenomena exist and operate in the investigation. Examples:
The paradigm showing the interactions of the different 1. There is no significant relationship between study habits and
variables used in the study is presented as figure 2. academic performance of college students.
4. Different Variables 2. There is no significant difference in school academic achievement
A variable is a measurable characteristic that varies. female and male college students.
It may change from group to group, person to person, or
even within one person over time B. Alternative Hypothesis : A form that states the hypothesis you
a. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES are those that the researcher will accept if the null hypothesis is rejected, stated in terms of
has control over. theoretical constructs.
This "control" may involve manipulating existing Examples :
variables or introducing new variables (a new treatment) 1. There is a significant relationship between study habits and
in the research setting. academic performance of college students.
2. There is a significant difference in school academic achievement
The researcher expects that the independent variable(s)
female and male college students.
will have some effects on the dependent variables.
b. DEPENDENT VARIABLES show the effect of
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
manipulating or introducing the independent
variables. For each of the following, indicate the correct variable type
by IV for Independent Variable or DV for Dependent
The variation in the dependent variable depends on the
Variable:
variation in the independent variable.
Example: If crime increases as a result of the full moon, then crime
c. INTERVENING VARIABLES refer any factors that could
is what type of variable?
affect the relationship between
Answer: Dependent Variable (DV)
the independent and dependent variables.
d. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES are those factors in the If juries are more likely to impose the death penalty on
research environment which may have an effect on the blacks who commit crime against white people, then being
dependent variable(s) but which are not or cannot be controlled. black is what type of variable?
They may damage a study's validity, making it If involvement in crime is inversely related to age, then age
impossible to know whether the effects were caused by is what kind of variable?
the independent and moderator variables or some If citizen attitudes toward police improve by 20% for every
extraneous factor. 5% decrease in crime, then citizen attitudes toward police
e. MODERATOR or CONTROL VARIABLES are what type of variable?
(COVARIATES) also affect the relationship If there is a strong association between alcohol abuse and
between the independent and dependent variables. spouse abuse, then spouse abuse is what kind of variable?
Moderator variables are measured and taken into If risk of victimization is a function of lifestyle and
consideration. absence of guardians, then lifestyle is what type of
variable?
Exercise 4: Writing of “Theoretical or Conceptual Framework” If microsocial strain, mediated by locus of control and lack
Presentation & Critiquing of social support, creates conditions conducive to
Re-writing committing crime, then locus of control would be what
type of variable?
5. Statement of the Problem If the corporate ethics climate and white collar crime are
It provides specific and accurate synopsis of the overall associated, then ethics climate is what type of variable?
purpose of the study. If the number of handguns sold illegally is linked to the
It defines and delimits the specific area of the research. number of homicides committed annually, then number of
Must be stated vividly and explicitly expressed in homicides is what type of variable?
question form which possess the characteristics of For two groups of inmates, one which is exposed to an
SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, educational program, and the other which is not, it is
and Time-bound). shown there are significant differences in rehabilitative
The number of the specific problems depends on the outcomes, then educational program is what type of
researcher but make sure that these should jibe with the variable?
research problem/ title.
Exercise 6: Writing of “Hypothesis”
Exercise 5: Writing of “Statement of the Problem” Presentation & Critiquing
Presentation & Critiquing Re-writing
Re-writing
7. Scope and (De)Limitation
6. Assumptions/ Hypotheses This includes the coverage of the study area, the subjects,
Assumptions are presumed as true statement of facts the research instrument, the research issues and concerns,
related to the research problem. They are clearly stated to the duration of the study, and the constrains that have
direct bearing on the result of the studies.
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A scope addresses how a study will be narrowed, and how Point out the similarities and differences of the reviewed
it is bounded. studies to the present study in terms of the framework of
This is the place to explain the things that you are not the study, methodology, statistical analysis, etc…
doing and why you have chosen not to do them.
The scope usually includes the general problem to be Exercise 11: Writing of “Review of Related Literature and Studies”
investigated including the time frame or work. Presentation & Critiquing
A limitation identifies potential weaknesses of the study. Re-writing
Consider the nature of self-report, instruments used, and
the sample or the respondents involved in the study as well Chapter 3
as some threats to internal validity that maybe impossible RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
to avoid or minimize. This chapter explains how the study will be conducted.
The methods employed should be described in an orderly
Exercise 7: Writing of “Scope and Delimitation” manner, although related methods can be described
Presentation & Critiquing together.
