Overview of Materials,

Sensor and Production Technologies

for Industrial Smart Textiles
Inga Gehrke, Vadim Tenner, Volker Lutz,
David Schmelzeisen and Thomas Gries
Smart Textiles Production
Smart Textiles Production

• • • • •
AUTHORS
Inga Gehrke, Vadim Tenner, Volker Lutz, David Schmelzeisen and Thomas Gries
Institute of Textile Technology
RWTH Aachen University
Germany

EDITORIAL OFFICE
MDPI
St. Alban-Anlage 66
Basel, Switzerland

For citation purposes, cite as indicated below:

Gehrke, I.; Tenner, V.; Lutz, V.; Schmelzeisen, D.; Gries, T. Smart Textiles Production. Overview of
Materials, Sensor and Production Technologies for Industrial Smart Textiles; MDPI: Basel, Switzerland, 2019.

FIRST EDITION 2019

ISBN 978-3-03897-497-0 (Hbk)

ISBN 978-3-03897-498-7 (PDF)

doi:10.3390/books978-3-03897-498-7

Cover image courtesy of Inga Gehrke, Vadim Tenner, Volker Lutz,

David Schmelzeisen and Thomas Gries.

© 2019 by the author. The book is Open Access and distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution license (CC BY-NC-ND), which allows users to download, copy and build upon published
work non-commercially, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited. If the material is
transformed or built upon, the resulting work may not be distributed.
Contents

Introduction to Smart Textiles: Applications and Markets 1

Electrically Conductive Fibers for Textiles 7

2.1. Conductive Polymers 10

2.2. Silver Coating 13

Classification of Textile-Based Sensors for Developing Smart Textiles 15

3.1. Motivation: Need for Classified Knowledge on Textile-Based Sensors 17
3.2. Textile-Based Sensors within the Context of Smart Textiles 18

3.3. Classification of Textile-Based Sensors 20

3.4. Outlook: Classified Knowledge within Platform-Based Smart Textile

Development 28

Production Technologies for Electronic Textiles 31

4.1. Integration Levels of Electronic Textiles 33
4.2. Textile Surface Processing for the Integration of Sensors and Conductive Tracks 34

4.3. Subsequent Integration of Conductive Tracks and Sensors into the Textile Surface 37

v
4.4. Contacting Method between Textile and Electronics 45

4.5. Coating to Improve the Washability of Textile-Integrated Electronics 46

4.6. Approaches to Automating Smart Textile Production 47
4.7. Automation Concepts 49

Smart Textiles Product Concepts—Design and Examples 53

5.1. Resistive Touchpads/Sensors 55

5.2. Capacitive Touchpads and Sensors 56

Summary and Outlook 59

References 65

Appendix—Catalog of Textile-Based Sensors 73

vi
1. Introduction to Smart Textiles: Applications and Markets
The term “Smart Textiles” has now reached the general public and has
massively increased the demand for new, functional textile products. The market
The term “Smart Textiles” has now reached the general public and has massively
research company IDTechEx predicts a market of approximately €2.8 billion for
increased the demand for new, functional textile products. The market research
2026 with an average annual growth rate of 34% [1].
company IDTechEx predicts a market of approximately €2.8 billion for 2026 with an
Smart Textiles are textiles with an extended range of functions. An essential
average annual growth rate of 34% [1].
goal of the extended functional scope is the interaction of the textile with the
Smart Textiles are textiles with an extended range of functions. An essential goal
environment, which also includes the human user. The European Committee for
of the extended functional scope is the interaction of the textile with the environment,
Standardization
which also includes(CEN) definesuser.
the human Smart Textiles in
The European the technical
Committee report (TR)
for Standardization
16298:2011 more specifically as intelligent systems consisting of textile and non-
(CEN) defines Smart Textiles in the technical report (TR) 16298:2011 more specifically
textile components
as intelligent thatconsisting
systems actively interact with
of textile andtheir environment,
non-textile a userthat
components or an object
actively
(Error! Reference source not found.). Data is recorded and processed
interact with their environment, a user or an object (Figure 1). Data is recordedvia sensors
and
andaprocessed
defined reaction is generated
via sensors via actuators
and a defined reactionoris an information
generated display on
via actuators or an
an
additional device [2].
information display on an additional device [2].

Figure
Figure 1. Schematic
Schematicrepresentation
representationof of Smart
Smart Textiles
Textiles as an as an intelligent
intelligent textile
textile system,
system, according
according to Reference
to Reference [2]. [2].

Especially in
Especially in combination
combination with
with digital
digital networked
networked services,
services, Smart
Smart Textiles
Textiles
promise support in almost all situations (Figure 2). Above all, the possible
promise support in almost all situations. Above all, the possible applications in
applications
sports, health,inhome
sports, health,
and living,home and or
mobility living, mobility
building openorupbuilding opennew
completely up
completely
markets andnew markets
business and business
models for bothmodels for both
consumer and consumer
technical and technical
products. In
products.
addition to other products based on flexible or portable electronics, textile-based
electronics promise an established user acceptance, since textiles are the most
common material in the human environment, whether close to the body or directly
surrounding it.

(a) (b)
1
Figure 2. Smart Textile prototypes with the adaption of electronics for lighting (a)
and Figure
interaction/sensing
2. Smart Textileapplications (b).the ad
prototypes with a)
and interaction/sensing applications (b).

Like comparable technologies, Smart 3 Textiles are subject to an initial euphoria

(Gartner Hype Cycle [3]) followed by a rapid disillusionment of the market due to
a lack of marketability. A major challenge is the lack of production technologies
that can enable scalability from prototypes to marketable smart textiles. Moreover,
when selecting the technologies used, not only the functionality but also the entire
 In addition to other products based on flexible or portable electronics,
textile-based electronics promise an established user acceptance, since textiles are
the most common material in the human environment, whether close to the body or
directly surrounding it.
Like comparable technologies, Smart Textiles are subject to an initial euphoria
(Gartner Hype Cycle [3]) followed by a rapid disillusionment of the market due to a
lack of marketability. A major challenge is the lack of production technologies that
can enable scalability from prototypes to marketable Smart Textiles. Moreover, when
selecting the technologies used, not only the functionality but also the entire life
cycle must be taken into account. In addition to usage, the requirements of product
development from design to production must also be taken into account.
To date, there are only functional constructions for demonstrative purposes
(“demonstrators”) for most Smart Textiles. These receive a lot of attention.
Unfortunately, however, such products are not available on the market in high
volumes at short notice. Table 1 gives an overview of the most important application
areas and product categories for Smart Textiles.
Demonstrators from these categories are often the result of hours of manual work.
An economic transfer of production fails at the interfaces in the manufacturing steps
in the various technical sub-areas addressed by Smart Textiles. Textile technology,
electrical engineering and information technology have so far required different
approaches, and there is a lack of common standards. A combination of the
interdisciplinary competences, and the illustration of adequate division of partial
steps, are necessary.

Table 1. Application fields and common product categories of Smart Textiles.

Application Fields Product Categories

• Monitor vital signs (blood
pressure, heart rate, • Patches
electrocardiography (ECG), (drug delivery)
Medicine and Health • Motion analysis
electroencephalogram (EEG),
blood sugar)
• Wound healing monitoring
• Monitor activity (steps, • Muscle stimulation
Sport and Fitness, Wellness heart rate) • Sleep tracking
• Stress monitoring
• Protective equipment (PPE)
• Monitor attention
Industry and Military • Ergonomics improvement
• Exoskeletons
• Counterfeit protection
• Integrated displays and control
• Activity tracking
Home and Architecture • Structural health monitoring
(movement, falls)
for buildings

Fashion, Lifestyle, Others • Integrated displays and • Visual and

outdoor control haptic effects

4
 The lack of market breakthrough for Smart Textiles is thought to be a result of
the following technology-related aspects:

• Depending on the usage requirements, Smart Textiles have to survive

mechanical, chemical and thermal treatments over their life cycle, e.g., washing,
ironing, tumbling, stretching, abrasion, etc.
• In most cases, Smart Textiles need to be powered by portable energy sources
such as batteries or energy harvesting technologies. Flexible batteries and energy
harvesting technologies (e.g., photovoltaics, piezoelectrics, etc.) suffer from low
energy output, low flexibility and insufficient human skin compatibility.
• Most industrial production technologies are not compatible with Smart Textile
manufacturing. The upgrading of the existing production processes from the
lab to the industrial scale is considered not to be economical.

This book focuses on production technologies for integrating the components

of an intelligent textile system into a Smart Textile product. Both aspects
are treated separately and are covered by strong international research and
development activities.
The current industrial landscape strongly resembles an individual prototype
production for the numerous product diversifications. As a result, an enormous
number of manual work steps is required, which massively increases production
costs in high-wage countries and thus results in low market penetration of the
otherwise innovative products.
In this book, knowledge of previous Smart Textiles is summarized in order
to support future work in the development and implementation of Smart Textiles.
The aim is to describe Smart Textiles in a structured way with regard to materials
that are available for product developments (Part II), functionality with focus
on textile-based sensors (Part III), production technologies for integrating these
functionalities into products (Part IV) and product concepts along the example of
touchpads (Part V). It will help designers to understand the possible methods of
Smart Textile production, so that they are enabled to design their products for scalable
production. Moreover, it will assist textile and electronics manufacturers to decide
which production technologies are suitable for meeting certain product requirements,
thus contributing to reducing market entry thresholds.

5
 One of the most important properties of materials for “Smart Textiles” is their
electrical conductivity. This chapter gives an overview of conductive polymers
and silver coatings, as these are representative of the raw materials that feed
the production technologies presented in Part IV. The overview is based on
References [4–6] unless stated otherwise.
Conductive fibers can be intrinsically conductive, depending on the material,
or alternatively extrinsic conductivity can be achieved by additional processing steps,
as shown in Figures 3 and 4.

Figure 3. An overview of conductive fibers. PANI: Polyaniline; PPY: Polypyrrole.

9
 Figure 4. Schematic of the production processes for the manufacture of electrically
conductive yarns.

While the primary research subjects for electrically conductive fibers are carbon
nanotubes and graphene, e.g., Reference [7], industrial applications usually use
conductive polymers or metal-coated yarns, which are described in more detail below.

2.1. Conductive Polymers

Plastics are usually lightweight, durable, easy to form and process, and
inexpensive to manufacture. Due to their chemical structure, polymers are perfect
insulators against electricity, i.e., exactly the opposite of metals. Under these

10
conditions, it should be paradoxical to assume that it is the plastics that conduct the
current. However, the U.S. researchers Alan Heeger and Alan MacDiarmid, together
with the Japanese researcher Hideki Shirakawa, who were collectively awarded the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2000, discovered how to construct and treat polymers so
that they become electrically conductive [8].
In order for electrons to move freely in plastics, rather than being coupled to
atomic nuclei as is usually the case, they must alternately form single and double
bonds between carbon atoms (conjugated double bonds). In polyacetylene, which is
produced from the gas acetylene, these structural elements are perfectly combined to
form a “conjugated” chain. Polyacetylene had long been known as a black powder
when, in the early 1970s, Shirakawa and a colleague discovered how to synthesize
polyacetylene in a new way and obtain black films that could be peeled from the inner
wall of the reaction vessel. Additionally, they oxidized (or doped) polyacetylene
with chlorine, bromine and iodine, and were thus able to increase the conductivity
to 103 S cm−1 , which is in the range of semiconductors and metals. A disadvantage
of polyacetylene is its air sensitivity; the initially very good conductivity quickly
decreases due to reactions with oxygen. One way to solve this problem is to use
doped polyacetylene as a component of specially manufactured polymer blends with
thermoplastics, e.g., as an antistatic transparent film. In this form, the polyacetylene
is better protected against aging.
Today, conductive plastics are used as antistatic films, electromagnetic shielding
in electronic circuits, screen protectors, in through-plated circuit boards in the
electronics industry, and in corrosion protection.

2.1.1. Polyaniline (PANI)

Considered a “metallic“ plastic, polyaniline (PANI) is highly crystalline, largely
chemically inert, and electrically conductive (it contains many free electrons). U.S.
Army stealth jets are invisible to radar because, among other reasons, they are coated
with a conductive PANI layer that completely absorbs the microwaves emitted
by radar instead of reflecting them. Another application is color displays with
minimal power consumption, which shine up to 100 times brighter than conventional
color screens.
Due to its internal structure, PANI also appears to be very suitable for
applications in nanotechnology. It can be divided into so-called primary
particles 7–15 nm in size (this refers to the smallest units that possess all the properties
of the plastic). In order to be able to process it at all, the PANI produced as a powder
must be dissolved in water. Depending on the application, dispersions with a PANI
content of up to 2% by weight are used.
In the medium, the PANI automatically forms a web structure, similar to
a spiderweb. A total of 2% of PANI is required for dispersions for corrosion

11
protection, 1% for the production of light-emitting diodes, and only 0.1% for the
production of solderable surfaces on circuit boards. The particle sizes also vary, and
range from 10–30 nm for electronic components to about 70 nm for anti-rust paints.

2.1.2. Poly(ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)

Major progress towards the industrial application of conductive polymers was
achieved with the development of poly(ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT or PEDT)
by Bayer in the early 1990s. Thanks to its chemical structure, it is the most stable of
all known conductive polymers and is used as a thin antistatic layer in photographic
films made by the Bayer subsidiary Agfa-Gevaert N.V. The annual production of
many hundreds of thousands of square meters of these ultra-thin layers requires only
a few thousand kilograms of polymer.

2.1.3. Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate)
Another example of electrically conductive polymers with a wide range of
applications, e.g., in optoelectronic devices [9], is poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)
doped with poly(styrenesulfonate) anions, also called PEDOT:PSS.
PEDOT:PSS is a blend of cationic polythiopene derivative, doped with a
polyanion. After doping with suitable solutions and the associated significant
increase in electrical conductivity, PEDOT:PSS can be used as a transparent electrode
and thus as an alternative to the frequently used indium tin oxide (ITO). With a
conductivity of up to 4600 S cm−1 , it can also be used as cathode material in
capacitors [10].
Due to its high electrical conductivity and good oxidation resistance, PEDOT:PSS
can be used to coat textile substrates for applications such as electrodes for
electrocardiographs, electrical and chemical transistors, electrodes for organic solar
cells and organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) [11].
For example, the production of electrocardiography (ECG) electrodes using
PEDOT:PSS is explained based on a paper by Pani et al. [12]. A solution of a
PEDOT:PSS dispersion and a second donor is immersed in cotton or polyester fabric
for 48 h. The textile is then pressed and heat-treated to remove the dispersion and
evaporate the second donor or water [12].
Compared to the conventional Ag/AgCl electrodes used for ECG, PEDOT:PSS
electrodes have the advantage that they function both when dry and wet. In principle,
their conductivity is comparable to or better than that of the conventional electrodes.
The disadvantage of PEDOT:PSS electrodes is that they have a higher contact
impedance due to the material and their irregular surface. [12].
PEDOT:PSS can also be used to coat yarns and apply conductor paths to textile
substrates using conventional methods such as sewing and embroidery. In 2017,
Ryan et al. produced a PEDOT:PSS-coated silk yarn up to 40 m in length with

12
an Young’s modulus of 2 GPa and an electrical conductivity of 14 S cm−1 .
Washing and drying cycles were possible, even if limited, without loss of conductivity.
Ethylene glycol (EG), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and methanol 99% (MeOH) were
used as second donors [11].
In 2015, Åkerfeldt et al. showed a process in which a conductive PEDOT:PSS
solution is printed onto a textile by screen-printing by adding a binder to create a
paste [13]. The solution is an aqueous dispersion of self-crosslinking acrylic with
a solids content of 47.5 w%. For the textile coating, a PEDOT:PSS solution is mixed
with a commercial binder and a polyurethane-based thickening agent. Ethylene
glucol is used as the second donor. Compared to conventional polyurethane-based
pastes, this paste offers the advantage of containing no metallic particles. Silver
particles have a proven negative effect on their environment if they escape from the
textile during washing or wearing [13].

2.2. Silver Coating

Silver-coated yarns are also used as electrical conductors. These include, for
example, silver-coated polyamide multifilaments. Such yarns can be very easily
processed in all textile processes, e.g., warp- and weft-knitting, weaving and
embroidery. The high conductivity of silver makes it suitable for energy and data
transmission through textiles (see Section 4.2).
In contrast to antibacterial applications, silver coatings are sensitive to washing
processes and other mechanical stresses when used as electrical conductors. Due to
their stable conductivity and good processability, industrial applications usually use
fibers coated with silver or copper, such as the product brands Elitex, Shieldex and
SEFAR [4].

13
 Embroidered
electrode pad

While numerous textile-based sensors have been developed, ranging from

sensing fibers to coatings and three-dimensional structures, transparency regarding
their specific properties and usage is missing. Bosowski et al. have suggested a
structure for a classified catalog as a knowledge basis to support the smart textile
product development process [14]. This chapter develops the classification further
and implements it as a catalog to be used by practitioners from research and industry
when developing and designing textiles with sensing capabilities. The appendix
holds the full catalog.

3.1. Motivation: Need for Classified Knowledge on Textile-Based

Sensors
In addition to the definition of Smart Textiles as “intelligent textile system” given
by the CEN/TR 16298:2011 standard (see Part I), Smart Textiles can be classified
according to the degree of textile integration. This describes the extent to which
electronic components are covered by textiles (Figure 5).

Embroidered
ele ctrode pad

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5. Classification of Smart Textiles according to the degree of textile

integration [15]. (a) Textile-adapted; (b) Textile-integrated; (c) Textile-based.

Textile-adapted: the textile does not cover an electronic function (0%), but
electronic components can be attached to the textile, e.g., a pocket for an MP3 player.
Textile-integrated: the textile covers between 0 and 100% of the electronic
function, creating an interface between the textile and the electronics. For example,
flexible circuit boards can be integrated into textiles in this manner.
Textile-based: electronic function is 100% covered by the textile.
When considering an intelligent textile material, this can involve the realization of
conductor paths and sensors made of conductive yarns.
Textile-based sensor technology is a critical component for the functionalization
of textiles, as it offers the promising possibility of integration into existing textile

17
structures from everyday life such as clothing or interior design. Due to the
high degree of textile integration, the electronic function can “disappear” into
the textile and thus be worn discreetly and inconspicuously. At the same time,
textile-based implementations allow a pleasant feel for the user [16]. Despite these
advantages, there are hardly any Smart Textiles available on the mass market.
Technological barriers need to be addressed, such as robust integration and contacting
technologies that can withstand the usage requirements of clothing (washing,
tumble drying, ironing) while conforming with non-toxicity certifications, and the
improvement and miniaturization of power management and storage devices [17].
Part VI describes challenges and solution approaches for scalable production
processes in more detail. Even where technological progress has been made, lack of
transparency about available components, their application possibilities and their
degree of maturity complicates the product development process and market launch,
especially since developers with an electronics background typically have limited
experience with textile-based components and vice versa [17]. The search for a
textile sensor and its design for a special application, as already attempted by many
research projects (cf. [15,18–24]) has so far involved many examinations of thread
combinations and materials. This is a lengthy and costly process. This has already
generated knowledge about textile sensor technology, which requires appropriate
classification and structure. This is implemented here with a design catalog that
implements design principles according to Reference [14] and is expanded according
to the current state of research. It is intended to serve developers of Smart Textiles
as an information basis for the selection of textile-based sensor modules and thus
contribute to the faster and more successful market launch of Smart Textiles.

3.2. Textile-Based Sensors within the Context of Smart Textiles

3.2.1. Areas of Application for Textile-Based Sensors
Textile-based sensor technology offers a wide range of possible applications by
considerably expanding the range of functions of ordinary textiles by combining
them with sensors. In addition to applications close to the body in clothing, where
sensors are usually used to monitor vital functions and movements (cf. [15,18–24]),
textile-based sensors are also used to monitor their carrier material in the construction
industry. Examples are load investigations of structures or the monitoring of slope
fixings in dams and dikes [14,15].
Figure 6 shows the fields of application based on the definition of basic terms
for technical textiles according to Gries et al. [25].

18
 Figure 6. Fields of application of textile engineering according to Gries et al. [25].

3.2.2. Definition of a Textile-Based Sensor

Textile-based sensors always consist of a textile material and are defined by
their textile structure. The sensor can be incorporated into a textile substrate—the
so-called supporting textile—which is not itself a part of the textile sensor in this
case [14].
A textile sensor can be defined over four levels of the textile structure as well as
according to its manufacturing process and its material, which must be specifically
selected depending on the type of textile (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Levels of textile structure and related manufacturing processes.

19
 Depending on the application, sensors from different manufacturing levels with
suitable materials are required. At the fiber level, fibers that conduct light or electric
current serve as the basis for sensor functions. An overview of production processes
for conductive fibers and their properties can be found in Part II and elsewhere,
e.g., Reference [4]. In the one-dimensional plane, thread-shaped sensors should be
mentioned; these are inserted into supporting textiles in the form of a yarn or thread
by sewing or embroidering in a linear manner. The next level is flat textiles, e.g., warp-
and weft-knitted or woven fabrics. Planar structures also result when conductive
pastes (e.g., silver pastes) are printed on the supporting textile (see Chapter 6.3.2 for a
detailed description of printing technologies). Three-dimensional (spatial) structures
are created when sensors are inserted into spacing weaves or warp knits or are
inserted via 3D embroidery (moss embroidery) [15].