Re-writing The research methodology includes the research method/
design, respondents, instrument, and validation of
8. Significance of the Study instrument, data gathering procedure and treatment of
The researcher must convince the reader that the study has data.
significant contributions in 1. Research Method/ Design
relation to: choose the appropriate method or design you are going to
solving educational problem; use.
business operation; explain why you use such method/ design in detail.
improving social, economic, and health conditions; provide justification for its utility.
enriching research instrument and methods; and A. BASIC RESEARCH is concerned with knowledge for the
government thrusts. sake of theory. Its design is not controlled by the practical
usefulness of the findings.
APPLIED RESEARCH is concerned with showing how
Exercise 8: Writing of “Significance of Study”
the findings can be applied or summarized into some type
Presentation & Critiquing
of teaching methodology.
Re-writing
B. PRACTICAL/ACTION RESEARCH goes one step
further and applies the findings of research to a specific
9. Definition of Terms "practical" situation.
In conceptual definition, the meaning of the term is usually Types of Research Methods
taken from the dictionary/ book/ etc... 1. Action Research
Operational definition, the definition is based on an used to develop new skills or new approaches.
observed characteristics and how it is used in the study. to solve problems with direct application to the classroom
The terms must be arranged in an alphabetical order. or working world setting.
Exercise 9: Writing of “Definition of Terms” It is practical and directly relevant to an actual situation in
Presentation & Critiquing the working world.
Re-writing Examples: An in-service training program to help train
teachers to teach more effectively
Chapter 2 with various groups of students.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES To develop an exploratory program in drug addiction
A survey of important articles, books and other sources prevention in the Community Service Center of Columban
pertaining to your research topic. College
Write a summary of the main studies and research related An action research on the difficulties of college students in
to your topic. coping with Science and Mathematics related subjects.
It will give readers the necessary background to understand 2. Case and Field Study
your research. can be applied by studying intensively the background,
The review is divided into three parts, namely: current status, and environmental interactions of a given
a. Related Literature (Foreign & Local) social unit: an individual, group, institution, or community.
b. Related Studies (Foreign & Local) includes the In-depth investigations of a given entity and
c. Relationship of the Previous Studies to the Present Study examines a small number of units across a large number of
A. Related Literature: variables and conditions.
will help you gain an understanding of the current state of Examples:
knowledge pertaining to your research idea. a. Piaget's studies of cognitive growth among
will inform you if the research problem or topic has elementary school children in Columban College
already been explored (and if a revision or replication is Elementary Department.
needed), how to design your study, what data collection b. An intensive field study of sociocultural life in a
methods to use. remote resettlement area in Zambales and Olongapo
help make sense of the findings of your study once data City.
analysis is complete. c. Intensive study of birth control method practiced by
B. Related Studies: parents in Balik Balik, Sta. Rita in Olongapo City.
Taken from published and unpublished theses/ 3.Causal-Comparative
dissertations or published research journals. used to investigate possible cause-andeffect relationships
Include sufficient information that your reader can by observing some existing consequence and searching
evaluate the study and the validity of the findings and back through the data for plausible causal factors.
conclusions. is "ex post facto" in nature, which means the data are
Include trends/themes in the studies as well as gaps or collected after all the events of interest have occurred.
controversy. The investigator then takes one or more effects (dependent
Report details sparingly and concentrate on synthesizing variables) and examines the data by going back through
and critiquing the study. time, seeking out causes, relationships, and their meanings.
C. Relationship of the Previous Studies to the present Study Examples:
a. To identify factors characterizing college students having
either excellent or below average grades in the major and
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minor subjects, using the scholastic records and It involves applied settings where it is not possible to
demographic profiles. control all the relevant variables but only some of them.
b. To determine the attributes of effective instructors as Is weak, particularly where human subjects are involved.
measured by their performance evaluations and other data Examples:
in their personal files as well as other school-related a. Effectiveness of three approaches to teaching
factors. Principles of Management to business students of
4. Correlational Columban College, Olongapo City.
Used to investigate the relationship of variable X and Y. b. Effects of social problems of delinquency, smoking,
Permits the measurement of several variables and their and drug addiction on the academic performance of
interrelationships simultaneously and in a realistic setting. students.
Determine the degree of relationship. c. The teaching of Business-related subject grounded on
Examples: Multiple Intelligences Theory.
a. A study investigating the relationship between 9. True Experimental Research
students learning style and their academic Can be utilized to investigate possible cause and-effect
performances. relationships by exposing one or more experimental
b. A study to predict success in graduate school based on groups to one or more treatment conditions and comparing
intercorrelation patterns of various variables in the the results to one or more control groups not receiving the
undergraduate school. treatment.