3.3. Classification of Textile-Based Sensors

3.3.1. Objective of Cataloging Textile-Based Sensors
The catalog is intended to support developers and designers as an information
database in the design of textile-based sensors by providing proposals for their
methodical use in an application-friendly manner. This catalog was therefore
designed in accordance with the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI, Association of
German Engineers) Guideline VDI 2222, Part 2, “Preparation and Application of
Design Catalogues”, of February 1982 [26]. It illustrates the networking of the
individual criteria for the correct design methodology procedure in the creation and
application of a design catalog (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Approach for construction catalog design according to the Verein

Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI, Association of German Engineers) [26].

20
 Without claiming to be complete—design catalogs require constant updating—the
tables present a combination of the current state of textile sensor technologies. They also
offer designers the opportunity to implement reproducible design processes
independently of their own knowledge and to achieve rationalization effects thanks to
the efficient provision of information [26].
In this respect, a structuring of the catalog according to aspects of design
methodology seems plausible, and allows direct and targeted access with the
simultaneous provision of structured information [26].
This catalog is subject to the requirement of ensuring not only comfortable
handling, quick access to information and consideration of construction
methodological terms and procedures, but also completeness and validity for as
many users as possible. Furthermore, its design is consistent. Finally, the catalog
must be systemically consistent, however its details may be changed [26]. Each user
of this catalog is encouraged to add to and extend it in good conscience, taking into
account the abovementioned requirements.

3.3.2. Implications for Designing a User-Oriented Catalog

For solution catalogs, the degree of concretization of the solution description is
a critical design parameter.
Deciding on a generally valid formulation of the solution implies that the
designer is able to abstract the problem and implement it analogously to the
description in the catalog. Only the initial phase of the design process is covered
in the catalog, whereas the actual problem-solving process remains unaffected by
the catalog, as its implementation requires too many concrete details [26]. Figure 9
illustrates the relationship between the four sections of the problem-solving process
(1. Problem; 2. Model; 3. Adjustment; 4. Implementation). It has been shown that
in the case of a general representation of the solution for the implementation of the
problem in a problem-solving process, a reduction of the degree of concretization is
necessary. This transformation is application-specific, and consequently the catalog
cannot capture most of the process.

Figure 9. Problem-solving process with general formulation of the solution.

21
 However, specific solutions can describe the entire construction process and
thus be of assistance to the designer. Nevertheless, at the same time there is a danger
that the more concrete the information becomes the more complex it will become,
i.e., more information needs to be presented. This is expressed negatively in a large
number of sub-functions, with details to be described [26].
In order for the catalog to support developers in all application areas of technical
textiles, the solution descriptions are based on the principle of being formulated as
abstractly as possible. At the same time, developers should be supported in assigning
the abstract solution to a specific problem by subdividing the textile sensors into
application areas. Moreover, classifying the maturity level makes it easier for the
developer to evaluate the feasibility of a solution.

3.3.3. Structure and Classification Method

In practice, there are often multiple ways to access the catalog contents.
A comparison of several different characteristics between problem and solution
description requires a clear and equal arrangement of the characteristics. It is suitable
to apply all the solutions on one axis and to compare all the characteristics without
repetition on a second axis. A linear (one-dimensional) arrangement of the solutions
is therefore recommended for the catalog [26].
Primary classification aspects for the catalog are the classes of functions, which
result from the various application areas of textile sensor technology (cf. Figure 6).
The first column group comprises the classification criteria, which are intended
to give the user a quick overview of the relevant solutions (Figures 10 and 11).
These forms of access characteristics are arranged one after the other according to
their meaning.

Figure 10. Classification criteria in the catalog.

22
 The description of the sensor type (mechanical, chemical or thermal) follows the
overriding criterion of the area of application. A specification of measuring principles,
including an indication of the measured variables, enables a further narrowing of the
solution. The final specification of the manufacturing principle, the textile geometry
and the materials used makes the application field of the sensor more understandable.

Figure 11. Structuring and contents of the classification criteria.

The solution area contains the essential information about the solutions
(Figure 12). The procedural principle already covers the concise aspects of the
function and the structure of the sensor. The solution sector is further illustrated by a
schematic representation (schematic sketch).

Figure 12. Solution area in the catalog.

23
 The section on access features (Figure 13) supplements the information from
the previous core area of the catalog by mentioning known application examples,
conceivable variation possibilities and the advantages and disadvantages resulting
from the use of the chosen sensor. Furthermore, this section includes characteristic
properties and characteristic values of the textile, which can significantly narrow
the selection of solutions. In particular, these access features are subject to constant
optimization in the form of additions and extensions, which are carried out by the
user on the basis of practical experience gained.

Figure 13. Access features in the catalog. TRL: Technology Readiness Level.

The degree of maturity of the technology, which is assessed via the “Technology
Readiness Level” (TRL) [27], is of particular importance here. A classification is made
according to the groups shown in Figure 14:

• Proof of concept/test in the laboratory environment (TRL ≤ 5)

• Demonstrator of the complete system in application environment (TRL = 6–8)
• Product used in application environment (TRL = 9)

This provides the user with an immediate overview of whether the textile-based
sensor is ready for its application environment. For example, a TRL of 9 in “clothtech”
applications indicates that operational stability for clothing has been shown, with
detailed information given in catalog sections c and e (e.g., stability against washing
shown, but not tumble drying). Most of the textile-based sensors described in
the appendix are currently at a TRL of 6–8, as the required use in an application
environment is often still hindered by the lack of operational stability (cf. Chapter 3.1).

24
 Figure 14. Technology Readiness Level according to Mankins [27] and reduced
classification for this catalog.

3.3.4. Application Example: Developing a Health-Monitoring Evacuation Mattress Using

the Proposed Classification
The structure and benefits of the catalog along the problem-solving process
from Figure 9 are explained below using the example of a sensor developed in the
“KostBar” research project [28,29].
Problem: In order to increase the safety of patients in hospitals and nursing
homes, fall prevention and decubitus (pressure sore) prophylaxis in patient beds
must be improved. These functions are to be realized via a sensor system integrated
in evacuation mats that lie beneath the mattress in the patient’s bed.
Model: Changes in the pressure distribution are to be measured over the
mattress surface. From the suitable manipulation of the data obtained through the
measured values, the approximate position of the patient on his or her bed can be
determined. A change in position towards the edge of the bed should be used to
warn against falls, while a warning due to a long-unchanged position serves as
decubitus prophylaxis (Figure 15).

25
 Evacuation mat Wifi reciever

Sender contacting
the textile

Textile-based
Monitoring of patient's
pressure sensor
position

Figure Figure 15. Model

15. Model for for
thethe useofof3D
use 3D tubular
tubular fabric for for
fabric pressure measurement
pressure in the
measurement in the
“KostBar” project [28].
“KostBar” project [28].
Matching with catalog: Error! Reference source not found. shows the
Matching with
classification in the catalog inFigure
catalog: 16 shows
the "Medtech" area. Itthe classification
is also in the catalog in
listed in the "Hometech"
the “Medtech”
section to area. It is
facilitate alsoaccess.
quick listedThein descriptions
the “Hometech” sectionarea
of the solution to and
facilitate
the quick
access. The
access descriptions
characteristicsof the
are solution
identical. TRLarea andatthe
is rated 6–8access characteristics
as the demonstrator are identical.
has been
tested at
TRL is rated in 6–8
an application environmenthas
as the demonstrator but been
no permanent
tested inuse an has been reported.
application environment
Thus, future users must know that operational stability testing will be required.
but no permanent use has been reported. Thus, future users must know that
Implementation: A pressure sensor was attached to an evacuation mat in the
operational
form of stability testing
150-cm-long tubeswill
withbe required.
eight flat conductors and put into contact with an
Implementation:
electronic unit (power A pressure
supply and sensor was attached
data transmission) to an
to suit the evacuation
problem. A mat in
the form of 150-cm-long
capacitance measurement tubes with
of the eight flat conductors
three-dimensional fabric sensorand was put into contact
recorded
with anevery 250 s. unit
electronic Any (power
possible supply
deviationand greater
data than 2%, resulting
transmission) from the
to suit the problem.
simultaneous statistical processing of the data obtained, was transmitted to a
A capacitance measurement of the three-dimensional fabric sensor was recorded
receiver unit. The measurement results are evaluated and an alarm is triggered if a
every 250fall s.
or Any possible
decubitus deviation
is suspected [29]. greater than 2%, resulting from the simultaneous
statistical processing
This example shows that the obtained,
of the data wascatalog
structure of the transmitted
supports theto problem-
a receiver unit.
The measurement results are evaluated and an alarm is triggered if a fallareas
solving process in a targeted way: the classification according to application or decubitus
enables[29].
is suspected the user to find similar solutions to a problem. At the same time, the
abstract description of the solution is not too restrictive: falls and decubitus
This example shows that the structure of the catalog supports the
prophylaxis are indeed the problems solved in the project. However, the tubular
problem-solving process in a targeted way: the classification according to application
20
areas enables the user to find similar solutions to a problem. At the same time,
the abstract description of the solution is not too restrictive: falls and decubitus
prophylaxis are indeed the problems solved in the project. However, the tubular
fabric is not limited to this usage, and users of the catalog should be enabled to
evaluate its suitability for other problems. Access features such as technological
maturity and application area are particularly helpful in this respect.

26
 MEDTECH

GLASS FIBER SENSOR PAGE 143 3D TUBULAR FABRIC CAPACITIVE BREATHING SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

tic light spectrum 2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electromagnetic field

3 | CONSTRUCTION Tube fabric Conductive ink between textile layers

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Three-dimensional Planar

5 | MATERIAL Polyester-laminated aluminum tape fabric Combination of stretchable and non-stretchable

textile with conductive ink

e light frequency due to the measured a) Procedural principle Tubular fabric in which conductive aluminum Respiration measurement via capacitive proximity
determined can be recorded as a ribbons are woven. Under pressure load, the hose is sensor. Respiratory frequency is measured by
teristic value. [59] compressed and acts as a condenser. This produces the displacement of two textile layers, which are
a voltage change that can be correlated with the connected by a conductive layer, caused by the
pressure load. respiratory movement. [54]

b) Schematic sketch

Non-stretchable fabric Stretchable fabric

Conductive ink
Stretchable fabric Non-stretchable fabric
Non-stretchable fabric Stretchable fabric
Conductive ink
Stretchable fabric Non-stretchable fabric

nsors in chemical process control,

ngineering, shipbuilding, mining,
nuclear industry.

c) Known/possible field of Measuring changes in pressure load, e.g., decubitus

m differentiated according to fiber-optic application prohylaxis or fall prevention; improvement of
ybrid system and use of the fiber itself ergonomics.
ternal/external modulation).
e of plastic fibers in short-distance

d) Possible sensor variants Temporal resolution subject to sensor design.

e) Opportunities and ++ Tubular shape allows even compression under

challenges strain without the risk of the conductive belts
shifting against each other
e
++ Production in one weaving process possible
t
olation of input and output makes
−− Correlation of position/load and measuring
nnecessary
signal for each position of the ligament tissue to
ence from external electromagnetic
be re-determined
of explosion

with the coupling of fibers

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Operating range -20 to +50 °C

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION 250 ms

IV SENSITIVITY Changes in capacitance of 2%

V MEASUREMENT RANGE Pressure up to 150 kg

VI TRL 6–8 <6

Figure 16. Description of the 3D tubular fabric in the catalog.

27
3.4. Outlook: Classified Knowledge within Platform-Based Smart
Textile Development
This catalog, with its abstract solution description on the one hand and concrete
information on areas of application on the other, enables developers to quickly and
purposefully check which textile-based state-of-the-art sensors are suitable for a
particular problem. This covers the critical part of “textile-based sensor technology”
in the development of Smart Textiles. The catalog is an important starting point for an
integrated product and process development of Smart Textiles and can be expanded
in the future. The addition of new developments resulting from particular research
work is necessary, e.g., to cover improvements in robustness towards broader usage
requirements or the compliance with standards and test methods, which are still to
be defined for Smart Textiles [17]. Furthermore, a reference to textile-integrated and
adapted sensor technology, other functional components such as actuators, energy
supply units and data transmission systems, as well as materials and production
technologies for textile-electronic integration is promising (Figure 17).

Figure 17. Modular structure of Smart Textiles [30].

28
 Since there are many interdependencies between the choice of textile material
and the properties of the functional components, and thus also with regard to
possible processes, a structured information base for simplifying the Smart Textile
development process is also helpful here. A platform-based information database
can be implemented to reflect the complexity of mutual dependencies and the
continuous further development of the state of the art technologies. Complex data
structures and rule-based dependencies can be modeled and kept up-to-date in terms
of content via an open, adaptable format. The project GeniusTex (2018, funded by the
German Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Energy) will work towards this
by implementing the collaboration platform GeniusTex (www.geniustex.net, [31])
with such a structured information base or language at its core (see Chapter 8).

29
 The “combination” of electronics and textiles can be interpreted in several ways.
A definition that concerns a structure of different integration stages is given below.
Subsequently, the most important manufacturing processes and application examples
are explained.

4.1. Integration Levels of Electronic Textiles

Intelligent textile systems differ in the extent to which their electrical
components are integrated [15]. Table 2 distinguishes between three integration
levels of Smart Textiles.

• Textile-adapted

This is the simplest variant of integration. Textile and electronics are separated (i.e.,
the textile is purely a shell). Example: An MP3 player is stored in a specially designed
pocket in the clothing and cables are routed through eyelets and channels to the hood
(Table 2, top).

• Textile-integrated

With textile-integrated Smart Textiles, individual functions are already completely

mapped in textiles (i.e., produced by electrically conductive fiber materials and
textile manufacturing processes). These include conductor tracks, heating loops
and surfaces, resistors, capacitors and switches. The textile covers between 0 and
100% of the electronic function, creating an interface between the textile and the
electronics. This can be bridged with various contacting methods. Most applications
are currently at this level of integration.

• Textile-based

The electronic function is 100% covered by the textile. When considering an intelligent
textile material, this can be the realization of conductor paths and sensors made of
conductive yarns, piezoelectric fibers for energy generation or polymer optical fibers
for light transmission.

33
 4.1. Integration Levels of Electronic Textiles
IntelligentLevels
4.1. Integration textile systems Textiles
of Electronic differ in the extent to which their electrical
Intelligent
components are textile systems
integrated differ 2indistinguishes
[15]. Table the extent between
to whichthree
theirintegration
electrical
Intelligent
components are textile systems
integrated [15]. differ
Table 2indistinguishes
the extent between
to whichthree
theirintegration
electrical
levels of Smart Textiles.
components
levels of SmartareTextiles.
integrated [15]. Table 2 distinguishes between three integration
levels of Smart Textiles.
Table 2. Integration levels of Smart Textiles [15].
Table 2. Integration levels of Smart Textiles [15].
Table 2. Integration levels of Smart Textiles [15].
Integration Table 2. Integration levels of Smart Textiles [15].
Integration Level Examples
Examples
Integration
Level
Integration Examples
Level Examples
Level
Connection
Connection ofofthethetextile
textile and
Textile- and
the the electrical
Connection
electrical of the textile and
components, e.g.,
Textile-adapted
Textile- Connection
components,
the ofcomponents,
the
e.g., viatextile and
electricalpockets e.g.,
adapted via sewn-in or Velcro
Textile- sewn-in pockets
the sewn-in
electrical or Velcro
components, e.g.,
adapted via
fasteners.
fasteners.
pockets or Velcro
adapted via sewn-in
fasteners. pockets or Velcro
fasteners.

Electrical components are

Textile- Electricalcomponents
integrated
Electrical components areare
in the textile, e.g.,
Textile- Electrical
integrated components are
integrated using inin
conductive
integrated the
the textile,
yarns.
textile, e.g.,e.g.,
Textile-integrated
Textile- integrated in theyarns.
textile,
integrated using
using
Today’sconductive
conductive yarns. e.g.,
state-of-the-art.
integrated using
Today’s conductive yarns.
state-of-the-art.
Today’s state-of-the-art.
Today’s state-of-the-art.

Textiles themselves take over

Textiles
the tasks themselves
of conventional take over
hard
Textile- Textiles
Textiles themselves
themselves taketake over
the tasks
electronic of conventional
components,
over the tasks of hard
e.g.,
Textile-
based the tasks ofcomponents,
conventional hard
Textile- electronic
conventional
piezoelectric hard e.g.,
fiber, fluorescent
based
Textile-based electronic
electronic components,
components, e.g.,
e.g.,
based piezoelectric
fiber, fiber,
field-effect fluorescent
transistor.
piezoelectric
piezoelectric
fiber, fiber,
fiber,
field-effect fluorescent
transistor.
fluorescent fiber, field-effect
fiber, field-effect transistor.
transistor.
• Textile-adapted
• Textile-adapted
This is the simplest variant of integration. Textile and electronics are
• Textile-adapted
This is
separated, i.e.,the
the simplest varianta shell.
textile is purely of integration. Textile
Example: An MP3 and
playerelectronics
is stored inare
a
This is
separated, i.e.,the
the simplest varianta of
textile is purely integration.
shell. Example: Textile
An MP3 and electronics
player is stored inare
a
24
4.2. separated,
Textile Surface i.e., the textile is purely
Processing a shell.
for the Example: Anof
Integration MP3 player isand
Sensors stored in a
24
Conductive Tracks 24

If conductive yarns are processed with textile surface processes, conductive

tracks, sensors and actuators can be produced. These “electrode pads” are suitable,
for example, for measuring vital functions close to the body, muscle stimulation,
monitoring functional components and as flexible operating elements, displays or
heating elements. They have been the subject of research since the 2000s and have
already been implemented in numerous prototypes (e.g., [19,32–35]).

4.2.1. Knitting
Knitted electrodes made of silver-coated polyamide fibers have already been
used to monitor heart rhythm, respiration and bioimpedance (composition of body
tissue). Footfalls and Heartbeats (UK) Limited (Nottingham, UK) commercially

34
offers knitted sensors made of stainless-steel-coated polymer yarns (Figure 18).
Resistances in theSchematic Ω cm−
diagram
range of 5–5000 2 can be achieved, so that pressure sensors
and example knitted pressure sensor (Footfalls &
and electrodes canHeartbeats Ltd.) for various applications [36].
be implemented

Conductive yarn
(a) (b)

Figure 18. Schematic sketch (a) and photograph (b) of a knitted pressure sensor.
Image courtesy of Sean Malyon, Footfalls and Heartbeats (UK) Limited.

In weft knits, the distance between conductors is limited to approximately

500 µm due to the size of the knit loops [37]. Li et al. used the intarsia knitting
technique to produce circuits from copper fibers coated with polyurethane using a
flatbed knitting machine (Figure 19) [38]. The weft knit is flexible and stretchable
with only 1% change in electrical resistance after 1,000,000 stretching cycles with 20%
maximum stretch. After 30 washing cycles for delicates at 30 ◦ C, 16% of the samples
showed a change in resistance. The weft knit was used in a demonstrator in a
protective vest to measure load and strain [38]. Even though flatbed knitting can be
automated, its reproducibility (see washability) and accuracy are still too low to knit
circuits on an industrial scale.
5

Building blocks Coated metal fiber Knitted fabric

Figure 19. Figure

Circuit19. Circuit constructed
constructed using the
using theintarsia knitting
intarsia techniquetechnique
knitting [38]. [38].
4.2.2. Weaving
Conductive yarns are used directly35as warp threads in the weaving process
and, depending on the weaving process used, form conductor paths. Conventional
weaving allows only linear traversing webs, while the webs in Jacquard or open-
reed weaving can also be shifted sideways to the production direction. Electrodes
and sensors can also be manufactured in this way as shown in Figure 20.
4.2.2. Weaving
Schematic diagram and example for woven Smart Textiles
Conductive yarns are used directly as warp threads in the weaving
process and, depending on the weaving process used, form conductor paths.
Conventional weaving allows only linear traversing webs, while the webs in Jacquard
or open-reed weaving can also be shifted sideways to the production direction.
Electrodes and sensors can also be manufactured in this way as shown in Figure 20.

Conductive yarn

(a) (b)
Figure 20. Schematic sketch and example of woven Smart Textiles. (a) Woven
surface structure; (b) Woven pressure sensor.

In order to produce circuits in fabrics, further steps need to be followed after

weaving with conductive yarns. For example, Locher et al. describe a method in
which the insulating layer of a fabric made of polyester and insulated copper tracks
is first removed with a laser at the desired points and then the conductor tracks are
separated from the Inrest orderof the grid
to produce circuits[39]. The
in fabrics, cross
further points
steps need of warp-
to be followed after and weft-yarn
are joined with aweaving
conductive adhesive
with conductive and finally
yarns. For example, sealed
Locher et al. describe with
a methodepoxy
in (Figure 21).
which the insulating layer of a fabric made of polyester and insulated copper
Although circuit layouts can be realized in this way with a finer resolution
tracks is first removed with a laser at the desired points and then the conductor (conductor
tracks are separated from the rest of the grid [39]. The cross points of warp- and
spacing of 150 µm) than via knitting, the process is difficult to industrialize due to
weft-yarn are joined with a conductive adhesive and finally sealed with epoxy
the additional steps
(Figureand the layout
21). Although can be
circuit layouts can designed less
be realized in this way freely than in the case of
with a finer
resolution
7 (conductor spacing of 150 µm) than via knitting, the process is difficult
embroidery or knitting [39].due to the additional steps and the layout can be designed less
to industrialize
freely than in the case of embroidery or knitting [39].

Wire grid
Pads

Cut wires
Interconnect

Figure 21. Woven circuit based on Locher et al. [39].

Figure 21. Woven circuit based on Locher et al. [39].
4.2.3. Spacing Textiles
As an alternative to flat fabrics, spacing textiles can also be used as sensors. A
spacing textile consists of two fabric layers
36 connected by pile yarns. In the KostBar
project, a conductive aluminum-polyester band was inserted into a spacing textile
as a pressure sensor, thereby functionalizing a demonstrator for evacuation mats in
hospital beds [28]. Spacer weft- or warp-knits made of conductive yarns can also be
used as resistive pressure sensors, in which pressure-induced contact between the
upper and lower textile surfaces produces a change in resistance. Alternatively,
intelligent materials can be introduced into the spatial structure. An example of
this is the integration of fiber-based OLEDs into a spacer warp-knit as part of the
4.2.3. Spacing Textiles
As an alternative to flat fabrics, spacing textiles can also be used as sensors.
A spacing textile consists of two fabric layers connected by pile yarns. In the KostBar
project, a conductive aluminum-polyester band was inserted into a spacing textile
as a pressure sensor, thereby functionalizing a demonstrator for evacuation mats in
hospital beds [28]. Spacer weft- or warp-knits made of conductive yarns can also
be used as resistive pressure sensors, in which pressure-induced contact between
the upper and lower textile surfaces produces a change in resistance. Alternatively,
intelligent materials can be introduced into the spatial structure. An example of this is
the integration of fiber-based OLEDs into a spacer warp-knit as part of the “TexOLED”
research project [40]. As shown in Figure 22, the light guide is inserted between the
pile yarns, which provides the advantage of avoiding mechanical stresses such as
bending in the sensitive yarn.

Planar
surface

Pole thread

Planar
surface

Figure 22. Principle for the installation of organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) in
spacer textiles and prototypes (according to Linz [40]).

4.3. Subsequent Integration of Conductive Tracks and Sensors into

the Textile Surface
In addition to direct conductor path integration during surface production,
textile surfaces can also be finished with functionalized yarns (embroidering) or
coatings (printing). This chapter provides the reader with an overview of how
conventional production technologies from the textile and electronics industry can be
combined to realize electronic circuits on textile materials. Embroidering and printing
technologies as well as the related curing process for the creation of conductive
structures are described.

4.3.1. Embroidering
The embroidery methods of chain stitch, standard, and Tailored Fiber Placement
(TFP) embroidery are currently defined in the literature. With embroidery technology,
flexible conductor track layouts can be realized from conductive yarns or even metal
wires on textiles. In the TFP process, a laying thread is positioned with high precision

37
on the textile substrate by means of an upper and a lower thread. This technology
was initially developed for the production of fiber composites. If an electrically
conductive yarn is used as the laying thread (Tailored Wire Placement), conductor
TFP method
paths can be implemented in this(left)
way.[MSA15a] and embroidery
The TFP method head
is well suited forfor TFP embroidery
processing
(center), embroidered tracks (center, right) [EHJ13]
metallic threads [41,42]. The function of the TFP method can be seen in Figure 23.

sewing needle
thread

base fabric

conductive
yarn

control

xis
Y-A
X-Axis

(a) (b)
Figure 23. (a) Tailored Fiber Placement (TFP) method [41]; and (b) embroidered
tracks [42].

Textile electronic circuits can be realized based on embroidery technology.

For instance, a project by the research institute Textilforschungsinstitut
Thüringen-Vogtland e.V. (Greiz, Germany) demonstrated embroidery technology of
electrical connections between electronic components based on ELITEX conductive
polyamide thread covered with silver, the embroidery technology of insulated
conductor crossings and the contactability [43].
With double lockstitch embroidery, sensors, conductor paths, heating wires, etc.,
can be flexibly applied to textile surfaces. Depending on whether one or both of the
upper and lower threads is conductive, single- or double-sided electrode pads can be
produced (Figure 24) [44]. Wang et al. have realized radiofrequency (RF) antennas
with metal-polymer fibers using embroidery, achieving signal strength only 1dB
below conventionalSchematic sketch of double quiltandembroidery and thu
9
copper RF antennas. However, the durability washability
electrode
need to be tested [45]. pad

(a) (b)
Figure 24. Schematic sketch of double lockstitch embroidery (a) and an electrode
pad realized with it (b).

38
 Figure 24. Schematic sketch of double lockstitch embroidery (a) and an electrode
pad realized with it (b).

This technique
This techniqueisis
also known
also as “e-broidery”.
known Under Under
as “e-broidery”. the trademark “e-broidery”,
the trademark “e-
Forster Rohner
broidery”, manufactures
Forster sensors as well
Rohner manufactures as light-emitting
sensors textiles embroidered
as well as light-emitting textiles
with LEDs (Figure
embroidered 25) [44,46].
with LEDs (Figure 25) [44,46].

Figure
Figure 25.
25. Embroidered
Embroidered light-emitting
light-emitting textiles.
textiles. Image
Image courtesy
courtesy of Forster Rohner
AG,
AG, St.
St. Gallen,
Gallen,Switzerland.
Switzerland.

Moss-embroidered electrodes
Moss-embroidered electrodeshavehavethe the
advantage that permanent
advantage body contact
that permanent body
can be better
contact can beachieved through through
better achieved their 3D structure (Figure 26).
their 3D structure Additionally,
(Error! Referencethesource
shape
andfound.).
not volume of the electrodes,
Additionally, the which
shape can
andbe flexiblyofadapted
volume to body which
the electrodes, shape, can
can be
be
measured. Demonstrators for monitoring brain currents (electroencephalography
flexibly adapted to body shape, can be measured. Demonstrators for monitoring
[EEG] baseball
brain currentscap), heart rate (electrocardiography
(electroencephalography [EEG] [ECG] T-shirt)cap),
baseball and fluid balance
heart rate
have been realized and successfully tested [47].
(electrocardiography [ECG] T-shirt) and fluid balance have been realized and
successfully tested [47].

Electrode (on the inside)

31
Tracks

Push buttons (interface to

the measuring electronics)

Electrode (trouser leg

turned upside down)

Figure 26.(a) (b)Clothing with embroidered tracks (a)

Moss-embroidered electrode [47].
and electrodes (b).

39
 Flexible
Microelectronic circuits contacted
components can with
be contacted on the embroidery
embroidered circuit using thread
onmethods.
various an embroidery machine
In addition to gluing (Fraunhofer
and soldering, flexible circuits canIZM)
be
contacted directly with the embroidery thread (Figure 27a).

(a) (b)
Figure 27. Flexible circuits contacted with embroidery thread (a) and sequin feeder
on an embroidery machine (b) [43,48].

The research institute Textilforschungsinstitut Thüringen-Vogtland e.V. (Greiz,

Germany), in cooperation with Tajima (Nagoya, Japan), has developed special
sequins equipped with conductive structures and Surface Mount Device (SMD)
components such as LEDs [43]. These “Functional Sequin Devices” can be directly
applied and contacted via feed devices of the embroidery machine (Figure 27b).
Embroidery technology is a stable process for the integration of sensors and
conductor track structures. The resolution is limited by the stitch size. On the other
hand, the temperature load for the textile is low compared to the thermal load
imposed by the electronic assembly processes (e.g., soldering, welding, curing).

4.3.2. Printed Circuit Boards on Textiles

Due to the possibility of higher resolutions of the conductive paths and therefore
the possibility to integrate SMDs with much smaller dimensions, different printing
technologies suitable for textile substrates are presented in the following.

4.3.2.1. Screen or Stencil Printing

While the previously mentioned production technologies use conductive yarns
to achieve intelligent properties, Smart Textile applications involving printing on
textiles are presented below.

40
13
 Special inks allow the implementation of intelligent functions in textiles at
high resolution. Washing resistance and susceptibility to cracking under mechanical
stress are the greatest challenges in functional printing on textiles. Researchers at
the University of Tokyo have developed a new type of conductive ink with high
conductivity, mechanical strength and ease of use. The conductivity of an elastic
conductor at an elongation of 0% is a maximum of 738 S cm−1 , and is a minimum of
182 S cm−1 at an elongation of 215% (cf. copper, 58–104 S cm−1 [49]). The components
of the ink are silver flakes, fluorine rubber and surfactants. The fluorine surfactants
arrange the conductive network in the conductor in such a way that high conductivity
and ductility are achieved. The functionality of an organic transistor matrix stretched
by 110% and that of an EMG sensor printed on textile have been proven [50].
Figure 28 shows the printed textile-integrated EMG sensor.

Figure 28. Printed textile-integrated EMG sensor [50].

The printing of classical color samples on textiles can be realized by different

processes. These include rouleaux printing, flat stencil printing and rotary stencil
printing. In rouleaux printing, the pattern to be printed is engraved on rollers
which transfer the pattern to the textile. Screen-printing methods can be used to
print conductive paths on a wide variety of materials, from textiles to foils and
ceramics [51,52]. In flat stencil printing, also known as screen printing, the pattern
is applied to a flat stencil. Printing is carried out for one stencil sheet after the other
(“sheet to sheet”, see Figure 29a).

41
 The print paste is pressed through the permeable screen of the stencil onto the
textile in the desired pattern. In places where the textile is not to be printed on, the
stencil for the printing paste is impermeable. In rotary stencil printing, the stencil
pattern is applied to a roller which prints the paste onto the textile (“roll to roll”, see
Figure 29b). In contrast to flat stencil printing, this process can then be carried out
continuously [53,54].
Procedure for screen printing (left) and rotary printing (right)
The screen-printing process requires a subsequent curing of the printed textile in
an oven, which is essential to maintain high conductivity and fix the printed material
to the substrate (see Chapter 4.3.3) [55].

Rotating sieve Printed pattern

Sieve Ink/Paste

Printed pattern
Ink /Paste

(a) (b)
Figure 29. Process sequence for screen printing (a) and rotary printing (b).

4.3.2.2. Inkjet Printing

Inkjet printing is an alternative technique that does not require the creation of a
stencil. It is a digital printing process that is used by most commercial paper printers.
A digital image is processed by the printer and the print paste is applied to the carrier
textile in small drops through a nozzle without touching the textile. This means
that any pattern can be printed depending on the resolution of the printer. Only the
processability of the printing paste for the printer and the printability of the textile
are important [56,57].
When printing on textile, there are a few hurdles that have to be considered [57]:

• The uneven, unsmooth surfaces of textiles makes the uniform printing of

15 conductive pastes difficult.
• Textiles are stretchy and flexible and should also be washable and breathable
when used in clothing. This leads to an extraordinary load on the
printed electronics.
• Any physical contact with the print imposes special demands on the print paste,
which must therefore be skin-friendly.

42
4.3.2.3. The CREATIF Printer
In addition to conventional printing technologies, the so-called “CREATIF printer”,
named after the CREATIF research project, was developed by the Institut für
Textiltechnik (ITA) of the RWTH Aachen University, Germany, the School of Electronics
and Computer Science, University of Southampton, United Kingdom, and industry
partners [58]. It is a digital printer equipped with print heads for functional pastes,
an inkjet head and corresponding drying units. It prints on textiles with electrically
conductive, thermochromic, luminescent, piezoresistive and many other pastes, which
realize the smart functions of the textile. The components of conductive pastes are
usually silver flakes, fluorinated rubber and fluorinated surfactants. Due to the high
elasticity of the pastes, the high conductivity is maintained even when the material is
stretched three times.
The printing is performed in layers. The DuPont 5025 paste (DuPont,
Wilmington, Delaware, United States) is used for the production of the conductor
paths. In the first layer, the non-intersecting tracks are printed, and in the following
Process
layer, principle
a dielectric for functional
(insulation bridge) pressureof(left)
for the future intersections and
the tracks is Creatif
(right)
printed. This process is repeated until the complete electrical circuit has been realized.
The operating principle of the CREATIF printer can be seen in Figure 30.

Vacuum table
Control Textile

Digital Driving Signal

IJP nozzle
Piezo/Thermo
Ink transducer

Substrate Jet revolver

Fabric
UV lamp
supply Inkjet unit
Movement of substrates
1m

(a) (b)
Figure 30. Procedural principle in functional printing (a) and CREATIF printer (b).
IJP: ink jet printing.

At the ITA of the RWTH Aachen University, production concepts for Smart
Textile products are developed and optimized continuously. By using the CREATIF
printer, the printed circuit board is printed on a PVC-coated woven fabric as shown in
Figure 31. Crossing conductive tracks can be bridged by printing a dielectric material
in a multi-layer structure.

43
 Printed circuit with insulation medium at the crossing point

1 cm

Dielectric

Silver ink

Figure 31. Printed circuit with insulation medium at crossover point [59].

The measured resistivity, $, of the conductive ink, “DuPont 5025 Silver

Conductor”, in this case is 133 Ω·mm2 m−1 (cf. silver, $ = 0.015 Ω·mm2 m−1 [60]).

4.3.3. Curing
In order to achieve high conductivity, the conductive tracks printed on the textile
must be cured. Curing parameters can differ depending on the ink used. The samples
created at the ITA of the RWTH Aachen University were inserted into a reflow oven
at 130 ◦ C for 15 min. After repeating the curing process four times, a decrease in the
electrical resistance was observed (Figure 32).

Average resistance for each material's tracks

after each curing process
2.5
Average resistance [Ω]

2
17
1.5
After 1st curing
After 2nd curing
1
After 3rd curing

0.5 After 4th curing

0
1
71002 2
394 3
549 4
310 5
942 6
324
conductive LED woven
Textile Sample Nr.
track fabric

Figure 32. Electric(a) (b) after washing

circuit (left) and conductivity of the tracks
(right).
Figure 32. Electric circuit (a) and conductivity of the tracks after washing (b).

4.4. Contacting Method between Textile and Electronics

At present, there are four common

44 methods of contacting electrical
components with conductor paths. Error! Reference source not found. gives an
overview of the procedures [43].

Table 3. Common types of processes for contacting textiles and electronics [43].
4.4. Contacting Method between Textile and Electronics
At present, there are four common methods of contacting electrical components
with conductor paths. Table 3 gives an overview of the procedures [43].

Table 3. Common types of processes for contacting textiles and electronics [43].

Procedure Contacting Method Suitability

1 Directly via soldering (+)
(-) Risk of short-circuits if adhesive
With electrically
2 penetrates the textile in case of
conductive adhesives
narrow conductor spacings (<2 mm)
First soldered onto an interposer,
3 which is stitched on with (+)
electrically conductive threads
Direct stitching-on of component (-) Not suitable for small
4
connections SMD components

Table 4 gives an overview of alternative contacting possibilities between

electronic SMDs and textiles.

Table 4. Contacting possibilities between Surface Mount Device (SMD) components

and textiles [43,61,62].

Weaving
Form closure

Sewing
Embroidery
Crimping
Riveting
Irreversible

Adhesive bond
Contacting

Soldering
Adhesive film
Conductive adhesives
Reversible

Adhesion

Screw connection
Magnet
Snap fastener

45
 The soldering of electronics onto textiles has been declared to be a promising
process, even under high mechanical stress [43]. Reflow- and laser-soldering are two
methods that have been tried and tested in industry for contacting SMD components.

4.4.1. Manual Soldering

Manual soldering is the simplest soft-soldering process (<450 ◦ C) used to create
Exemplary
soldered joints. manual soldering
The soldering processprocess
takes place in three steps: first, the conductor
paths are thermally or mechanically cut through; second, one end of the trace is cut;
and finally, the free end of the trace is threaded through the pin hole on the underside
of the SMD component and the solder point is set (see Figure 33).

Figure 33. Example of the manual soldering process.

The manual joining of small electronic components onto textiles involves

numerous potential sources of error. For instance, the textile can easily burn
through when touching the soldering iron, and the position accuracy of the joint is
comparatively low. Automated processes can increase production speed by a factor
of 30.
For example, Molla et al. contacted SMD-LEDs on stitched circuits using manual
reflow soldering. Fourteen-hour mechanical wear tests showed a 3% failure rate [63].

4.4.2. Laser Soldering

20

Laser soldering is particularly suitable for the production of Smart Textiles, since
the focused laser beam causes only a spatially limited and short-term thermal load
on the textile [43]. The principle of laser soldering is shown in Figure 33.

4.5. Coating to Improve the Washability of Textile-Integrated

Electronics
Removing the electronics before washing is generally not a desirable solution for
Smart Textiles. However, a market-ready solution for this challenge has not yet been
found. Different coating and encapsulation techniques are explored. For instance,
the department of textiles of Ghent University researched the improvement of
washability of integrated textiles with SMDs [64]. The research aimed to improve the
washability by using a protective polyurethane layer for covering conductive tracks,
printed on different textiles—Cotton (CO), Viscose (CV), Polyamid (PA) and Polyester
(PES). Washing trials according to ISO 6330:2000 in a domestic washing machine

46
at 40 ± 3 ◦ C showed that about half of the used samples lost their conductivity
after 20 washing cycles. Conductive tracks were printed with the commercial
inks Electrodag PF 410 and 5025 (Henkel AG & Company, KGaA, Düsseldorf,
Germany) [64]. Furthermore, Molla et al. improved the durability of reflow solder
joints on stitched circuit traces using polymer tapes as encapsulation. The best
samples could withstand up to 1000 min of washing and drying [65].
Additional research regarding washable Smart Textiles is conducted at the
ITA of the RWTH Aachen University. In order to test the washability of coated
SMDs integrated into a textile and their connection strength, 30 batches, each
including eight conductive tracks, were tested for their electrical conductivity after
washing. The used SMDs varied between LEDs (NEVARK 5988210107F) and resistors
with different sizes. The conductive tracks were screen-printed with silver paste.
To create a protection layer against environmental influences, the SMDs were coated
with silicone.
The results show that all of the 150 SMDs survived the first washing cycle
after being coated with silicone. After repeating the washing trial 20 times, nearly
every LED survived. These results provide a clear indication of a strong connection
between the SMDs and the conductive tracks, even after repeated mechanical stress.

4.6. Approaches to Automating Smart Textile Production

Exemplary processes for the automated, cost-effective production of Smart
Textiles are presented below (Figure 34). To this end, various research institutes are
pushing ahead with machine developments in order to map the entire process chain
of electronic integration in textiles in a multifunctional device. The production steps
(based on [43]) are listed chronologically below:

1. Embroidery or printing of the conductive paths in the mounted textile;

2. Dispensing solder paste or conductive glue on the SMD footprints;
3. Automated transfer of SMDs from the production platform and positioning on
the textile with the aid of a vacuum gripper;
4. Contacting by soldering of the SMDs with the conductor tracks.

The multifunction device shown in Figure 35 contains the following components:

• Semiconductor laser soldering device from MiLaSys Technologies GmbH

(Holzgerlingen, Germany);
• Dispenser, also from MiLaSys technologies GmbH;
• Round rotatable production platform for electronic components;
• Vacuum gripper for holding and positioning electronic components on the
embroidery base;
• Charge-coupled device (CCD) camera for monitoring the soldering process.

47
 Laser beam

Lens

Focused laser beam

Connector
pin Electronic
component

Solder
paste
Textile

Electrically conductive thread (woven or embroidered)

Figure 34. Principle of laser soldering (according to Reference [43]).

Figure 34. Principle of laser soldering (according to Reference [43]).

Z-axis
Gripper

X-axis
Camera/
Laser
Dispenser Production platform

Figure 35. Multifunction device [43].

Figure 35. Multifunction device [43].
The installation of the multifunction device takes place directly at the
Thefourth
installation
function of theofmultifunction
head device takes place
the TCWM TRIPPLE-QUATTRO directlymachine
embroidery at the fourth
function(Tajima
headGmbH,
of theWinterlingen,
TCWM TRIPPLE-QUATTRO
Germany). embroidery machine (Tajima
GmbH, Winterlingen, Germany).

48
42
 In the first step, the embroidery machine creates conductor tracks on the
In the first step, the embroidery machine creates conductor tracks on the
embroidery ground. Then, the multifunction device dispenser places a solder paste
embroidery ground. Then, the multifunction device dispenser places a solder paste
or adhesive at the end of the tracks. The vacuum gripper sucks the SMDs out of the
or adhesive at the end of the tracks. The vacuum gripper sucks the SMDs out of the
round production platform and positions them at the conductor track ends of the
round production platform and positions them at the conductor track ends of the
embroidery ground. Finally, the SMDs are soldered on using a soldering robot.
embroidery ground. Finally, the SMDs are soldered on using a soldering robot.
A matrix of RGB-LEDs (KIRRON lightning components GmbH & Co KG,
A matrix of RGB-LEDs (KIRRON lightning components GmbH & Co KG,
Korntal-Münchingen, Germany) was constructed based on the presented process.
Korntal-Münchingen, Germany) was constructed based on the presented process.
The functional model is shown in Error! Reference source not found. [43].
The functional model is shown in Figure 36 [43].

GND

1 cm
VCC
4.5V-7.5V

Embroidered
traces
LED

Figure 36. Functional pattern of an LED matrix [43]. GND: ground; VCC: voltage
Figure
at the36. Functional pattern of an LED matrix [43]. GND: ground; VCC : voltage
collector.
at the collector.