5. Descriptive Requires rigorous management of experimental variables
to describe systematically the facts and characteristics of a and conditions either by direct control/manipulation or
given population or area of interest, factually and through randomization.
accurately. Uses a control group.
to collect detailed factual information that describes Examples:
existing phenomena. a. Effects of two methods of teaching College Physics
to identify problems or justify current conditions and based on class sizes and levels of student intelligence,
practices. using random assignment of teachers.
to make comparisons and evaluations. b. Effects of Organic Matters on the Growth of
to determine what others are doing with similar problems Eggplant.
or situations and benefit from their experience in making c. Effects of the length of time of exposure to sunlight
future plans and decisions. and time of the day on the production of skin cancer
Examples: among students.
a. A school survey to determine or assess the
environmental performance of elementary schools in Exercise 12: Writing of “Research Methods/ Design”
the Division of Olongapo City. Presentation & Critiquing
b. A study of the leadership and management style of Re-writing
business managers in some fast food chain in
Olongapo City. 2.Population/Respondents/ Sample
c. Professors’ competencies in teaching business-related Explain how and where the population/ respondents are
courses in Columban College Inc. taken.
6. Developmental It can be either the entire population if N is small or
to investigate patterns and sequences of growth and/or sample/ respondents if population is large.
change as a function of time. in detail present the descriptive information obtained
Studies some entity's development over time. from your sample and additional relevant variables.
Examples: Subjects
a. Developmental studies directly measuring the Are the sources of your data.
characteristics and rate of improvement in the oral and Most applied and social science research uses people as
written communication skills among college students subjects.
based on the number of English subjects per course in Their characteristics, development, opinions, attitudes,
Columban College, Inc. knowledge, performance, etc. are used to answer your
b. Trend studies designed to establish patterns of change research question.
in the number of enrollees in the last five years in Population
order to predict future needs of faculty members in is the group from which your subjects are drawn.
Columban College. you need to identify their key characteristics carefully in
7. Historical order to produce a corresponding but theoretical
To reconstruct the past systematically and objectively by population to which you can generalize your findings.
collecting, evaluating, verifying, and synthesizing Sampling techniques
evidence to establish facts and reach defensible is a method by which the researcher can derive a sample
conclusions, often in relation to particular hypotheses. from a population.
is rigorous, systematic, and exhaustive A. Probability and Non-Probability Sampling
The data can be obtained from primary sources and  A probability sample is one in which each member of the
secondary sources. population has an equal chance of being selected.
Examples:  In a non-probability sample, some people have a greater,
a. A study of the old practices of elementary school but unknown chance than others of selection
teachers in Olongapo City and Zambales and its 1. Probability Samples
relevance to the modern teaching. The choice of these depends on nature of research
b. Contributions of Municipal Mayors in San Marcelino, problem, the availability of a good sampling frame,
Zambales from the 1970’s to present. money, time, desired level of accuracy in the sample and
c. Success and failure of X-FASTFUD store from the data collection methods.  Simple random  Systematic
American occupation to the present.  Random route  Stratified  Multi-stage cluster
8. Quasi-Experimental sampling
Does not allow the control and/or manipulation of all B. Simple Random Sampling:
relevant variables. Each member of the population has the same chance of
The researcher must clearly understand what compromises selection
exist in the internal and external validity of the design and
proceed within these limitations.
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The relative chance of selection of any two members of Self-selection is perhaps self-explanatory. Respondents
the population is not affected by knowledge of whether a themselves decide that they would like to take part in your
third member has or has not been selected. survey.
In practice, this essentially means drawing names out of a Do You Know How?
hat or some other random method. Can you think of some different "strata" (other than marital
C. Systematic Sampling: status) that could be used if you were undertaking a
This simply involves: asking every third person who stratified sample of the adult population of a certain city?
happens to come along, or calling at every fifth house, etc. Give example and Discuss.
D. Random Route Sampling: Do You Know How?
The researcher plans a route and questions individuals How might you go about undertaking a purposive sample
who happen to come along. of people aged 60 and over who live in the isolated area of
Used in market research surveys - mainly for sampling Zambales to be sure of being able to speak to both genders,
households, shops, garages and other premises in urban the very old as well as the newly retired and including a
areas. range of socio-economic groupings?