4.7.
4.7.Automation Concepts
Automation Concepts
The
TheITAITA of the RWTH
of the RWTHAachen AachenUniversity
Universityhas has developed
developed complete
complete process
process chains
chains
for thefor the automated
automated production
production of Smart of Textiles
Smart Textiles
[59]. In [60]. In the following,
the following, the
the production
production
steps required stepsforrequired for themanufacture
the efficient efficient manufacture
of a wristbandof a wristband
equipped equipped
with sensors
with sensors are described
are described (Figure 37). (Error! Reference source not found.).
InInclocked
clockedproduction,
production,each each layer
layer of printed circuit
of printed circuit paths
paths requires
requiresaadrying
dryingtime
time
of at least 10 min at 120 C, depending on the printing paste used. The lessless
of at least 10 min at ◦120 °C, depending on the printing paste used. The layers
layers that need
that need to beto be printed,
printed, the shorter
the shorter the production
the production time. time. This
This aspect
aspect must
must bebe
taken
taken into account when designing
into account when designing the trace. the trace.
The
Theprerequisites
prerequisites are
aregiven
given toto
apply
apply thethe
mechanical
mechanical and/or thermal
and/or separation
thermal separation
process
processforforthethewhole
wholetextile.
textile. The
The adoption
adoption of of existing
existing separation
separation technologies
technologies in in the
the textile industry is conceivable.
textile industry is conceivable.
The
Thegoal of of
goal thethe
automated
automated joining process
joining is to minimize
process production
is to minimize time andtime
production
guarantee
and guaranteereproducible results. results.
reproducible The joiningThe is carriedis out
joining on a out
carried P30 on
Pick & Place
a P30 Pick &
machine (Mechatronic Systems, Tegernheim, Germany).
Place machine (Mechatronic Systems, Tegernheim, Germany). The advantages The advantages of the of
machine are its two optical measuring systems and graphical
the machine are its two optical measuring systems and graphical interface, which interface, which
facilitate
facilitatethetheplacement
placement of of
thethe
SMDsSMDs on on
thethe
upper
upperandandlower sideside
lower of the substrate.
of the substrate.
Error! Reference source not found. provides
Table 5 provides the technical data of the machine. the technical data of the machine.
43

49
Figure 37. Production chain of a Smart Wristband at the ITA [59].

Table 5. Technical data of the P30 Pick & Place machine.

Designation Characteristics
Work area 500 × 480 mm
SMD size <40 × 40 mm
Application speed 1200 parts/hour
Adhesive dosing speed 6000 points/hour
Precision 0.4 mm

50
 The Cadsoft Eagle PCB Design software (Version 9, Autodesk, Inc.), a design
software for electronics boards, is used to provide the necessary Gerber and
Pick-and-Place files. In the first step, a library is created for each component to
be added to. This contains the size and position of the connection pins (footprints)
of the respective component. Then, a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) is created with
Pick
the aid the software & Place
program, basedMachine (left);libraries.
on the formed automatically applied
The PCB layout withelectronics
Programmed
square footprints is shown in Figuretrace
38. layout (right)

Printed
circuit
Jet traces SMD

5 cm

Component supply Textile

station

Figure 38. Pick & Place machine and automatically applied electronics (center) [59].

The electronics can be protected from mechanical influences by laminating on

a foam cover layer. The end-product of an intelligent textile wristband is shown in
Figure 39.

Top layer

Foam layer

Velcro fastener
25 SMD
Printed
conductor
2 cm PVC-coated
polyester fabric

Figure Model
39. 39.
Figure Modelof
of the Smart
the Smart Wristband
Wristband [60]. [59].

51
 There is a great deal of current research in the field of textile touchpads. As it
occurs with commercially available touchpads, various electrical principles are used.
As well as touchpads, these principles are also used for touch and pressure sensors.
In particular, such sensors are increasingly used in medical technology [66–68]. In the
following, this product type is used to describe design concepts and examples for a
specific Smart Textile, building on the materials, sensors and production technologies
introduced in the previous chapters.

5.1. Resistive Touchpads/Sensors

5.1.1. Sensomative
Sensomative (Rothenburg, Switzerland) is a start-up company, founded in 2015
in Switzerland, which produces textile pressure-measuring mats [69]. These are
based on the same principle as resistive touchpads (see Figure 40). The sensor mass
consists of two layers of conductive textile which are separated from each other by a
spacer grid. By the construction of the pressure mat from many individual sensors
and a suitable measuring algorithm, a pressure distribution can be represented with
the sensomative mat. The mats are used, for example, to control the sitting posture of
office chairs and wheelchairs in order to draw attention to posture errors and uneven
loads [66,69]Figure
(see 40
Figure 41).

Active LED
Textile sample
Conductive track

1 cm

Silicon layer

Active LED

Conductive track
1 cm

Figure 40. LEDs on printed conductive tracks without (upper) and with (lower)
silicone coating.

27 55
Sensomative pressure measuring mat and signal display [Sen17]

Bürostuhl
Office chair
Sensor mat

10 cm

Pressure
distribution

Figure 41. Sensomative pressure-measurement mat and signal representation [69].

Image courtesy of Sensomative.

5.1.2. Fabri Touch

Fabri Touch is a joint project of the Media Computing Group of the Department
of Computer Science of the RWTH Aachen University and Smart Wearables Ltd.
(Sofia, Bulgaria). The project deals with the integration of a resistive touchpad on
the thigh-front of a pair of trousers. For this purpose, a layer structure consisting
of a piezoresistive film, a spacer grid and an electrically conductive fabric is used.
The assembly is completed with non-conductive textiles at the top and bottom.
The piezoresistive film changes its resistance depending on the applied force. If a
voltage is applied to the conductive fabric, the distance between the piezoresistive
film and the fabric changes. The distance is ensured by a grid. The change in distance
causes a current to flow from the fabric to the film. By means of voltmeters at
all corners of the film, the position and pressure of the touch can be determined
28
with the help of the appropriate resistance. Within the project, a prototype was
produced and its suitability for the recognition of gestures and the control of a mouse
pointer was examined. That prototype has registered gestures, and could be used to
operate a mouse pointer. However, not all gestures could be registered equally well:
experiments showed that horizontal gestures were less precise than vertical gestures,
and additionally operation on the thigh was less stable than on a firm support [70].

5.2. Capacitive Touchpads and Sensors

5.2.1. Amotape Pressure Sensor
The Amotape Pressure Sensor of AMOHR Technische Textilien GmbH
(Wuppertal, Germany) is a sensor in the form of a tape based on the principle of
electrical capacitance. The sensor consists of a hose whose two layers approach each
other under load, which results in a measurable change in capacitance (Figure 42).

56
 each other under load, which results in a measurable change in capacitance (Figure
42).tape
The The can
tape be
canused
be used in the
in the care
care sector
sector totoprotect
protectagainst
against bedsores
bedsores or
or falls
fallsfrom
from
bed[67,68].
bed [68,69].

Figure 42. Tubular pressure sensor. Image courtesy of AMOHR GmbH [68].
Figure 42. Tubular pressure sensor. Image courtesy of AMOHR GmbH [69].
5.2.2. Google Jacquard
Google Jacquard
The Internet company Google published its Google Jacquard concept in 2015 at
The Internet company Google published its Google Jacquard concept in 2015
"Google I/O", its annual developer conference. Within the framework of this project,
at "Google I/O", its annual developer conference. Within the framework of this
a yarn that can be used for electrical applications was developed that can be woven
project, a yarn that can be used for electrical applications was developed that can
like normal yarns. Copper wire is coated with polyurethane and then yarn is braided
be woven like normal yarns. Copper wire is coated with polyurethane and then
around it. This gives the multi-component yarn a purely textile structure on the
yarn is braided around it. This gives the multi-component yarn a purely textile
outside so that the yarn does not stand out optically. The polyurethane layer protects
structure on the outside so that the yarn does not stand out optically. The
the copper core from the influence of chemicals and high temperatures and further
polyurethane layer protects the copper core from the influence of chemicals and
prevents skin contact. Yarns produced in this way should have mechanical properties
high temperatures and further prevents skin contact. Yarns produced in this way
comparable to those of conventional yarns and can be processed in the standard
should have mechanical properties comparable to those of conventional yarns and
weaving process. This creates a textile in which the electrical components are not
can be processed in the standard weaving process. This creates a textile in which
visible from the outside. By connecting suitable electronics, the woven yarns are
the electrical components are not visible from the outside. By connecting suitable
transformed into a textile touchpad based on the principle of self-capacity. As the
electronics, the woven yarns are transformed into a textile touchpad based on the
hand approaches, the electric field around the yarns changes. This change can be
principle of self-capacity. As the hand approaches, the electric field around the
evaluated by the microelectronics used and translated into gestures. Google’s concept
yarns changes. This change can be evaluated by the microelectronics used and
has been applied in a denim jacket by Levi Strauss & Co. The touch area is integrated
translated into gestures. Google’s concept has been applied in a denim jacket by
into the fabric on the sleeve. The microcontroller can be removed to wash the jacket.
Levi Strauss & Co. The touch area is integrated into the fabric on the sleeve. The
All other components of the jacket are washable [71,72].
microcontroller can be removed to wash the jacket. All other components of the
jacket are washable [72,73].

6. Summary and Outlook

By Volker Lutz and Inga Gehrke

49

57
 Despite significant advances in both hardware and software technology
and user interaction design, Smart Textiles have not taken off yet beyond the
prototype stage. One of the major reasons for this is the complexity of products,
technologies and businesses, which has prevented Smart Textiles from becoming
market-ready products.
This book offers the possibility to structure the predominant complexity of Smart
Textile products and to assist in the design and selection of required technologies.
Its structured description of potential materials and technologies forms a basis
to efficiently network with the necessary stakeholders of the textile, electronics,
software, design and service industries.
This book provides a basis that can be used by all players, especially for
the description of individual textile and textile-related components. Additionally,
its structure provides a basis for the targeted and coordinated further development
of materials, technologies and processes in order to bring the textile and electrical
engineering sectors much closer together.
A directly usable tool is the sensor catalog presented in this book. The following
steps are necessary to ensure that further developments lead to direct updating of
the catalog:

• Creation of an open-source database that can be updated and reviewed by all

potential stakeholders.
• Extension of the database by elementary knowledge of marketable
production technologies.
• Extension of the database with design guides and business models.
• Generation of real work results and business-to-business (B2B) relationships to
create marketable products.
• Use of the database in future interdisciplinary training concepts of necessary
qualifications for Smart Textiles.

To overcome the known market barriers, especially for small and medium
enterprises, the project GeniusTex (2018, funded by the Federal Ministry of Economic
Affairs and Energy, Germany) will create cooperation and collaboration opportunities
to develop Smart Textile products, services and business models (see Figure 43).
Based on an interactive innovation platform, GeniusTex (www.geniustex.net)
will enable a B2B business model between Smart Textile developers, producers and
users. Within the project, a methodology for process design to integrate textiles
and electronic components into Smart Textiles will be developed. As part of that
process, the sensor catalog introduced in this book is one technical outcome of this
development platform.

61
 Figure 43. GeniusTex Smart Textiles platform and its collaborators. SDK: software
development kit.

The innovation platform will be open to all players in Smart Textiles (textiles,
electronics, designers, software application developers, end-users) and their
contributions (e.g., by software development kit). The platform also aims to
overcome the strong segmentation in the textile industry in particular. Since almost
every production step is done by individual parties, an enhanced communication
and material flow is necessary. It is expected that only fast and standardized
communication between each step or new multi-stage production steps will solve
this challenging problem.
A common language for Smart Textile components, building on the
modularization described in Part II (Figure 17), will be defined in order to structure
offerings on the platform and to connect ideas and partners. The platform will
have an international setup (e.g., USA, South Korea) to ensure that both platform
architecture and structured language are globally accessible. Together with the
feedback of end-users, it will generate the opportunity to consider the market needs
at an early stage of product development.
To support early-stage developments, the GeniusTex software development
kit (SDK) will help to connect inhomogeneous sensors and to develop intelligent
Smart Textile services. A web-based graphical editor will be created to simplify
the selection, crosslinking and definition of trigger events, as well as the selection
of actuators.

62
 Besides collaboration platforms like GeniusTex, it is crucial that product
development is not in particular based on technology push. Smart Textiles
need the consideration of any kind of technology that is feasible under the
consideration of application requirements such as functionality, acceptance and
usability. The integration of technology and textiles should be taken into account
whenever the unique properties of textiles are essential for the desired use case,
however not for the sake of textile integration itself.
Parallel to further developments in materials and process technology
research, the creation of adjacent infrastructures for Smart Textiles is necessary.
These developments include:

• Standardization: required to facilitate stakeholder interactions, e.g., creating

interfaces between electronics and textiles, contacting, data standards,
testing standards, etc.
• Concepts for the user-accepted, sustainable and economic integration of
energy supplies.
• Increased and application-specific robustness of the components used, but also
defined mechanical or chemical stress, e.g., washing along the entire product
life cycle.
• Business models for the entire Smart Textiles system. It can be assumed that
the mostly digital services associated with Smart Textiles will account for a
significant proportion of the future economic performance of these products.
• Regulations and laws that support the intended usage scenario and
prevent misuse.

So far, established companies from the textile, electronics, software, etc., sectors
have not been able to build sustainable Smart Textile business models without
expanding their existing competencies. This means that small companies or start-ups
have an especially high chance of success in the future Smart Textiles market, due
to the fact that small enterprises are more agile in adopting other technologies.
Nevertheless, both small and established companies face the same challenge of
moving from demonstrators and prototypes to economically successful products.
For this purpose, scalable production technologies for Smart Textiles must be
generated in the participating industries. These technologies need to represent
the step from small series to mass production without suffering a technological
or economic break.
Future Smart Textiles products will also require the creativity and courage of
designers and engineers to create new products. In order to move more quickly
from the creative product-development process to the industrially manufacturable
product in the future, flexible, modular design systems are required that combine the
basic technologies. By flexibly combining technologies such as printing, embroidery,

63
pick and place, or cutting in one manufacturing system, designers and engineers can
develop and manufacture products from prototypes to small batches. The use of such
systems should not be restricted to technology experts. That means that the basic
technologies for functionalizing textiles need to be easily accessible to a wide range of
potential operators. These flexible manufacturing systems also represent a toolbox for
new business models in contract manufacturing or finishing, e.g., conventional textile
products could be refined and finished by small enterprises with smart functions.

Author Contributions: The authors contributing to the individual parts of this work are
named at the beginning of each section. Within the sections, the authors have contributed
equally to this publication.
Acknowledgments: The publishing of this work has been supported by funding from the
Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy of Germany for the GeniusTex project.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsors had
no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the
writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to publish the results.

64
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71
 APPENDIX
by Inga Gehrke and Patrycja Bosowski-Schoenberg;
Design and and Illustrations of Catalog by Jan Serode

Classified Catalog of Textile-Based

Sensors for Developing Smart Textiles
 AGROTECH

PAGE 75 LIQUID LEVEL INDICATOR HUMIDITY SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum (refractive index Electric current

fiber core/fiber cladding)

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber Weft knit

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Planar

5 | MATERIAL Glass Electrically conductive yarn

a) Procedural principle The liquid filling level is determined by measuring Knitted fabric with a basic weft knit which contains
a proportion of the light coupled out in the optical at least one thread made of a material which
waveguide correlating to the refractive index of changes its electrical resistance when affected
the liquid medium. The propagation of the light by moisture. The weft knit is equipped with an
within the fiber is influenced by the surrounding integrated moisture sensor, consisting of at least
liquid medium. The geometry of the fiber section two electrodes arranged at a distance, which are
determines the cancellation of the total reflection of electrically connected to each other in case of
light waves. [1] moisture. [2]
Liquid level indicator, p.2

b) Schematic sketch Detector Fiber isolation Detector Humidity sensor, p.2

Fiber isolation
(diode) (diode)
Fiber coupler Basic thread in right-left-binding
Fiber coupler
Light beam
Light beam
Light Light
Conical end of Conical end of
Liquid light transmitter light transmitter
Liquid

Fiber
Light Detector isolation
(diode)
Reflecting Lightbeam

Transmitting
Lightbeam
Fiber optics

c) Known/possible fields of Possible applications in chemical process Woven fabrics in which electrically well conducting
application engineering, e.g., determination of the acid and electrically not well conducting threads are
concentration via the refractive index. alternately woven with each other.
Electrical means of connection in the form of
terminals, plug-in connection parts.

d) Possible sensor variants Variation of the fiber geometry: Conical ends of the Electrical means of connection can be connected to
optical waveguide and miniature prisms cancel out the monitoring station via textile conductors. The
the total reflection for all parts of the light waves. textile behavior ensures that the joint is extremely
A fiber bent into a U-shape and provided without flexible and elastic.
cladding glass only picks up a certain part of the light
waves. A fiber-optic refractometer sensor of high
sensitivity is also suitable as a temperature sensor.

e) Opportunities and ++ Possible corrosion of sensor ++ Integration of the sensor directly into the
challenges ++ Restriction of the measuring range garment, with no external application necessary
++ Long-term stability

−− Danger of contamination of the sensor

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 9 6–8
 AGROTECH
MOISTURE- AND CHEMICAL-SENSITIVE
PAGE 76 OPTOELECTRONIC SENSOR
SENSOR THREAD
1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Mechanical, chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber n/a

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Plexiglas n/a

a) Procedural principle Detection of adhering liquid components in or on Permanent identification of harmful environmental
liquid-storing substances by detecting the change influences through the use of threads which change
in the transmission of light in a light guide with the their shape, color or volume while absorbing liquids.
liquid component to be taken. [3] The core yarn must be UV-resistant and clearly
distinguished in color from the load-bearing tape.
For the sheath fibers of the yarn, a material must
Optoelectronic sensor , p.3
p.3
be selected which is changed in shape, color or
structure by UV radiation. [4]

b) Schematic sketch

Core yarn
(UV sensor)

Beam Coat fiber

Light conductor (wear sensor)

c) Known/possible field of Detection of liquid content of soils, textiles or A friction-spun sensor thread represents a
application granulates. combination of abrasion and UV sensor.
Monitoring tasks, for example in landfills.

d) Possible sensor variants Cost-effective Decrease in abrasion resistance with increasing

exposure to UV radiation.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light None

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 AGROTECH

PAGE 77 WATER DETECTOR DETECTION MEANS

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Textile tape, thread, thread bundle, textile fiber Fiber

PRINCIPLE composite, fleece, paper, film, wire, warp knit

4 | GEOMETRY Punctiform, linear, planar, voluminous Linear, planar

5 | MATERIAL Cellulose, polyolefin, nylon, Nomex, Teflon, plastic, Cellulose, plastic, glass, ceramics
polyester, ceramic, metal, wool

a) Procedural principle Textile probe with sufficiently large stored active Detection of substances with shaped and unshaped
substance depot, which on contact with the detection means, containing fibers and/or adhesives
substance to be investigated causes a visual which react to environmental influences via a color
chemical change in the detector depending on the change as an indicator. [6]
composition and movement of the analyte. The
change occurs in the form of a substance solution,
substance deposition or formation of a new
substance at the detector itself. [5]

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of Analysis of gas and water, and also soil and Analysis of water, soil and sediment samples
application sediment, samples. for natural and artificial constituents including
radioactive contaminants.
Control measures in food and feed production.
Production and monitoring of industrial products,
including gases.
Monitoring and control of industrial processes.
Control measures in the nuclear sector.

d) Possible sensor variants The resistance of the optically visually-recognizable Spatially and temporally seamless qualitative
color pattern of the detector to water with a different monitoring and documentation of processes
composition to that of the measuring point and the possible.
atmosphere, which is exposed to short-term effects,
prevents falsification of the measurement.

e) Opportunities and −− The detection medium can also be used to a

challenges limited extent as a filter for certain substances

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None None

III RESOLUTION >1 h

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 9 9
 AGROTECH

PAGE 78 FIBER-OPTIC SENSOR CARBON-FILLED CELLULOSE FIBER

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber Fiber, filament, film

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear, planar

5 | MATERIAL Cotton for protective vision, fluoride glass for light Polymer
guide sheath and core

a) Procedural principle Fiber-optic sensor for detecting gaseous or liquid Carbon-filled cellulose fiber. Detection of liquids
media, surrounded by an optical fiber sheath or vapors via electrically conductive filaments
consisting of a fluoride glass of low chemical from dry-wet spun cellulose dotted with charge
p.5 resistance to be detected on contact with the carriers (graphite, carbon black, pigments with
analyte. Decomposition of the sheath takes place semiconducting layers, metallic fibers or carbon
within a characteristic chemically induced reaction fibers) whose conductivity changes under tension/
time until the sensor responds as a function of the pressure or with increasing moisture content. [8]
original thickness of the sheath, the temperature
and the concentration of the attacking medium
while maintaining the total reflection condition
(lower refractive index of the sheath with respect
left, p.5 to the optical fiber core). A textile, hygroscopic
protective layer around the light-guide sheath
increases the corrosive effect of the attacking
medium on the light-guide sheath. [7]

b) Schematic sketch
Humidity

Drag
Fiber-optic core
Fiber-optic sheath
Gas- and liquid-permeable Print
protective cover C-doped
core Mantle

c) Known/possible field of Detection of gaseous and liquid media. Detection of liquids or vapors.
application Monitoring of electrical cables, lines and
endangered installations, pipelines, equipment and
buildings for the ingress of water, water vapor, acids,
alkalis or other gases and liquids.

d) Possible sensor variants High mechanical strength. Mechanically stable even at high temperatures, and
sometimes even fire-retardant.