E. Stratified Sampling : Do You Know How?
All people in sampling frame are divided into "strata" Company ZANDREX employs 150 part-time staff and 550
(groups or categories). full-time staff, and you want to carry out depth interviews
Example of stratified sampling is if we want to ensure that with 20 of these. If you were to take a random sample, you
a sample of 5 students from a group of 50 contains both might find that all of the names you selected were part-
male and female students in same proportions as in the time staff. For this reason you have decided to undertake a
full population. In this case, there are 22 male students stratified sample. Work out how many part-time and how
and 28 females. many full-time employees you should interview so as to
To work out the number of males and females in the accurately reflect the proportions of the two groups in the
sample, we have:  No. of males in sample = (5 / 50) x 22 whole workforce.
= 2.2 or 2  No. of females in sample = (5 / 50) x 28 = 2.8
or 3 Exercise 13: Writing of “Population/ Respondents? Samples”
F. Multi-stage cluster sampling: Presentation & Critiquing
This involves drawing several different samples. It does so Re-writing
in such a way that cost of final interviewing is minimized.
Basic procedure: First draw sample of areas. Initially large
areas selected then progressively smaller areas within 3..Instrument
larger area are sampled. Eventually end up with sample of The research instrument either questionnaire, test,
households and use method of selecting individuals from interview, observation schedule or rating scale must be
these selected households. described on how it is being designed and used by the
2. Non-Probability Samples: researcher.  Each part of the instrument must be clearly
Cheaper stated and discussed.
Used when sampling frame is not available If instruments have previously been used, identify previous
studies.
Useful when population is so widely dispersed that cluster
sampling would not be efficient Include an appendix with a copy of the instruments to be
used or the interview protocol to be followed. Also include
Often used in exploratory studies
sample items in the description of the instrument.
Used in obtaining an idea of the range of responses on
For a mailed survey, identify steps to be taken in
ideas that people have.
administering and following up the survey to obtain a high
G. Purposive Sampling:
response rate.
A purposive sample is one, which is selected by the a. Construction of Survey-Checklists
researcher subjectively.
Data gathered through observations is inherently
Often used in political polling - districts chosen because subjective. To increase the objectivity of the data
their pattern has in the past provided good idea of collected, checklists and/or sliding scale inventories can
outcomes for whole electorate. be used.
H. Quota Sampling:
Decide what factors are important to the issue under
often used in market research. investigation.
Create checklist or sliding scale items that will help keep
Interviewers are required to find cases with particular your observations objective.
characteristics.
Try to structure the collection of data in a way that it can
They are given quota of particular types of people to be condensed/ collapsed/ organized to facilitate analysis.
interview and the quota is organized so that final sample
Have experts review checklist/rating scale and give you
should be representative of population.
feedback on clarity.  Revise checklist/rating scale based
I. Convenience sampling:
on reviewers' comments.
Used when you simply stop anybody in the street who is b. Survey-Questionnaire Construction
prepared to stop, or when you wander round a business, a 1. Write at least five items for each factor.
shop, a restaurant, a theatre or whatever, asking people a.) The language must be unmistakable clear in order to
you meet whether they will answer your questions. elicit responses
The sample comprises subjects who are simply available b.) Every item should be designed to fulfill a specific
in a convenient way to the researcher. research objective.
J. Snowball sampling: c.) Be courteous: Would you please check . . .
With this approach, you initially contact a few potential d.) Keep the language simple, easy to read, and easy to
respondents and then ask them whether they know of respond to.
anybody with the same characteristics that you are looking
for in your research. e.) Think ahead to precisely how the data will be
For example, if you wanted to interview a sample of processed.
vegetarians / cyclists / people with a particular disability / 2. Decide on format and order of items.
people who support a particular political party etc., your a.) Construct first draft. Make sure it's neat, clean, well
initial contacts may well have knowledge (through e.g. ordered, and pleasant to look at.
support group) of others. b.) Review survey item by item for precise expression,
K. Self-selection: objectivity, relevance, suitability, and
probability of favorable reception.
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c.) Have experts review survey and give you feedback on
clarity and factor structure. Chapter 4
d.) Revise survey based on experts' review. PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF
3. Administer to a pilot group. DATA
a.) Provide a cover letter This chapter presents the elements and concepts of presenting,
b.) Figure out what date respondents are likely to get the analyzing and interpreting data to answer the specific problems
survey and set the return date a posited in the chapter one of the study.
week from then. 1. Presentation of Data
4. Analyze responses from pilot group as you intend to do Begin your results section with a general statement that
the actual study data and note means something to the reader.
where unmanageable data occurs. Also conduct a factor The narrative portion of the section should stand on its own
analysis to assess content validity. tables, charts and other illustrations should only verify or
5. Revise survey based on review of pilot data. elaborate points made in the text.
Exercise 14: Writing of “The Instrument” Tell the results in words, augmented with as few numbers
Presentation & Critiquing as possible, and refer the interested reader to the more
Re-writing detailed presentation in the tables and charts.