e) Opportunities and ++ High response sensitivity, even to individual −− Increasing carbon-black content reduces
challenges media only substance strength, ductility and toughness
++ Targeted analysis of individual specific −− Doping with carbon-black influences the material
substances with desired concentration content viscosity to such an extent that the formation of
++ Low manufacturing and general costs stable threads is not possible at normal spinning
speeds
−− If the doping with soot is too high, the electrical
resistance increases disproportionately

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Light-guide sheath with lower refractive index than

conductor core, light-guide sheath made of fluoride
glass with lower hydrolytic resistance
II ENERGY SUPPLY None Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 AGROTECH

PAGE 79 PH SENSOR FIBER-OPTIC PH SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Polymer, glass

a) Procedural principle Measurement of substance concentrations, which Utilization of the light absorption dependent on the
are not directly accessible spectroscopically, with a pH value of the surrounding medium in a fiber-
sensitive chemoreceptor. This receptor is a sensor, optic probe consisting of a segment of a multimode
at the end of which a specific indicator (e.g., phenol optical fiber whose end forms the sensor head.
red in polyacrylamide) is immobilized by which a In this area, both the coating and the cladding of
change in pH is measured either in reflection or as the fiber are removed so that a sensitive layer of a
fluorescence. [9] copolymer with immobilized dye is polymerized
sensor, p.6 onto the core. Electromagnetic radiation is guided
in such a way that the light rays pass through the
interface between the fiber core and the sensitive
layer and are returned to the core by total reflection
p.6 at the interface between the sensitive layer and the
aqueous analyte. Wavelength-selective absorption
occurs. [10]

b) Schematic sketch

Optical fiber Cladding Coating pH-sensitive Mirror layer

layer
Protective layer
Optical fiber
Immobilized indicator Unmirrored
6–20 mm

Permeable membrane face Fiber core Shaft Epoxy resin

c) Known/possible field of Chemical-analytical measurements.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Very accurate measurement of the pH value only Low influence of the internal thickness on the sensor
achievable for very small ranges (approximately characteristic curve.
three pH units).

e) Opportunities and ++ High long-term stability

challenges ++ High sensitivity
++ Damping arm

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Six months service life

II ENERGY SUPPLY None Light

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES 0.005 pH units At 680 nm, 0.06 absorbance units per pH unit over
the measuring range of four pH units

VI TRL 6–8 9
 AGROTECH
INTEGRATED OPTICAL
PAGE 80 INTEGRATED OPTICAL RESONATOR
FREQUENCY DOUBLER
1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL LiNbO3

a) Procedural principle Determination of absolute temperatures by The temperature is changed by means of optical
means of optical frequency doubling, in which resonators integrated in LiNbO3 with a periodic
a specific light wavelength is required for a characteristic curve. To be able to record the
known temperature of the resonator in order to number of orders passed as a function of the
achieve a frequency conversion (phase-matching direction of the phase (or temperature) change
ofp7fundamental and harmonic wave) with high requires two signals phase-shifted by 90°. It is
efficiency. [1] advantageous to use the output signals to arrive at
an evaluation, which counts in each case with the
zero crossing, and thus an independence from slow
fluctuations of the light intensity is achieved. The
phase modulation required for differentiation is
achieved by frequency modulation of the laser light
or by electro-optical modulation of the optical path
length of the resonator. [1]

b) Schematic sketch

Light

c-Axis
TiLiNb03
LiNb03

c) Known/possible field of Temperature monitoring of textile structures. Temperature monitoring of textile structures.
application

d) Possible sensor variants Particularly high efficiency. The sensitivity of the temperature sensor can be
determined in wide ranges by the length of the
component and the wavelength of the light.

e) Opportunities and −− The prerequisite for measurement is a tunable, ++ Simple measuring system with high accuracy
challenges coherent light source with enough power to when supplying the resonator sensor element via
operate the resonator. a polarization-maintaining monomode fiber
++ Measurement of the smallest temperature
changes possible due to the strong temperature
dependence of the refractive index

−− Measurement of absolute temperatures not

possible

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current None

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY Sensitivity of 35 impulses/K, resolution of

29 impulses/K
V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 AGROTECH

PAGE 81 TEMPERATURE SENSOR PHOSPHOR TEMPERATURE SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electric current, electromagnetic light spectrum, Electromagnetic light spectrum, temperature
transmitted light, temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear, phosphorus diameter a few 100s of μm

5 | MATERIAL Metals, electrically conductive polymers, glass fibers Doped phosphorus (Gd2O2S and La2O2S)

a) Procedural principle p8 of thread-shaped sensors for the

Design Temperature determination with evaluation of the
investigation of thermal loads based on low-melting temperature-dependent luminescence of a doped
metal wires, which change their electrical properties phosphor at the end of an optical glass fiber to
under thermal load. [4] generate a luminescence, the phosphor is excited by
Temperature determination by measuring the UV light via a (multimode) fiber and the fiber guided
change of the refraction coefficient of the light-guide over the same fiber is spectrally decomposed and
sheath under temperature change, which leads to a detected. The intensity ratio of two lines is used to
corresponding transmission difference. [9] determine the temperature. [1]

b) Schematic sketch

Heat

Eu-dopted Glass fiber

Low-melting metal
phosphor

c) Known/possible field of Temperature monitoring of textile structures. Temperature monitoring of textile structures.
application

d) Possible sensor variants Use of threads of electrically conductive polymers or As an alternative to the intensity ratio, the
electrically conductive coated polymers. temperature-dependent phase shift between
Temperature sensors based on the principle of luminescent light and excitation light can be
absorption edge displacement, using filter glasses determined with periodic excitation. The measuring
instead of semiconductor elements. range of this variant is between -30–150 °C with
an accuracy of 0.04 °C. Using a small, inexpensive
luminescent GaxAl1-x- As crystal as a sensor, a
temperature range between 0 and 200 °C can be
measured with an accuracy of 1 °C (resolution 0.1°C).

e) Opportunities and ++ High reproducibility ++ Cost-effective

challenges ++ Short response time ++ Small installation space
++ High accuracy
++ Due to unfavorable properties of the metals there
is a low tendency for thread or surface production

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None None

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL 0.1 °C

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES 50–250 °C -50–+250 °C

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 AGROTECH

PAGE 82 FIBER-OPTIC TEMPERATURE SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum, temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber processed into fabric

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Flat, length of one optical waveguide up to 20 m

5 | MATERIAL Fiber made of glass, sheet material, e.g., geotextile

a) Procedural principle Textile temperature-measuring mat with meandering optical waveguide for checking and monitoring
the insulation of cladding pipe sections. The temperature is measured via a fiber-optic recording of the
p9
temperature-dependent anti-Stokes line in the optical waveguide. The temperature can be measured either
continuously or sequentially by evaluating the scattered light pulses depending on the run time. From the
registered temperature curve, the effectiveness of the insulation can be concluded. [11]

b) Schematic sketch

Optical fiber

Sheet
Velcro
Recess in the
sheet

c) Known/possible field of Control and monitoring of the insulation of pipe sections.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Replacement of the fiber-optic cable by flat distributed single sensors.

e) Opportunities and ++ Simultaneous temperature measurement of several locations by means of a light pulse and the
challenges dependence of the temperature on the propagation time of the light
++ Temperature measurement already possible during the manufacture of the pipe insulation
++ Cost-effective method, since one fiber-optic cable is sufficient for temperature measurement in principle
++ Location-dependent measurement enables local weak points in the pipe insulation to be detected

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Fabrics not subject to tensile, compressive and tear loads

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY 0.1 K

V MEASUREMENT RANGE 100–750 K

VI TRL 9
 AGROTECH
FIBER-OPTIC DISPLACEMENT
PAGE 83 ACTIVE FIBER-OPTIC SENSOR
TRANSDUCER
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Path, route Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor Fiber

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL

a) Procedural principle Measurement of paths on the basis of various Measurement of the distance between sensor and
principles. In particular, fiber-optic measurements fluid environment, the concentration of chemicals
of a large number of physical quantities that can be in the fluid environment, the pH value of aqueous
converted into paths by test specimens. [1] solutions, and the partial pressures of a gas by
evaluating the light transmitted via the fiber-optic
laser if this changes characteristically as a reaction
between the sensor reagent and the surrounding
environment. [12]
p10

b) Schematic sketch
Holding or
Element
sleeve element Shell Pipe
(spherical or egg-shaped)

Piece

Optical fiber (transmitting fiber) Optical fiber

(receiver fiber)
Photodetector

Light source

c) Known/possible field of Measurement technology, from displacement Control of chemical processes in nuclear and
application measurement, angle, pressure or acceleration can industrial areas, underground nuclear waste in the
also be measured, depending on the arrangement. environment, in medical and biological analysis,
as well as in the agri-food industry; medical
applications; biochemical applications; use in the
food industry.

d) Possible sensor variants Fiber-optically active sensor. [13]

e) Opportunities and ++ Long service life

challenges ++ Simple sterilization
++ High stability

−− Limited pH measuring range

−− Limited reproducibility of the reaction between
optical fibers and the immobilized reagent

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Bulky sensor material

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES 10 -10–1 m

VI TRL 9 9
 AGROTECH

PAGE 84 SOUND SENSOR (HYDROPHONE) RAPID-SHRINK FIBER

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor Warp knit, weave

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear, planar

5 | MATERIAL Quartz glass Elastomer (polyutherane, rubber)

a) Procedural principle Fiber-optic hydrophone (Mach–Zehnder A polymer fiber which shrinks rapidly at ordinary
interferometer) for highly sensitive detection of temperature and in contact with water, but
pressure differences between measuring and retains the fiber shape (impact strength), has high
reference fibers. By modulating the refractive index absorbency, and has performance characteristics
of the measuring fiber, the sound pressure changes such as rubber elasticity. [14]
the phase length of the passing light and thus
the interference signal, which is detected by two
p12
photodiodes and fed to the amplifier via a high-
pass filter. The signal behind the low pass is used to
stabilize the operating point of the interferometer
against slow fluctuations, e.g., due to temperature
p11
changes. [1]

b) Schematic sketch
Measurand
Detectors Differential
Radius r
amplifier
Measuring fiber
Comparison fiber Water-absorbent
Beamsplitter
shrinkable yarn
Pitch d
Phase compensation
Low pass Rapidly shrinking fiber

Signal Lock In High pass

Twist angle

c) Known/possible field of Metrology. Disposable diapers; fastening tapes; cloths as covers

application for dampening units in offset printers; cords or
cylinders for plant cultivation; cords and nets for the
food industry; bank reinforcements.

d) Possible sensor variants Due to the flexibility of the quartz glass fibers, A water-absorbing, shrinkable yarn produced
sensors with directional characteristics can be by blending or by blending spinning the rapidly
manufactured. shrinking fiber and a fiber that shrinks slower than
said fiber upon the absorption of water. A water-
absorbing shrinkable material which consists of
a water-absorbing shrinkable fibrous web and a
water-absorbing shrinkable yarn that absorbs water
at a higher rate and to a greater extent than the
fibrous web, with the water-absorbing shrinkable
yarn containing the rapidly shrinking fiber.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES At 20 °C, maximum percentage shrinkage >30%

II ENERGY SUPPLY Laser light

III RESOLUTION 0–10 s

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE At 20 °C, shrinkage stress = 0.351–1.755 kg/m²

(30–150 mg/den)

VI TRL 9 9
 BUILDTECH
MOISTURE- AND CHEMICAL-SENSITIVE
PAGE 85 CARBON-FILLED CELLULOSE PHASE
SENSOR THREAD
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical, chemical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION n/a Fiber, filament, film

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear, planar

p.5
5 | MATERIAL n/a Polymer

a) Procedural principle Permanent identification of harmful environmental Carbon-filled cellulose fiber. Detection of liquids
influences through the use of threads which change or vapors via electrically conductive filaments
their shape, color or volume while absorbing liquids. from dry-wet spun cellulose dotted with charge
The core yarn must be UV-resistant and clearly carriers (graphite, carbon black, pigments with
distinguished in color from the load-bearing tape. semiconducting layers, metallic fibers or carbon
p.3
For the sheath fibers of the yarn, a material must fibers) whose conductivity changes under tension/
be selected which is changed in shape, color or pressure or with increasing moisture content. [8]
structure by UV radiation. [4]

b) Schematic sketch
Humidity

Core yarn Drag

(UV sensor)

Coat fiber
(wear sensor) Print
C-doped
core Mantle

c) Known/possible field of A friction-spun sensor thread represents a Detection of liquids or vapors.

application combination of an abrasion sensor and a UV sensor.

d) Possible sensor variants Decrease in abrasion resistance with increasing Mechanically stable even at high temperatures,
exposure to UV radiation. sometimes fire-retardant.

e) Opportunities and −− Increasing carbon-black content reduces

challenges substance strength, ductility and toughness
−− Doping with carbon black influences the material
viscosity to such an extent that stable thread
formation is not possible at normal spinning
speeds
−− If the doping with soot is too high, the electrical
resistance increases disproportionately

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 9 6–8
 BUILDTECH

PAGE 86 INTEGRATED OPTICAL RESONATOR TEMPERATURE SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electric current, electromagnetic light spectrum,

transmitted light, temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL LiNbO3 Metals, electrically conductive polymers, glass fibers

a) Procedural principle The temperature changed by means of optical Design of thread-shaped sensors for the
resonators integrated in LiNbO3 with a periodic investigation of thermal loads based on low-melting
characteristic curve. To be able to record the metal wires, which change their electrical properties
number of orders passed as a function of the under thermal load. [4]
direction of the phase (or temperature) change Temperature determination by measuring the
p8
requires two signals phase-shifted by 90°. It is change of the refraction coefficient of the light guide
advantageous to use the output signals to arrive at sheath under temperature change, which leads to a
an evaluation, which counts in each case with the corresponding transmission difference. [9]
zero crossing, and thus an independence from slow
fluctuations of the light intensity is obtained. The
phase modulation required for differentiation is
achieved by frequency modulation of the laser light
or by electro-optical modulation of the optical path
length of the resonator. [1]

b) Schematic sketch
Light Heat

c-Axis
TiLiNb03
LiNb03 Low-melting metal

c) Known/possible field of Temperature monitoring of textile structures. Temperature monitoring of textile structures.
application

d) Possible sensor variants The sensitivity of the temperature sensor can be Use of threads of electrically conductive polymers
determined in wide ranges by the length of the or electrically conductive coated polymers.
component and the wavelength of the light. Temperature sensors based on the principle of
absorption edge displacement, using filter glasses
instead of semiconductor elements.

e) Opportunities and ++ Simple measuring system with high accuracy ++ High reproducibility
challenges when supplying the resonator sensor element via ++ Short response time
a polarization-maintaining monomode fiber ++ High accuracy
++ Measurement of smallest temperature changes ++ Due to unfavourable properties of the metals low
possible due to the strong temperature tendency for thread or surface production
dependence of the refractive index

−− Measurement of absolute temperatures not

possible

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None None

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL Sensitivity of 35 impulses/K, resolution of

29 impulses/K

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES 50–250 °C

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 BUILDTECH

PAGE 87 PHOSPHOR TEMPERATURE SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum, temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, phosphorus diameter a few 100s of μm

5 | MATERIAL
p8 Doped phosphorus (Gd2O2S and La2O2S)

a) Procedural principle Temperature determination with evaluation of the temperature-dependent luminescence of a doped
phosphor at the end of an optical glass fiber to generate a luminescence, the phosphor is excited by UV light
via a (multimode) fiber and the fiber guided over the same fiber is spectrally decomposed and detected. The
intensity ratio of two lines determines the temperature. [1]

b) Schematic sketch

Eu-dopted Glass fiber

phosphor

c) Known/possible field of Temperature monitoring of textile structures.

application

d) Possible sensor variants As an alternative to the intensity ratio, the temperature-dependent phase shift between luminescent light
and excitation light can be determined with periodic excitation. The measuring range of this variant is
between -30–150 °C with an accuracy of 0.04 °C. Using a small, inexpensive and luminescent GaxAl1-x- As
crystal as a sensor, a temperature range between 0 and 200 °C can be measured with an accuracy of 1 °C
(resolution 0.1 °C).

e) Opportunities and ++ Cost-effective

challenges ++ Small installation space

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY 0.1 °C

V MEASUREMENT RANGE -50–+250 °C

VI TRL 6–8
 BUILDTECH
FIBER-OPTIC DISPLACEMENT
PAGE 88 ALARM WALLPAPER
TRANSDUCER
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Path, route Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor Fiber fleece

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Planar

5 | MATERIAL Fiber fleece: plastic; conductor paths: electrically

conductive metals

a) Procedural principle Measurement of paths on the basis of various Surface monitoring system with coating of plastic
principles. Measurement of paths. In particular, fiber fiber fleece coated with electrically conductive,
optic measurements of a large number of physical metal-free conductive tracks which trigger an alarm
quantities that can be converted into paths by test in case of damage. [15]
specimens. [1]

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of Measurement technology, from displacement Alarm in case of damage to surfaces.
application measurement, angle, pressure or acceleration can
also be measured, depending on the arrangement.

d) Possible sensor variants Simple retrofitting possible.

e) Opportunities and ++ Self-calibration function

challenges ++ Device not detectable via instruments
++ Side effects (noises, vibrations and temperature
fluctuations) are not recorded
++ Modular system structure possible
++ Roll material for use in all cases of need

−− Impairment by nails, screws or dowels in the wall

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE 10 -10–1 m

VI TRL 9 6–8
 BUILDTECH

PAGE 89 LUMINOUS SIGNAL FILAMENT LAMELLA

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Friction-spun yarn Composite material; weave, warp knit, weft knit,
PRINCIPLE netting, scrim

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Flat, lamella 400 mm x 200 mm

5 | MATERIAL Polypropylene core, polypropylene or polyester Optical fiber: polymer or glass; carrier textile: glass,
jacket carbon, aramid, or basalt scrim

a) Procedural principle Friction-spun yarn or wrap-around yarn with a light- Embroidered arrangement of fiber-optic high-
intensive signal thread (with color and light effects) performance fibers with integrated fiber-Bragg-
visibly integrated into the core from the outside for gratings on a lamella for detection of temperature
the detection of a wear condition. The signal thread changes, elongations, compressions and oscillations
is covered by a cover sensitive to environmental in supporting structures. Guiding the fiber-optic
influences (abrasion, UV radiation, chemicals), sensor in the direction of the lines of force for
which is why this is visually recognizable after the detection of tensile, compressive and shear
exceeding a limit load adjustable via the resistance forces and also transversely to the lines of force for
of the cover. [4] temperature compensation. Solidification of the
textile structure by means of a resin system and
construction of the composite material from one or
p16 more textile layers. [16]

b) Schematic sketch
Chemicals
4000 mm

200 mm
UV radiation Fiber-optic sensor
Core Spectrometer
Lamella

Mantle

c) Known/possible field of Inspection of the wear condition of belts and ropes Reinforcement and monitoring of concrete and
application by means of camera observation. wooden structures.
Critical deflection of structural elements.
Critical crack formation.
Evidence of functionality, reliability and safety
evidence of remaining useful life.

d) Possible sensor variants Incorporation of fiber Bragg gratings before or after

textile processing.

e) Opportunities and ++ Fast and reliable application for building

challenges refurbishments
++ No temperature dependence

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Sensitive sheath, fluorescent core

II ENERGY SUPPLY

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 9 9
 BUILDTECH
TEMPERATURE-CONTROLLED
PAGE 90 PYROMETERS
RADIATION TRANSMISSION
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electromagnetic light spectrum, temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fleece Fiber-optic conductor

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Flat, fiber diameter 0.01 to 10 mm Linear

5 | MATERIAL Thermotropic polymer blends Sapphire glass, quartz glass

a) Procedural principle A polymer-based material having temperature- Fiber-optic measurement method that determines
controlled radiation transmission which is present the temperature by analyzing the cavity radiation of
within core/sheath fibers in a core. A transparent a black body. The radiation spectrum of the black
shell surrounds the core of thermotropic polymer body shifts according to Planck's law of radiation
p17
mixture, which becomes turbid beyond the so-called depending on temperature. [1]
lower critical demixing temperature (LCST) due to
changing radiation emission. This turbidity effect
occurs due to a structural change in the polymer
system, in which the components with different
refractive indices separate due to temperature
change. A variation of the relative contents of the
individual comonomers causes turbidity at different
temperatures. [17]

b) Schematic sketch
Heat radiation

Electricity

Fiber
Core Heat radiation
Transparent mantle

c) Known/possible field of Temperature-dependent control of radiation Non-contact temperature measurement.

application transmission on buildings (awnings, roller blinds,
venetian blinds), technical equipment, in the
clothing industry and for decorative purposes.

d) Possible sensor variants Incorporation of a non-thermotropic but Very small heat capacity allows measurement of
mechanically highly resilient material into the rapid temperature changes.
polymer core.

e) Opportunities and ++ Advantage of core-shell structure when using ++ Measurement of very high temperatures possible
challenges aids with low compatibility to thermotropic core
material

−− Expensive production
−− Bonding of polymers only possible at high
application temperatures
−− Limited possibility of reversible structural change
−− Low mechanical-load capacity

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Relative proportion of comonomers between

0.1 and 50 mol%
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electromagnetic Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY Measurement accuracy of 0.05%

V MEASUREMENT RANGE Up to about 2000 °C

VI TRL 9 9
 BUILDTECH

PAGE 91 HYBRID ROPE GLASS LIGHT CONDUCTOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber Fiber-optic conductor