c. Validation of Instrument If you choose to present your results by writing "the results
Suggestions, corrections, and refinement of the draft must are summarized in Table 1", you should guide your reader
be explained thoroughly. The different persons involved through the table.
in the correction and refinement must be mentioned. Highlight the trend, range of values and other interesting
After it is refined, testing the validity and reliability must aspects. Do not leave the reader to sort out the figures and
be done. For validity, experts in line of the field of study decide what they mean.
must be requested to go over the instrument. For 2. Preparing Graphs, Tables, Figures
reliability, the researcher must use either test-retest When preparing the graph, table or figure, you should
method. consider the following points:
Types of Validity  Number the table/figure/graph and provide a title.
Statistical Conclusion Validity is concerned with  Table headings: Keep brief and separate from other parts
conclusions and results drawn from statistical analysis of text with solid line.
procedures. Body: Be selective in what you present and don’t be
Construct Validity asks if the conceptual and operational redundant.
definitions of the variables are congruent? In other words,  Present information in its most meaningful and
are they measuring what they think they are measuring? appropriate form.
External Validity asks if the study results can be applied Legend: the key to symbols - place within the figure.
to anyone other than the study sample. Application  Entire table excluding heading is enclosed by solid
beyond the study sample is called generalizability. horizontal lines
"Findings can be said to be externally invalid because 3. Data Analysis
[they] cannot be extended or applied to contexts outside a. Qualitative Analysis:
those in which the research took place" (Seliger & It is for social research; social analysis of the
Shohamy 1995). phenomenon.
Internal Validity is very similar to design validity. Are the It is not based on precise measurement and quantitative
findings reflective of reality (what the researchers are claims.
studying), or are the findings the result of uncontrolled b. Quantitative Analysis:
extraneous variables? uses data assigned with numerical value
"Findings can be said to be internally invalid because they uses descriptive and inferential statistics in describing the
may have been affected by factors other than those phenomena or events.
thought to have caused them, or because the interpretation 4. Analysis and Interpretation
of the data by the researcher is not clearly supportable" The discussion part should present the principles,
(Seliger & Shohamy 1995). relationship and generalization shown by the results. The
results need to be compared and interpreted with those in
Exercise 15: Writing of “Validation of Instruments” previously published works.
Presentation & Critiquing The presentation of Results and Discussion should follow
Re-writing the sequence of the statement of the problem.
4. Data Gathering Procedure Chapter 5
The researcher proceeds to ask permission and approval SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION
from the head of the institution/ agency where the This chapter states the deduction from the findings.
research/ respondents are employed. It presents the significance of the study, and tells how the
The date of the administration of the instrument, the situation described in the beginning of the thesis has
retrieval and the return must be fully discussed/ stated. changed because of your research.
1. Summary of the Problem
Exercise 16: Writing of “Data Gathering Procedure” This section includes the summary of the statement of the
Presentation & Critiquing problem, hypothesis, the research method/design, the
Re-writing respondents, the instrument data gathering procedure and
the treatment of data.
5. Treatment of Data 2. Findings
The statistical tools used to answer the specific problem This section summarizes the result based on chapter 4. If
posited in chapter I must be clearly described and the there are only four specific problems/ questions stated in
formula must be illustrated and explained. chapter 1 and answered in chapter 4, there are four results
Helpful in communicating your precise intentions to the summarized in this section and no presentation of tables.
reader, and it helps you and the reader to evaluate these 3. Conclusions
intentions. Conclusion should fit together with the findings of the
study. If there are four summarized results, there are four
Exercise 17: Writing of “Statistical Treatment of Data” conclusions.
Presentation & Critiquing 4. Recommendations
Re-writing
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Recommendations are based on the conclusions. This is
arranged in accordance with the conclusions. In addition,
recommendation may include further research of the
study.
5. Bibliography
All references cited in the preceding sections of the thesis
have to be listed in this section. There are several methods
of citing references, but any style you choose should be
complete, accurate and consistent so that any reader could
easily locate the materials cited. This can be done by
arranging them in an alphabetical order.

6. Appendices
Should include original data, lengthy quotations or
description, and other relevant information that are not
readily available to the reader, for examples, request
letters, questionnaires, computer printouts, forms and
documents.
Each appendix should be identified using an alphabet, for
example, Appendix A, Appendix B and so on.
7. Curriculum Vitae
This section gives the biographical information of the
researcher. It may include all the necessary information
about the researcher/ author.

Prepared by: MARITES M. MERZA