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Protective layer: cotton; light-guide sheath and core: Glass

fluoride glass

a) Procedural principle Investigation of the wear condition of the load- Determination of the wear condition in ropes and
bearing rope by evaluating the ratio of the refractive belts by evaluating the light transmitted in the
index between rope core and sheath. The rope optical waveguide. Single-mode and multimode
is composed of several modules of different fibers transport light of a certain wavelength or light
properties, with at least one module A having the of different wavelengths depending on their wear
primary load-bearing function and the secondary condition. [4]
driving function and one module B having the
primary driving function and the secondary load-
bearing function. By inserting conductive elements
into the non-conductive modules and sensors, rope
elongation can be measured by determining the
position of a counterweight. [18]
p18

b) Schematic sketch

Module A (mantle)

Module B (seele) Glass conductor

c) Known/possible field of Structural health monitoring of ropes. Use as control tearing thread in ropes and tapes with
application low elongation at break.

d) Possible sensor variants Targeted analysis of individual, specific substances Problems in further textile processing due to
with desired concentration content. buckling sensitivity.

e) Opportunities and ++ High response sensitivity, even to individual

challenges media only
++ High mechanical strength
++ Low manufacturing and general cost

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Light-guide sheath with lower refractive index than Elongation at break up to 5%
the conductor core
Light-guide sheath made of fluoride glass with lower
hydrolytic resistance
II ENERGY SUPPLY

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 BUILDTECH
SENSOR THREAD WITH COLOR
PAGE 92 WEAR SENSOR
AND LIGHT EFFECTS
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical, chemical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL

a) Procedural principle Permanent signals of loading and wear of the Visual assessment of wear by binding colored
material are visualized without the supply of threads under the fabric surface of tapes and ropes.
auxiliary energy by generating the following effects: If wear occurs, the colored threads become visible
decomposition of the sensor thread, change in color, on the surface. [4]
shape or volume (swelling, shrinkage, crimping,
bending), turbidity or change in mechanical
properties (e.g., embrittlement by UV radiation). The
p19
preferred design form is the core-sheath structure
of friction-spun wrapping yarns, in which after the
destruction of the sensor material arranged in the
sheath a luminous signal thread arranged in the core
becomes visible. [4]

b) Schematic sketch
Chemicals

UV radiation
Core Colored threads below the
Mantle textile surface

c) Known/possible field of Structural health monitoring of ropes. Structural health monitoring of ropes.
application

d) Possible sensor variants

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 9
 BUILDTECH

PAGE 93 HEAT-SENSITIVE SENSOR FILAMENT UV SENSOR FIBER

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Viscose, polypropylene, polyester, polyamide

a) Procedural principle Permanent proof of heat exposure to load-bearing Permanent signaling of the reaching or exceeding
ropes and tapes at impermissibly high temperatures of a maximum permissible limit for the effect of
through the use of filamentary heat sensors. The UV radiation on load-bearing belts and ropes by
thermochromic sensor material changes its color, accumulation sensors. In contrast to photochromic
p20 shape and stiffness reversibly or irreversibly under materials, which only record the instantaneous
the influence of heat. The effects mentioned appear radiation intensity, accumulation sensors visualize
as color change, thread crimping or activation of the total measure of the radiation effect. [4]
hot melt yarns. The latter consist of copolyamide or
copolyester as a whole or as a combination yarn in
parts and show a strong thread crimp depending on
the temperature and the different melting ranges. [4]

b) Schematic sketch

Core
Mantle

c) Known/possible field of Inspection and monitoring of ropes and belts at

application deflection points such as eyelets or pulleys, where
they are exposed to increased mechanical and
thermal stress due to friction, as well as at points
subject to other environmental influences with a
high temperature effect.

d) Possible sensor variants Effect visualization through shape change is a cost- Core-sheath structures in the form of friction and
effective alternative to visualization through color wrapping yarns, which consist of a UV-sensitive
change. sheath (sensor thread) and a luminous signal thread
in the core analogous to the abrasion-sensitive
sensor threads. Twisted yarns consisting of two or
more threads with almost identical (colorimetrically
adjusted) hues but different light fastness, which
change their appearance from self-colored to
multicolored after UV irradiation by bleaching of the
threads with lower light fastness.

e) Opportunities and ++ Semi-quantitative determination of the radiation

challenges dose using the reference filament
++ The elimination of twine production in one
additional operation means that the titre of the
individual yarns can also be adjusted to the yarns
used in the product
++ Both sensor thread and reference thread can
be processed individually in adjacent positions
in the tape fabric or braid, provided they are
suitable for the weave
I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Heat Electromagnetic radiation

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 BUILDTECH

PAGE 94 STRAIN SENSOR CONTROL TEAR STRIP

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Visual assessment, electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, diameter 0.5–2.5 mm Linear

5 | MATERIAL Kevlar, carbon-black-filled silicone rubber Polyester, (silver-plated) polyamide, metallic fine
wires, cellulose fiber filled with carbon, glass

a) Procedural principle Measuring p21arrangement for determining the Permanent indication of a one-time load overrun
p21
strain state in ropes. Based on the location of of a belt due to the failure of a control tear thread
metal balls incorporated at defined distances by at a defined elongation value which is significantly
electromagnetic means, the strain results from the below the elongation at break of the belt. [4]
distance and the traversing speed of the balls, since
these variables are associated with a change in the
specific electrical parameters. [4]
b) Schematic sketch

Distance d Tension

Speed v
Metal sphere

Induction sensor Textiles Weight breakage

carrier band

c) Known/possible field of Detection of individual wire breaks in steel ropes, Structural health monitoring of ropes.
application e.g., in Kevlar elevator ropes. Use for in situ
monitoring and determination of load cycles.
d) Possible sensor variants Measurement of strains and strain peaks on the Non-conductive control tear thread: Consisting of
basis of a reproducible dependence on strain and textile materials such as polyester or polyamide,
electrical resistance, also while maintaining the whose geometric integration into the textile load
strain state by plastic deformation. [4] handling attachment is decisive for the elongation
of the overall system at which failure occurs.
Detections of a few percent can be realized by
means of control yarns with non-typical textile
elongations such as carbon fiber, glass fiber or
Twaron aramid filament yarn.

e) Opportunities and ++ For protection against overloading, it is not ++ Silver-coated polymer thread: unsuitable as
challenges necessary for the sensor thread to fail. Exceeding electrically conductive control tearing thread,
a defined strain state is sufficient for the output of since elongations at break cannot be reproduced
an alarm signal or the parallel position of the untwisted
++ By also detecting strain peaks, strain sensors filaments results in only individual filaments
open up a wide range of applications, from crack tearing in case of failure and the applied tension
sensors to sensors for detecting strain peaks remaining constant

−− Process cannot be applied to man-made fiber −− Metallic fine wire: very sensitive to breakage,
tapes and ropes otherwise excessively high elongation at break
compared to load-bearing agent
−− Cellulose fiber with carbon filling: lower,
moisture-dependent conductivity than silver-
plated polyamide yarns or fine wires.
−− Optically conductive control thread: buckling
sensitivity, critical mechanical behavior.

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Hardness: 50 ± 5 Shore A; density: 1.13 g/cm³; tear

strength: ≥3.5 N/mm²; elongation at break: ≥200%;
specific volume resistance: ≤12 Ω cm
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 BUILDTECH
SENSOR FOR DETERMINING FRICTION SPUN ABRASION
PAGE 95
MANTLE SLIPPAGE SENSOR THREAD
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread, weave Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, planar Linear

p22
5 | MATERIAL Polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate

a) Procedural principle Sensor with optical signal output in the event of Sensor with optical signal output in the event of
critical wear or damage to the outer sheath of a critical wear or damage to the outer sheath of a
load-bearing rope or tape. The sensor thread has a load-bearing rope or tape. The sensor thread has a
core-sheath structure, the signal-colored core being core-sheath structure, the signal-colored core being
sheathed with thermoplastic staple fiber. This has sheathed with thermoplastic staple fiber. This has
the color of the load-bearing textile and is integrated the color of the load-bearing textile and is integrated
into its outer shell in such a way that it is exposed to into its outer shell in such a way that it is exposed to
abrasion during use. [4] abrasion during use. [4]

b) Schematic sketch

Electricity
Signal-
Relative movement Mantle of staple fibers in
Core colored
Mantle between mantle and color of the load-bearing
core
core band

c) Known/possible field of Control and monitoring when guiding a rope with Structural health monitoring of ropes.
application small deflection radii, since there can be relative
movements between the core and sheath in the
form of sheath slippage or compression and the
introduction of forces into the textile sheath, which
is designed as a non-load-bearing element, leads to
impermissible wear on the rope.

d) Possible sensor variants Arrangement of the conductor loops in dimensions Variation of the ratio of core to shell diameter.
that correspond to the pole configuration of a Core yarn made of polyethylen (PET), sheath yarn
planar permanent magnet. Conductor loops as made of polypropylene (PP); core thread not signal-
an execution of adjacent meshes through which colored, but made of fluorescent material for UV
a sectionally magnetized longitudinal structure detection.
can be moved. By matching conductor loops and
permanent magnets, the induction voltages of all Variation of core and sheath strength.
conductor loops add up. Core yarn made of PP, sheath yarn made of PET.

e) Opportunities and ++ Accelerations due to relative movements of ++ The use of a fluorescing signal thread in the
challenges core and mantle are shown in a manner directly thread core enables an automated, visual
proportional to the magnitude of the stress inspection of the wear condition by means
induced in the meshes of the mantle of camera technology, even on soiled or very
++ The magnetized threads can be oriented along the colorful load-bearing textiles
expected displacement and anchored to the core ++ With increasing sheath fineness, there is a
significant increase in bearable double chafing

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None None

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 6–8
 BUILDTECH
ADAPTIVE FIBER COMPOSITES
PAGE 96 FIBER-OPTIC MICRO STRAIN SENSOR
(ADAPTRONICS)
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Vibration, deformation

3 | CONSTRUCTION Composite material of filament yarns with

PRINCIPLE embedded sensors

4 | GEOMETRY Planar

5 | MATERIAL

a) Procedural principle Strain measurements of individual filaments and in Active vibration suppression by piezoelectric films
a surrounding concrete matrix, in combination with and fibers which self-adjust to changing component
Fabry–Pérot fiber interferometer sensors to measure vibrations and deformations by integrated sensors,
dynamic events (acoustic emission, crack formation, and also initiate counter-signals via actuators into
etc.) in the matrix. [19] the textile structure. [20]

b) Schematic sketch
Supply fiber Coherent
light wave
Reflective fiber Mirror
Glass

Protected
connection
cable
Resonator

Absorbing Fiber fixation

fiber end
Length 4–25 mm

c) Known/possible field of Structural health monitoring of ropes.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Use of fiber-Bragg-grating sensors not possible due Lightweight construction possible; high stiffness and
to their stiffness. high-strength fiber composites.

e) Opportunities and −− Use of strain gauges not possible due to very −− Fundamentally low mechanical resistance to
challenges small dimensions noise and vibration
−− The bond of the sensors with the filaments and
the matrix must be ensured
−− Embedded sensors must not impede the
deformation of filaments and matrix

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current None

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY 0.5 μm/m

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL <6 9
 BUILDTECH

PAGE 97 STRAIN/PRESSURE SENSOR INTELLIGENT MEMBRANE

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electromagnetic light spectrum, electric current,

noise level

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit, warp knit Fiber bundle in woven or knitted structure
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Areal, change of shape up to 8 times its size

5 | MATERIAL Stainless steel Nickel titanium alloy

a) Procedural principle Spacer weft-knit made of electrically conductive A membrane with built-in sensors which reacts
stainless-steel-fiber yarns for detecting the position to stimuli such as light, contact, noise or
of the contact and the size of the contacting surface environmental movements in a mobile manner
when the specific electrical resistance of the via muscle wires made of Ni-Ti alloy developing
electrically conductive conductor paths changes as a different temperatures at certain currents and
result of elongation or pressure. [21] passing through different movements. [22]

b) Schematic sketch

Knitted surface

Polfiber

c) Known/possible field of Flat pressure load in buildings.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Spacer warp-knit can also be used instead of spacer Use in any size possible.
weft-knit.

e) Opportunities and −− Spacer warp-knit has a hysteretic force behavior −− Very expensive materials
challenges and is therefore less suitable as a pressure sensor

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 <6

 BUILDTECH

PAGE 98 WEAR SENSOR 2 STRAIN SENSOR 2

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear, diameter ø = 0.5–2.5 mm

5 | MATERIAL Aramid Carbon-black-filled silicone rubber

p25

a) Procedural principle Measurement of wear by a disruption sensor made Measurement of strains and strain peaks based on
of aramid. Carbon fibers integrated into a rope a reproducible dependence on strain and electrical
are contacted electronically. As the disintegration resistance, even while maintaining the state of strain
progresses, the electrical resistance increases, which through plastic deformation.
serves as a characteristic value for wear.

b) Schematic sketch

Electricity I ~ electric
resistance R
Drag

Carbon fiber
Electric contact

c) Known/possible field of Use for in situ monitoring and determination of load

application cycles.

d) Possible sensor variants

e) Opportunities and ++ For protection against overloading, it is not

challenges necessary for the sensor thread to fail. Exceeding
a defined strain state is enough for the output of
an alarm signal
++ By also detecting strain peaks, strain sensors
open a wide range of applications, from crack
sensors to sensors for detecting strain peaks

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Hardness: 50 ± 5 Shore A; density: 1.13 g/cm³; tear

strength: ≥3.5 N/mm²; elongation at break: ≥200%;
specific volume resistance: ≤12 Ω cm
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 9
 BUILDTECH

PAGE 99 FIBER-COATED SENSORS INTENSITY-BASED FIBER-OPTIC SENSORS

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weave Fiber

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Linear

5 | MATERIAL Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) fibers in fabric Optically conductive fibers

a) Procedural principle FBG is a distributed Bragg reflector constructed in A measurand-induced change in the optical intensity
a short segment of optical fiber that reflects certain propagated by an optical fiber can be produced by
wavelengths of light and transmits all others. This different mechanisms, such as micro-bending loss,
is achieved by creating a periodic variation in the attenuation and evanescent fields.
refractive index of the fiber core, which generates a Requires lighter fibers. They usually use multi-mode
wavelength-specific dielectric mirror. [23] large-core fibers. [24]

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of Used in seismology, pressure sensors for extremely

application harsh environments, and downhole sensors in oil
and gas wells for the measurement of the effects of
external pressure, temperature, seismic vibrations
and inline flow measurement.

d) Possible sensor variants Integration of Bragg fiber as warp thread; or into a

3D woven; embedded in a conveyor belt; inserted
into a groove and threaded into flat-woven fabric.

e) Opportunities and ++ Inline optical filter to block certain wavelengths, ++ Advantages of this category are easy
challenges or as a wavelength-specific reflector implementation, low cost, multiplexing, and the
possibility to implement distributed sensors

−− Disadvantages include the measurements and

variations in the intensity of the light source,
which could lead to false readings if a reference
system is not used

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light Light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL <6 6–8

 BUILDTECH
INTRINSIC DISTRIBUTED
PAGE 100 FBG SENSORS
FIBER-OPTIC SENSORS
1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber Fiber

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Optically conductive fibers Optically conductive fibers

a) Procedural principle Based on Rayleigh scattering. The light is subjected FBGs are characterized by periodic changes created
to attenuation due to this scattering, which is by an intense interference pattern of UV energy
determined by random microscopic variations. If in the index of refraction in the core of a single-
a narrow optical pulse is launched in the fiber, it mode optical fiber. The grating reflects a spectral
is possible to determine the spatial variations in peak based on the grating spacing; therefore, a
the fiber scattering coefficient or the attenuation variation in the length of the fiber due to tension
by monitoring the variation of the Rayleigh or compression determines a change in the grating
backscattered signal intensity. The scattering spacing and consequently in the wavelength of
coefficient of a location is influenced by the local light that is reflected. By measuring the center
fiber status. [24] wavelength of the reflected spectral peak, it is
possible to obtain a quantitative measurement of
the strain. [24]

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of
application

d) Possible sensor variants Raman scattering is a phenomenon which involves The response of several FBG sensors can be
the inelastic scattering of photons. The incident measured simultaneously by placing several
light pulse causes molecular vibrations in the networks in series attached to one lead optical
optical fiber. In the case of optical time-domain fiber. This is a relevant advantage with respect
reflectometry (OTDR), a high-input power is to traditional strain sensor measurement, which
requested, as the Raman scattering coefficient is requires an acquisition system for each sensor.
about three orders of magnitude lower than the By using different wavelengths that are reflected,
Rayleigh scattering coefficient. various FBG sensor signals can be identified,
Brillouin scattering is caused by the acoustic and therefore the space-distributed sensors are
vibrations that occur in the optical fiber when an identified and distinguished. An optical switch must
optical pulse is launched. then be used to connect several optical fibers to the
light source and the spectrometer that measures the
OTDR in different approaches: OTDR based on reflected wavelengths.
Rayleigh scattering, OTDR based on Raman
scattering, OTDR based on Brillouin scattering. The direct embedding of optical fibers with FBG in
the epoxy resin of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)
Raman scattering is used for the development and materials allows exact strain measurement in the
implementation of reliable distributed temperature material. Therefore, epoxy resin is an effective
sensors. protection for the optical fiber.
Rayleigh scattering is used to track and to reveal Used for quasi-distributed measurement of strain.
propagation effects.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light Light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 BUILDTECH

PAGE 101 TEXTILE-BASED GONIOMETER

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar

5 | MATERIAL Combination of electroconductive (Belltron® by Kanebo Ltd.) and elastic (Lycra®) yarns

p. 81a)
Textile-based
Procedural goniometer
principle Knitted piezoresistive fabrics modify their electrical resistance when they are elongated or flexed. The main
requirement for the application of the single-layer sensors is that the human movements must produce a
strain field which can be detected in terms of resistance variation. For this reason, single-layer sensors must
be integrated into adherent garments close to the human joint under investigation. [25]

b) Schematic sketch

L1 h0
∆θ
L1 L2 h0
l0

h1
h1 h2
h3
l1 ≠ l0

c) Known/possible field of Hand motion sensing: a kinesthetic sensing glove was developed for the ambulatory evaluation of the
application residual hand function and its recovery in post-stroke patients; scapular movement detection.

d) Possible sensor variants Single-layer sensor or double-layer sensors.

e) Opportunities and −− Needs to closely adhere to joint moving

challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY Single layer: 6405 Ω for Δθ = 37°

V MEASUREMENT RANGE Double layer: 5100 Ω for Δθ = 37°

VI TRL 6–8
 CLOTHTECH
MOISTURE- AND CHEMICAL-SENSITIVE
PAGE 102 HUMIDITY SENSOR
SENSOR THREAD
1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Mechanical, chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit n/a

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Linear

5 | MATERIAL Electrically conductive yarn n/a

a) Procedural principle Knitted fabric with a basic weft knit which contains Permanent identification of harmful environmental
at least one thread made of a material which influences through the use of threads which change
changes its electrical resistance when affected their shape, color or volume while absorbing liquids.
by moisture. The weft knit is equipped with an The core yarn must be UV-resistant and clearly
integrated moisture sensor consisting of at least distinguished in color from the load-bearing tape.
two electrodes arranged at a distance, which are For the sheath fibers of the yarn, a material must
electrically connected to each other in case of be selected which is changed in shape, color or
moisture. [2] structure by UV radiation. [4]
p.3

b) Schematic sketch
Humidity sensor, p.2

Basic thread in right-left-binding

Core yarn
(UV sensor)

Coat fiber
(wear sensor)

c) Known/possible field of Woven fabrics in which electrically wellconducting A friction-spun sensor thread represents a
application and electrically not-well-conducting threads are combination of an abrasion sensor and and a
alternately woven with each other. UV sensor.
Electrical connection means in the form of
terminals, plug-in connection parts.

d) Possible sensor variants Electrical means of connection can be connection Decrease in abrasion resistance with increasing
to the monitoring station via textile conductors. The exposure to UV radiation.
textile behavior ensures that the joint is extremely
flexible and elastic.

e) Opportunities and ++ Integration of the sensor directly into the

challenges garment, with no external application necessary

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current None

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 6–8 9
 CLOTHTECH

PAGE 103 TEMPERATURE SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electric current, electromagnetic light spectrum, transmitted light, temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear

5 | MATERIAL Metals, electrically conductive polymers, glass fibers

p8

a) Procedural principle Design of thread-shaped sensors for the investigation of thermal loads based on low-melting metal wires,
which change their electrical properties under thermal load. [4]
Temperature determination by measuring the change of the refraction coefficient of the light-guide sheath
under temperature change, which leads to a corresponding transmission difference. [9]

b) Schematic sketch

Heat

Low-melting metal

c) Known/possible field of Temperature monitoring of textile structures.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Use of threads made of electrically conductive polymers or electrically conductive coated polymers.
Temperature sensors based on the principle of absorption edge displacement using filter glasses instead of
semiconductor elements.

e) Opportunities and ++ High reproducibility

challenges ++ Short response time
++ High accuracy
++ Due to unfavourable properties of the metals low tendency for thread or surface production

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE 50–250 °C

VI TRL 6–8
 CLOTHTECH

PAGE 104 STRAIN/PRESSURE SENSOR TEXTILE NETTLE CELL

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit, warp knit Wire, integrated in support fabric

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Planar

5 | MATERIAL Stainless steel Shape-memory metal

a) Procedural principle Spacer weft-knit made of electrically conductive Implementation of the textile sensor in the initial
stainless-steel-fiber yarns for detecting the position fabric by which it autarkically warns the wearer of
of the contact and the size of the contacting surface excessive heat stress on the outside of the garment
when the specific electrical resistance of the due to irritation on the inside of the fabric. Heat
electrically
p31 conductive conductor paths changes as a collectors (metal plates) pass heat onto a heat
result of elongation or pressure. [21] insulator (time delay element), which delivers a
defined amount of heat to a rolled blunt needle
made of shape-memory metal (Nitinol). With
enough heat, the needle stretches through the
undergarment and irritates the skin of the wearer.
[26]

b) Schematic sketch

Knitted surface
________
Protective clothes

Time delay part

Needle
Underclothes
Skin

Polfiber

c) Known/possible field of Flat pressure load in buildings. Personnel potentially exposed to high temperatures.
application

d) Possible sensor variants Spacer warp-knit can also be used instead of spacer Simple configuration of sensor sensitivity via
weft-knit. material selection.

e) Opportunities and −− Spacer warp-knit has a hysteretic force behavior ++ Cost-effective and unproblematic made-to-
challenges and is therefore less suitable as a pressure sensor measure clothing
++ Self-sufficient and redundant system
++ No susceptible cabling
++ Fast location and size estimation of the heat
source
++ No warning signals need to be monitored
continuously
++ Having few layers of clothing prevents greater
heat stress

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Heat

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 CLOTHTECH

PAGE 105 TEXTILES WITH SPECIAL FUNCTIONS INDICATIVE COLOR SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment, electric current Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Printed fabric

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Punctiform and areal

5 | MATERIAL Hollow polymers modified with moisture-sensitive Fluorescent agent

gels

a) Procedural principle Garment comprising sensory and/or actuatorically A light-sensor layer, temperature sensor layer and
modified polymers which, in the event of a health fluorescent layer with applied writing, pattern
and/or environmental hazard, change their color, or three-dimensional form, which change their
geometric shape or other physical, biological or shape and aesthetic impression when externally
chemical properties
p32 to protect the wearer in a influenced. [28]
defined manner. [27]

Humidity sensor, p.2

b) Schematic sketch
Basic thread in right-left-binding

Light-sensor layer
Surface Photosensitive
material

Cloth

c) Known/possible field of Monitoring of dangerous conditions. Light-sensor layer for detection of UV radiation.
application Temperature sensor layer for temperature
determination.
Fluorescent layer for generating fluorinating light.

d) Possible sensor variants Sensor element can be formed from: temperature

sensors, pressure sensors, humidity sensors,
pH sensors, radiation sensor.

e) Opportunities and ++ Optically appealing design of signal bodies

challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light and heat

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 CLOTHTECH
CLOTHING INDICATOR FOR
PAGE 106 CBRN PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
UV RADIATION AND OZONE
1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Mechanical, chemical, thermal

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit, warp knit, weave, scrim, fleece and

PRINCIPLE composite fabrics

4 | GEOMETRY Punctiform, linear or planar

5 | MATERIAL

a) Procedural principle Small-scale application of a variety of fashionable Protective clothing for chemical, biological,
design forms whose color change is accompanied radiological and nuclear defense that warns of
by influencing factors from the environment and at exposure to these hazards by using at least one
least semi-quantitatively correlates with the hazard sensor and changing its electrical properties. [29]
potential. The measurement is carried out either by
the iodine method, acetone decomposition, oxalic
acid decomposition or an immune globulin (IG)
dosimeter.

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of Sensor application to swimwear, leisurewear and Personal protective equipment (PPE).
application workwear for outdoor activities for detection of
UV radiation.

d) Possible sensor variants Determination of the intensity of UV radiation by Sensor element can be formed from: temperature
measurement using iodine method, acetone decay, sensors, pressure sensors, humidity sensors,
oxalic acid decomposition or IG dosimeter. pH sensors, radiation sensor.

e) Opportunities and ++ Good resistance of the textile carrier to the hazard ++ Indication of the end of the recommended
challenges potential, sensitization technology and reactions wearing period
causing color change ++ No time limit for the wearing period

−− Doubts as to whether the concentration and

intensity of the hazard potential is sufficient to
initiate the chemical reaction on the textile

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL <6 6–8

 CLOTHTECH

PAGE 107 PHOSPOHR TEMPERATURE SENSOR PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 1

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Chemical, mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Temperature Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weave Conductive yarn

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Planar

5 | MATERIAL Aramid fibers Silver/gold-coated nylon

a) Procedural principle Multilayer garment whose outer sheath is equipped Recording of physiological states via sensors,
with a temperature sensor. This ensures rapid transmission via electrically conductive conductor
expansion of the textile under the effect of heat paths in clothing and processing in measuring
to ensure a heat-insulating intermediate layer to equipment. [31]
protect the body. As material, aramid fibers like
MPD-I, PPD-T, PBI are used. [30]

b) Schematic sketch

Eu-dopted Glass fiber

phosphor

c) Known/possible field of Protective clothing (coat, jacket, trousers) for Sportswear and medical clothing for monitoring
application firefighters or industrial applications under high bodily functions.
heat exposure. Multimedia clothing for adapting media enjoyment
to physiological conditions.

d) Possible sensor variants A 25% increase in time until second-degree burn Textile electrode in spacer warp-knit. [37], [38], [39]
occurs on the skin compared to conventional Multifunctional apparel system. [40]
protective clothing. Sportswear/medical clothing.
[32], [33], [34], [35], [36]

e) Opportunities and ++ Advantageous contact behavior due to pressure-

challenges elastic behavior when using monofilaments
++ Acceptance by the wearer due to attractive
appearance
++ Comfortable to wear due to the flexibility of the
garment

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Riskiness from 1.5 to 4 Electrical resistance: <5 Ω/cm; diameter of
monofilaments: >100 μm

II ENERGY SUPPLY Heat Electric current

III RESOLUTION 0–3 s

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 CLOTHTECH

PAGE 108 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 2 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 3

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber, fiber braid, diffraction grating Weft knit, warp knit, weave
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Optical fiber with outer diameter of 125 μm, grating Sheath diameter: 0.125 mm; core diameter: 0.09 mm
diameter of 6–9 μm, sensor diameter of 150–250 μm

5 | MATERIAL Polymers, glass, electrically conductive metals

a) Procedural principle A patient-monitoring system comprising a plurality Integration of a fiber-optic temperature sensing
of diffraction gratings arranged along an optical element into a fabric. The temperature sensing
fiber. Each optical fiber and grating is configured to element is an optical fiber containing one or more
change either the effective refractive index or the fiber-Bragg-grating sensors. Light is introduced
grating periodicity of the corresponding grating at into the optical single-mode fiber and directed
p35 its location along the fiber in response to at least to a grating interface adjacent to the wearer. A
one desired external stimulus. [41] reflux signal is received by a reflection mode or
a transmission mode, the reflux signal having a
p35
wavelength shift that is indicative of temperature via
the Bragg resonance effect. [42]

b) Schematic sketch Single fiber Bragg grid

Bragg grid Power distribution profile Refractive index

Mantle Transmitted light

Light input
Light loss
Reflected light
Optical
Opticalfiber
fiber
Protective core
core Light loss
layer Light reflection from each
grid interface

c) Known/possible field of Nursing of newborns.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Reduced number of required connection options. Processing of the thread in a weft knit, warp knit or
weave.

e) Opportunities and ++ Hygiene

challenges ++ Skin sensitivity
++ Wearing acceptance

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 6–8
 CLOTHTECH

PAGE 109 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 4 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 5

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical, chemical, thermal Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Elastic weave or fleece containing electrically Weft knit containing electrically conductive threads
PRINCIPLE conductive fibers

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, planar Punctiform, linear or planar

5 | MATERIAL Elastomers filled with conductive particles or

electrically conductive metals

a) Procedural principle Garment with belts running transversely to the Sensor consisting of strain gauges, piezoelectric
longitudinal axis of the wearer, which can be elements, length gauges or pressure sensors, all
stretched in the longitudinal direction and in of which change their electrical properties under
which strain gauges are incorporated, which mechanical deformation. [44]
allow physiological functions to be determined by
changing the electrical conductivity. [43]

b) Schematic sketch
Conductor
track

Connection wire Belt

Connection wire
Back section

Conductor track Leg

Sensor

c) Known/possible field of Clothing for monitoring heart activity and recording Garment for determining a posture or movement of
application skin resistance, perspiration and body temperature. the body.

d) Possible sensor variants The carrier material of the electrically conductive Sensor element can be formed from strain gauges.
threads is knitted fabric made of cotton with
elastane content or viscose, or synthetic or
microfiber. Conductive particles in the strain sensor
can be carbon particles or hydrogels.

e) Opportunities and ++ The garment should be resistant to perspiration ++ Piezoelectric elements

challenges and washing ++ Magnetic, capacitive or optical length gauges.
++ Increase of sensor sensitivity through path- ++ High wearing comfort due to unobtrusive
shaped guidance of the strain sensor, since the integration of the sensor elements into the
transverse elongation is low compared to a garment
longitudinal elongation

−− An insulating layer should prevent moisture

from influencing the measurement signal of the
extensometers
−− The elastomer should be more extensible than
the substrate on which the sensor is placed so
that the extensibility of the sensor does not limit
that of the garment

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Specific sensor resistance 5–30,000 Ωcm

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 CLOTHTECH

PAGE 110 TENSILE STRAND PHYSIOLOGICAL STRAIN SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit, warp knit, weave Elastic fabric containing electrically conductive
PRINCIPLE filaments

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, planar Linear, planar

5 | MATERIAL Elastic, electrically conductive core thread;

bimetallic sheathing

a) Procedural principle Thread for determining the tensile stress which Electrically conductive thread for determining
consists of an elastic core thread and has at least the state of respiration and movement, which
one sheath, this sheath changing its electrical changes its electrical properties under tensile or
property, in particular
p37 its electrical resistance and/or compressive load, above all its electrical resistance
its capacitance, when the length of the core thread and inductance. [46]
changes. As a result of the tensile stress, pressure is
exerted on the body of the wearer. [45]

b) Schematic sketch
Longitudinal extension R

Electricity I ~ resistance R
Elastic core thread and induction L
Sensor thread
Drag
Shell Pressure
Pressure
Drag
Core thread
Insulating layer
Shell Interlayer
(non conductive) Interlayer

c) Known/possible field of Bandage or compression stocking. Clothing for monitoring respiratory and physical
application Sheathing can release substances to the skin of the activity of newborns, children, adults and even non-
wearer. human mammals.

d) Possible sensor variants Processing of the thread—preferably as weft Clothing for monitoring respiratory and physical
thread—in a weft knit, warp knit, or weave. activity of newborns, children, adults and even non-
human mammals.

e) Opportunities and ++ Single- or multilayer sheathing ++ Moisture resistant, i.e., washable

challenges ++ Thread with one or more wrapping threads ++ High measurement accuracy
++ No slipping of the sensors, due to precise
positioning in the garment
++ Increased wearing comfort due to the not
tootight fit of the garment

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 CLOTHTECH

PAGE 111 PRESSURE SENSOR KNITTED BREATHING SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current, pressure Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Elastic weft-knit or warp knit containing electrically

PRINCIPLE conductive threads

4 | GEOMETRY Dimensions of the pressure sensor: 10 mm x 10 mm

x 1 mm

5 | MATERIAL Electrically conductive metals Electrically conductive polyester with stainless steel
content

a) Procedural principle Pressure sensor with strip-like or filament-like Measurement of respiratory movement by changing
elements whichp37each have a layered structure the electrical resistance when weft knits made of
and are electrically conductive. When pressure is conductive polyester fiber yarns with stainless steel
applied, the layers touch each other and a closed content are stretched. [48]
circuit is formed which indicates the pressure. [47]

b) Schematic sketch

Electricity I ~ resistance R
and induction L

Drag
Pressure
Pressure
Drag

c) Known/possible field of Clothing for monitoring heart activity and recording

application skin resistance, perspiration and body temperature.

d) Possible sensor variants Pressure-sensitive stocking. [49] Right/left weft knit with conductive stripes.
Right/left lining weft knit in which the conductive
yarn no longer forms any stitches, but is merely
integrated with handles in the non-conductive basic
knit
Right/right weft knits where the electrical resistance
is less dependent on elongation

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Environmentally stable at 0–50 °C, 30–90% relative

humidity
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE Surface pressure: 0–10 kg/cm²

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 CLOTHTECH
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
PAGE 112 SHAPE-MEMORY SENSOR
SPACER WARP KNIT
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current, temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Warp knit Wire, integrated in support fabric

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Planar

p39
P39 / P69 in edited version
5 | MATERIAL Metallic alloys, polymers

a) Procedural principle Three-dimensional spacer warp-knit with integrated By heating to a certain temperature via an electric
ultrasonic sensors for monitoring body movement. current, the fabric takes on a desired shape with
[50] integrated conductive wires. When the electric
current is deactivated, the material returns to its
original shape. [51]

b) Schematic sketch

Poorly conductive
Electrically
polymer shell
conductive fiber

Polymer
fiber
Electricity
Longitudinal section ~ temperature

c) Known/possible field of Protective suit for pilots of fighter planes who are
application exposed to high forces on the body due to large
accelerations.

d) Possible sensor variants Flexible elastane material guarantees flexibility and Disposable shape-memory effect: by only one phase
wearing comfort. transition in the metallic alloy, the material can only
reach its original state.
Two-way shape-memory effect: two different
original material states can be achieved by varying
the temperature into a high and a low temperature.

e) Opportunities and ++ Fast reaction time

challenges ++ Functional maintenance even with minor damage
++ The total weight and installation space of the
device are less than those corresponding to the
state of the art

−− Permanent irreversible plastic deformation of

up to 0.1%

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION 0.2–1 s

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE <100 °C

VI TRL 6–8 9
 CLOTHTECH

PAGE 113 SAFETY CLOTHING INTELLIGENT SKIN ARCHITECTURE

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit containing electrically conductive threads Weave

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, planar Planar

5 | MATERIAL Electrically conductive metals

a) Procedural principle Garment for locating stab wounds or gunshot Optical fibers woven into a carrier material
wounds to the human body by using sensor which serve as sensors for optical information
units arranged in electrical conductor tracks, the transmission. [53]
operating principle of which is the piezoelectric
effect. [52]

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of Protective vests for the police and military. Acquisition of data; image processing;
application communication.

d) Possible sensor variants Variation of the conductor arrangement, preferably Supporting weaving of the optical fibers into
in wave or curve form, as these ensure an elastic channels. Arrangement of the optical fibers in a grid-
arrangement. like mat consisting of fibers of any carrier material.
The construction of many smaller circuits enables Woven structure comprising a first group of warp-
a more precise location of the interruption of the direction yarns and a second group of weft-direction
conductor path and thus of the injury to the wearer. yarns with optical fibers arranged between selected
Polymer tracks can be printed, embroidered or pairs of the first group.
woven directly onto the fabric. Optoelectronic packaging structure with two
sections, in each of which the abovementioned
woven structure is placed.

e) Opportunities and ++ Detection of impacts, pressure waves and ++ Low construction volume; low weight
challenges detonations using piezoelectric elements ++ High tensile strength, high elasticity, high
resistance to weathering, high resistance to
chemicals, high tear strength, high dimensional
stability, high wear resistance

−− Sensitivity to deflection, leading to a

deterioration in transmittance

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current None

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 6–8
 CLOTHTECH
CARBON NANOTUBE (CNT)
PAGE 114 CAPACITIVE BREATHING SENSOR
STRAIN SENSOR
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic field Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Conductive ink between textile layers Yarn

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Linear

5 | MATERIAL Combination of stretchable and non-stretchable Carbon nanotube yarn

textiles with conductive ink

a) Procedural principle Respiration measurement via capacitive proximity Electrical resistance of twisted CNT yarns changes
sensor. Respiratory frequency is measured by with change in load or temperature. [55]
the displacement of two textile layers, which
are connected by a conductive layer, caused by
respiratory movement. [54]

b) Schematic sketch

Non-stretchable fabric Stretchable fabric

Conductive ink
Stretchable fabric Non-stretchable fabric
Non-stretchable fabric Stretchable fabric
Conductive ink
Stretchable fabric Non-stretchable fabric

c) Known/possible field of Monitoring of motion and temperature.

application

d) Possible sensor variants An advanced strain sensor for human motion

detection was introduced by Yamada. It uses a
new material, namely thin films of aligned single-
walled carbon nanotubes. Unlike traditional rigid
materials such as silicon, nanotube films fracture
into gaps and islands, and bundles bridge the gaps.
This allows the films to function as strain sensors
capable of measuring strains of up to 280% with
high durability.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY Strain 1.4–1.8 mV/V/1000 m; temperature: 91 mA/°C

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL <6 <6

 CLOTHTECH

PAGE 115 BIOPOTENTIAL SENSORS PRESSURE FORCE MAPPING SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weaves, weft knits, embroidered electrodes Weave, weft knit

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Planar

5 | MATERIAL Silver yarns for electrodes Carbon black, metal, and metal oxide particles

a) Procedural principle Electrocardiography (ECG) and electromyography The technology behind force mapping is typically a
(EMG) are the electrical potentials periodically grid of individual force sensor elements.
changed by cardiovascular and muscle activities. The core principle of electrical resistance-based
[23] pressure mapping is the special property of
electrically conducting polymer composites
(ECPC), i.e., that their deformation, which could
be caused by either tension or pressure, will cause
their electrical impedance in the vicinity of the
deformation to change. [56]

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of
application

d) Possible sensor variants Nervous stimuli and muscle contraction can be Force sensors can be implemented based on various
easily detected by measuring the ionic current flow principles such as piezoresistive, piezoelectric,
in the body. This measurement is accomplished by piezomagnetic, capacitive, magnetic and optical.
attaching biopotential electrodes to the skin surface. The basic physical structure of capacitive-based
ECG/EMG-monitoring systems. The electrodes pressure-mapping sensors is two parallel conductive
are either made of gel or stuck to the skin using plates separated with a flexible, non-conductive
conductive adhesives in order to develop better layer as the dielectric spacer.
contact with the skin.
To improve contact between the electrodes and the
skin, skin preparation is required, such as shaving,
abrading and cleaning the skin surface.
A wearable electrode is created by weaving, knitting
or stitching silver yarns on the inner surface of the
clothing. Due to their irregular surface structures,
this creates high impedance, and therefore high-
frequency noise.

e) Opportunities and −− Gelatinous substances dry out over a long period ++ The sensing elements can be isolated from
challenges of time and cause the electrode to come off the the skin by either additional regular textile
skin. Adhesives can irritate the skin, leading to a layers or direct isolation coatings to avoid any
loss of signal quality. complications from electrode–skin contact.
++ Easily scalable in terms of sensing channels.
This is mainly because of the simplicity in the
measuring structure

−− Higher data processing/transmission

requirements, the need for special conductive
and/or dielectric materials, relatively complex
sensor structures
I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION 40 Hz

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 6–8
 GEOTECH
MOISTURE- AND CHEMICAL-SENSITIVE
PAGE 116 OPTOELECTRONIC SENSOR
SENSOR THREAD
1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Mechanical, chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber n/a

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Plexiglas n/a

a) Procedural principle Detection of adhering liquid components in or on Permanent identification of harmful environmental
liquid-storing substances by detecting the change influences through the use of threads which change
in the transmission of light in a light guide with the their shape, color or volume while absorbing liquids.
liquid component to be taken. [3] The core yarn must be UV-resistant and clearly
distinguished in color from the load-bearing tape.
For the sheath fibers of the yarn, a material must

Optoelectronic sensor , p.3

p.3 be selected which is changed in shape, color or
structure by UV radiation. [4]

b) Schematic sketch

Core yarn
(UV sensor)

Coat fiber
Beam
Light conductor (wear sensor)

c) Known/possible field of Detection of liquid content of soils, textiles or A friction-spun sensor thread represents a
application granulates. combination of an abrasion sensor and a UV sensor.
Monitoring tasks, for example in landfills.

d) Possible sensor variants Cost-effective. Decrease in abrasion resistance with increasing

exposure to UV radiation.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light None

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 9 9
 CLOTHTECH

PAGE 117 TEXTILE-BASED GONIOMETER

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar

5 | MATERIAL Combination of electroconductive (Belltron® by Kanebo Ltd.) and elastic (Lycra®) yarns

p. 81 Textile-based goniometer
a) Procedural principle Knitted piezoresistive fabrics modify their electrical resistance when they are elongated or flexed. The main
requirement for the application of the single-layer sensors is that the human movements must produce
a strain field which can be detected by resistance variation. For this reason, single-layer sensors must be
integrated into adherent garments close to the human joint under investigation. [25]

b) Schematic sketch

L1 h0
∆θ
L1 L2 h0
l0

h1
h1 h2
h3
l1 ≠ l0

c) Known/possible field of Hand motion sensing: a kinesthetic sensing glove was developed for the ambulatory evaluation of the
application residual hand function and its recovery in post-stroke patients; scapular movement detection.

d) Possible sensor variants Single-layer sensor or double-layer sensors.

e) Opportunities and −− Needs to closely adhere to joint moving

challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY Single layer: 6405 Ω for Δθ = 37°

V MEASUREMENT RANGE double layer: 5100 Ω for Δθ = 37°

VI TRL 6–8
 GEOTECH

PAGE 118 WATER DETECTOR FIBER-OPTIC SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Textile tape, thread, thread bundle, textile fiber Fiber

PRINCIPLE composite, fleece, paper, film, wire, warp knit

4 | GEOMETRY Punctiform, linear, planar, voluminous Linear

5 | MATERIAL Cellulose, polyolefin, nylon, Nomex, Teflon, plastic, Cotton for protective vision, fluoride glass for light-
polyester, ceramic, metal, wool guide sheath and core

a) Procedural principle Textile probe with sufficiently large stored active Fiber-optic sensor for detecting gaseous or liquid
substance depot, which on contact with the media, surrounded by an optical fiber sheath
substance to be investigated causes a visual consisting of a fluoride glass of low chemical
chemical change in the detector depending on the resistance to be detected on contact with the
composition and movement of the analyte. The analyte. Decomposition of the sheath takes place
change occurs in the form of a substance solution, within a characteristic chemically induced reaction
substance deposition or formation of a new time until the sensor responds as a function of the
substance at the detector itself. [5] original thickness of the sheath, the temperature
and the concentration of the attacking medium
while maintaining the total reflection condition
left, p.5 (lower refractive index of the sheath with respect
to the optical fiber core). A hygroscopic protective
textile layer around the light-guide sheath increases
the corrosive effect of the attacking medium on the
light-guide sheath. [7]

b) Schematic sketch

Fiber-optic core
Fiber-optic sheath
Gas- and liquid-permeable
protective cover

c) Known/possible field of Analysis of gas and water, and also soil and Detection of gaseous and liquid media.
application sediment, samples. Monitoring of electrical cables and lines, as well as
endangered installations, pipelines, equipment and
buildings for the ingress of water, water vapor, acids,
alkalis or other gases and liquids.

d) Possible sensor variants The resistance of the optically visually-recognizable High mechanical strength.
color pattern of the detector to water with a different
composition to that of the measuring point and the
atmosphere, which is exposed to short-term effects,
prevents falsification of the measurement.

e) Opportunities and ++ High response sensitivity, even to individual

challenges media only
++ Targeted analysis of individual specific
substances with desired concentration content
++ Low manufacturing and general cost

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Light-guide sheath with lower refractive index than

the conductor core, light guide sheath made of
fluoride glass with lower hydrolytic resistance
II ENERGY SUPPLY None None

III RESOLUTION >1 h

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 9 6–8
 GEOTECH

PAGE 119 CARBON-FILLED CELLULOSE PHASE PH SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber, filament, film

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, planar Linear

5 | MATERIAL Polymer

pH sensor, p.6
a) Procedural principle Carbon-filled cellulose fiber. Detection of liquids Measurement of substance concentrations, which
or vapors via electrically conductive filaments are not directly accessible spectroscopically, with a
from dry-wet spun cellulose dotted with charge sensitive chemoreceptor. This receptor is a sensor,
carriers (graphite, carbon black, pigments with at the end of which a specific indicator (e.g., phenol
semiconducting layers, metallic fibers or carbon red in polyacrylamide) is immobilized by which a
fibers) whose conductivity changes under tension/ change in pH is measured either in reflection or as
pressure or with increasing moisture content. [8] fluorescence. [9]

b) Schematic sketch
Humidity

Optical fiber
Drag

Optical fiber
Print Immobilized indicator
C-doped Permeable membrane
core Mantle

c) Known/possible field of Detection of liquids or vapors.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Mechanically stable even at high temperatures. Very accurate pH measurement only achievable for
Sometimes even fire-retardant. very small ranges (approximately three pH units).

e) Opportunities and −− Increasing carbon-black content reduces

challenges substance strength, ductility and toughness
−− Doping with carbon black influences the material
viscosity to such an extent that stable thread
formation is not possible at normal spinning
speeds
−− If the doping with soot is too high, the electrical
resistance increases disproportionately

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current None

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES 0.005 pH units

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 GEOTECH

PAGE 120 FIBER-OPTIC PH SENSOR INTEGRATED OPTICAL RESONATOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Polymer, glass LiNbO3

a) Procedural principle Utilization of the light absorption dependent on the The temperature changed by means of optical
pH value of the surrounding medium in a fiber- resonators integrated in LiNbO3 with a periodic
optic probe consisting of a segment of a multimode characteristic curve. In order to be able to record
optical fiber whose end forms the sensor head. the number of orders passed as a function of the
In
p7 this area, both the coating and the cladding of direction of the phase (or temperature) change,
the fiber are removed, so that a sensitive layer of it requires two signals phase-shifted by 90°. It is
a copolymer with immobilized dye is polymerized advantageous to use the output signals to arrive at
onto the core. Electromagnetic radiation is guided an evaluation, which counts in each case with the
in such a way that the light rays pass through the zero crossing, and thus an independence from slow
interface between the fiber core and the sensitive fluctuations of the light intensity is obtained. The
p.6 layer and are returned to the core by total reflection phase modulation required for differentiation is
at the interface between the sensitive layer and the achieved by frequency modulation of the laser light
aqueous analyte. Wavelength-selective absorption or by electro-optical modulation of the optical path
occurs. [10] length of the resonator. [1]

b) Schematic sketch

Cladding Coating pH-sensitive Mirror layer Light

layer
Protective layer
c-Axis
6–20 mm TiLiNb03
Unmirrored
face Fiber core Shaft Epoxy resin
LiNb03

c) Known/possible field of Chemical-analytical measurements. Temperature monitoring of textile structures.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Low influence of the internal thickness on the sensor The sensitivity of the temperature sensor can be
characteristic curve. determined in wide ranges by the length of the
component and the wavelength of the light.

e) Opportunities and ++ High long-term stability ++ Simple measuring system with high accuracy
challenges ++ High sensitivity when supplying the resonator sensor element via
++ Damping arm a polarization-maintaining monomode fiber
++ Measurement of smallest temperature changes
possible due to the strong temperature
dependence of the refractive index

−− Measurement of absolute temperatures not

possible

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Six months service life

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light None

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL Sensitivity of 35 impulses/K, resolution of

29 impulses/K
V MATERIAL PROPERTIES At 680 nm, 0.06 absorbance units per pH unit over
the measuring range of four pH units
VI TRL 9 6–8
 GEOTECH

PAGE 121 TEMPERATURE SENSOR PHOSPHOR TEMPERATURE SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electric current, electromagnetic light spectrum, Electromagnetic light spectrum, temperature
transmitted light, temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear, phosphorus diameter a few 100s of μm

5 | MATERIAL Metals, electrically conductive polymers, glass fibers Doped phosphorus (Gd2O2S and La2O2S)

p8
a) Procedural principle Design of thread-shaped sensors for the Temperature determination with evaluation of the
p8
investigation of thermal loads based on low-melting temperature-dependent luminescence of a doped
metal wires, which change their electrical properties phosphor at the end of an optical glass fiber to
under thermal load. [4] generate a luminescence, the phosphor is excited by
Temperature determination by measuring the UV light via a (multimode) fiber and the fiber guided
change of the refraction coefficient of the light-guide over the same fiber is spectrally decomposed and
sheath under temperature change, which leads to a detected. The intensity ratio of two lines determines
corresponding transmission difference. [9] the temperature. [1]

b) Schematic sketch

Heat

Eu-dopted Glass fiber

Low-melting metal
phosphor

c) Known/possible field of Temperature monitoring of textile structures. Temperature monitoring of textile structures.
application

d) Possible sensor variants Use of threads of electrically conductive polymers As an alternative to the intensity ratio, the
or electrically conductive coated polymers. temperature-dependent phase shift between
Temperature sensors based on the principle of luminescent light and excitation light can
absorption edge displacement using filter glasses be determined with periodic excitation. The
instead of semiconductor elements. measurement range of this variant is between
-30 and 150 °C with an accuracy of 0.04 °C. Using a
small, inexpensive and luminescent GaxAl1-x- As
crystal as a sensor, a temperature range between
0 and 200 °C can be measured with an accuracy of
1 °C (resolution 0.1 °C).

e) Opportunities and ++ High reproducibility ++ Cost-effecitve

challenges ++ Short response time ++ Small installation space
++ High accuracy
++ Low tendency for thread or surface production
due to unfavorable properties of the metals

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None None

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL 0.1 °C

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES 50–250 °C -50–+250 °C

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 GEOTECH
FIBER-OPTIC DISPLACEMENT
PAGE 122 ACTIVE FIBER-OPTIC SENSOR
TRANSDUCER
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Path, route Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor Fiber

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL

a) Procedural principle Measurement of paths on the basis of various Measurement of the distance between sensor and
principles. In particular, fiber optic measurements fluid environment, the concentration of chemicals
of a large number of physical quantities that can be in the fluid environment, the pH value of aqueous
converted into paths by test specimens. [1] solutions, and the partial pressures of a gas by
evaluating the light transmitted via the fiber-
optic laser if this changes characteristically as a
p10 reaction between sensor reagent and surrounding
environment. [12]

b) Schematic sketch Holding or

Element
sleeve element Shell Pipe
(spherical or egg-shaped)

Piece

Optical fiber (transmitting fiber) Optical fiber

(receiver fiber)
Photodetector

Light source

c) Known/possible field of Measurement technology, from displacement Control of chemical processes in nuclear and
application measurement, angle, pressure or acceleration can industrial areas, underground nuclear waste in the
also be measured, depending on the arrangement. environment, in medical and biological analysis,
as well as in the agri-food industry; medical
applications; biochemical applications; use in the
food industry.

d) Possible sensor variants Fiber-optically active sensor. [13]

e) Opportunities and ++ Long service life

challenges ++ Simple sterilization
++ High stability

−− Limited pH measuring range

−− Limited reproducibility of the reaction between
optical fibers and the immobilized reagent

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Bulky sensor material

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES 10 -10–1 m

VI TRL 9 9
 GEOTECH

PAGE 123 SOUND SENSOR (HYDROPHONE) RAPID-SHRINK FIBER

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor Warp knit, weave

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear, planar

5 | MATERIAL Quartz glass Elastomer (polyutherane, rubber)

a) Procedural principle Fiber optic hydrophone (Mach–Zehnder A polymer fiber which shrinks rapidly at ordinary
interferometer) for highly sensitive detection of temperature and in contact with water, but retains
pressure differences between measuring and its shape (impact strength), has high absorbency,
reference fibers. By modulating the refractive index and has performance characteristics such as rubber
of the measuring fiber, the sound pressure changes elasticity. [14]
the phase length of the passing light and thus
the interference signal, which is detected by two
photodiodes and fed to the amplifier via a high-
p12 pass filter. The signal behind the low pass is used to
stabilize the operating point of the interferometer
p11
against slow fluctuations, e.g., due to temperature
changes. [1]

b) Schematic sketch Measurand

Detectors Differential Radius r
amplifier
Measuring fiber
Comparison fiber Water-absorbent
Beamsplitter
shrinkable yarn
Phase compensation Pitch d
Low pass Rapidly shrinking fiber

Signal Lock In High pass Twist angle

c) Known/possible field of Metrology. Disposable diapers; fastening tapes; cloths as covers

application for dampening units in offset printers; cords or
cylinders for plant cultivation; cords and nets for the
food industry; bank reinforcements.

d) Possible sensor variants Due to the flexibility of the quartz glass fibers, A water-absorbing, shrinkable yarn produced
sensors with directional characteristics can be by blending or by blending spinning the rapidly
manufactured. shrinking fiber and a fiber that shrinks slower
than said fiber upon absorption of water. A water-
absorbing shrinkable material which consists of
a water-absorbing shrinkable fibrous web and a
water-absorbing shrinkable yarn that absorbs water
at a higher rate and to a greater extent than the
fibrous web, with the water-absorbing shrinkable
yarn containing the rapidly shrinking fiber.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES At 20 °C, maximum percentage shrinkage >30%

II ENERGY SUPPLY Laser light

III RESOLUTION 0–10 s

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE At 20 °C, shrinkage stress = 0.351–1.755 kg/m²

(30–150 mg/den)

VI TRL 9 9
 GEOTECH

PAGE 124 PYROMETERS POLYIMIDE WAVE CONDUCTOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum, temperature Moisture content

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor Fiber

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Planar

5 | MATERIAL Sapphire glass, quartz glass Polyamide-imide, respectively perfluorinated

7 polyimide, substrate

a) Procedural principle Fiber-optic measurement method that determines Optical sensor for the quantitative determination
the temperature by analyzing the cavity radiation of of liquids in the vapor phase, comprising a cover
p51
a black body. The radiation spectrum of the black layer, one or two layers of a polyamide imide or a
body shifts according to Planck's law of radiation perfluorinated polyimide, and a substrate. [57]
depending on temperature. [1]

b) Schematic sketch

Electricity
90° Prism

Fiber Polymer film

Substrate
Heat radiation

c) Known/possible field of Non-contact temperature measurement. Determination of polar and non-polar liquids in
application the vapor phase as well as NH3, NH4OH, NO2 and
N2O5 by exploiting the sensitivity of polyimides to
moisture due to interactions with liquid components
near the surface.

d) Possible sensor variants Very small heat capacity allows measurement of Formation of the polyimide waveguide as strip
rapid temperature changes. waveguide, interferometer structure, directional
coupler structure.

e) Opportunities and ++ Measurement of very high temperatures possible ++ Functionality for polar and non-polar liquids
challenges ++ Functionality in vacuum
++ Independent measurement method against
fluctuations in absolute values, since a
comparative measurement of the phase
differences of two polarizations takes place
++ Digital evaluation possible

−− Differentiation between water and other liquids

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY Measurement accuracy of 0.05%

V MEASUREMENT RANGE Up to about 2000 °C

VI TRL 9 9
 GEOTECH
INTENSITY-BASED FIBER-OPTICAL
PAGE 125 GYROSCOPE (ROTATION SENSOR)
SENSORS
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber optic Fiber

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear conductor, fiber length between 100 and Linear

1000 m

5 | MATERIAL Optically conductive fibers

a) Procedural principle Ring interferometer which evaluates the phase A measurand-induced change in the optical intensity
difference between the opposing light waves propagated by an optical fiber can be produced by
(Sagnac effect), which is dependent on the angular different mechanisms, such as micro-bending loss,
velocity, as a measured variable. Polarized laser attenuation, and evanescent fields.
light passes between two beam splitters before Requires lighter fibers. They usually use multi-mode
it is coupled into the two ends of the same fiber large-core fibers. [24]
coil. In the case of a stationary system, light paths
of equal lengths of the circulating modes result
in a constructive interference at the output of
the second beam splitter, whereas a destructive
interference occurs at the output of the first
beam splitter. The relativistic Sagnac effect
results in a phase difference ΔΦ between the light
waves rotating in opposite directions, which is
proportional to the product of the conversion
number m and the enclosed area A. [1]

b) Schematic sketch
Detector 2 Detector 1

Fiber coil

Ray splitter 2 Ray

Laser Polarizer splitter 1
Surface A
Polarizer

m convolutions

c) Known/possible field of Earth rotation measurement.

application Navigation tools.
Robot control.

d) Possible sensor variants Integrated optical resonator: sensitivities up to

several 100s of °/h.

e) Opportunities and ++ Miniaturization of the fiber-optic gyroscope ++ Advantages of this category are easy
challenges through integrated optics implementation, low cost, multiplexing and the
++ Use in areas with short-term stability as well as possibility to implement distributed sensors
with required long-term stability possible
−− Disadvantages include the measurements and
variations in the intensity of the light source,
which could lead to false readings if a reference
system is not used

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Laser light Light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY Up to 3–10 °/h

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 6–8
 GEOTECH
INTRINSIC DISTRIBUTED
PAGE 126 FBG SENSORS
FIBER-OPTIC SENSORS
1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber Fiber

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Optically conductive fibers Optically conductive fibers

a) Procedural principle Based on Rayleigh scattering. The light is subjected FBGs are characterized by periodic changes created
to attenuation due to this scattering, which is by an intense interference pattern of UV energy
determined by random microscopic variations. If in the index of refraction in the core of a single-
a narrow optical pulse is launched in the fiber, it mode optical fiber. The grating reflects a spectral
is possible to determine the spatial variations in peak based on the grating spacing; therefore, a
the fiber scattering coefficient or the attenuation variation in the length of the fiber due to tension
by monitoring the variation of the Rayleigh or compression determines a change in the grating
backscattered signal intensity. The scattering spacing, and consequently of the wavelength of
coefficient of a location is influenced by the local light that is reflected. By measuring the center
fiber status. [24] wavelength of the reflected spectral peak, it is
possible to obtain a quantitative measurement of
the strain. [24]

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of
application

d) Possible sensor variants Raman scattering is a phenomenon which involves The response of several FBG sensors can be
the inelastic scattering of photons. The incident measured simultaneously by placing several
light pulse causes molecular vibrations in the networks in series attached to one lead optical
optical fiber. In the case of optical time-domain fiber. This is a relevant advantage with respect
reflectometry (OTDR), a high input power is to traditional strain sensor measurement, which
requested, as the Raman scattering coefficient is requires an acquisition system for each sensor.
about three orders of magnitude lower than the By using different wavelengths that are reflected,
Rayleigh scattering coefficient. various FBG sensor signals can be identified,
Brillouin scattering is caused by the acoustic and therefore the space-distributed sensors are
vibrations that occur in the optical fiber when an identified and distinguished. An optical switch must
optical pulse is launched. then be used to connect several optical fibers to the
light source and the spectrometer that measures the
OTDR in different approaches: OTDR based on reflected wavelengths.
Rayleigh scattering, OTDR based on Raman
scattering, OTDR based on Brillouin scattering. The direct embedding of optical fibers with FBG in
the epoxy resin of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)
Raman scattering used for the development and materials allows exact strain measurement in the
implementation of reliable distributed temperature material. Therefore, the epoxy resin is an effective
sensors. protection for the optical fiber.
Rayleigh scattering used to track and to reveal Used for quasi-distributed measurement of strain.
propagation effects.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light Light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 INDUTECH
INTEGRATED OPTICAL
PAGE 127 WEAR SENSOR
FREQUENCY DOUBLER
1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL

a) Procedural principle Determination of absolute temperatures by Visual assessment of wear by binding colored
means of optical frequency doubling, in which threads under the fabric surface of tapes and ropes.
a special light wavelength is required for a
p19
If wear occurs, the colored threads become visible
known temperature of the resonator in order to on the surface. [4]
achieve a frequency conversion (phase matching
of fundamental and harmonic wave) with high
efficiency. [1]

b) Schematic sketch

Colored threads below the

textile surface

c) Known/possible field of Temperature monitoring of textile structures. Structural health monitoring of ropes.
application

d) Possible sensor variants Particularly high efficiency.

e) Opportunities and −− The prerequisite for measurement is a tunable,

challenges coherent light source with enough power to
operate the resonator

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 6–8 9
 INDUTECH
FIBER-OPTIC DISPLACEMENT
PAGE 128 LUMINOUS SIGNAL FILAMENT
TRANSDUCER
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Path, route Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor Friction-spun yarn

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Polypropylene core, polypropylene or polyester

jacket

a) Procedural principle Measurement of paths on the basis of various Friction-spun yarn or wrap-around yarn with a
principles. In particular, fiber optic measurements light-intensive signal thread (with color and light
of a large number of physical quantities that can be effects) visibly integrated into the core from the
converted into paths by test specimens. [1] outside for the detection of a wear condition. The
signal thread is covered by a cover sensitive to
p16 environmental influences (abrasion, UV radiation,
chemicals), which is why this is visually recognisable
after exceeding a limit load that is adjustable via the
resistance of the cover. [4]

b) Schematic sketch

Chemicals

UV radiation
Core

Mantle

c) Known/possible field of Measurement technology, from displacement Inspection of the wear condition of belts and ropes
application measurement, angle, pressure or acceleration can by means of camera observation.
also be measured, depending on the arrangement.

d) Possible sensor variants

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Sensitive sheath, fluorescent core

II ENERGY SUPPLY

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE 10 -10–1 m

VI TRL 9 9
 INDUTECH

PAGE 129 LAMELLA HYBRID ROPE

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Composite material; weave, warp knit, weft knit, Fiber

PRINCIPLE netting, scrim

4 | GEOMETRY Flat, lamella 400 mm x 200 mm Linear

5 | MATERIAL Optical fiber: polymer or glass; carrier textile: glass, Protective layer: cotton; light-guide sheath and core:
carbon, aramid, or basalt scrim fluoride glass

a) Procedural principle Embroidered arrangement of high-performance Investigation of the wear condition on the load-
optical fibers with integrated fiber-Bragg-gratings on bearing rope by evaluating the ratio of the refractive
a lamella for the detection of temperature changes, index between rope core and sheath. The rope
elongations, compressions and oscillations in is a composition of several modules of different
supporting structures. Guiding the fiber-optic sensor properties, at least one module A having the primary
in the direction of the lines of force for the detection load-bearing function and the secondary driving
of tensile, compressive and shear forces and also function and one module B having the primary
transversely to the lines of force for temperature driving function and the secondary load-bearing
compensation. p18
Solidification of the textile structure function. By inserting conductive elements into
by means of a resin system and construction of the the non-conductive modules and sensors, rope
composite material from one or more textile layers. elongation can be measured by determining the
p16
[16] position of a counterweight. [18]

b) Schematic sketch
4000 mm

Module A (mantle)
200 mm

Fiber-optic sensor Module B (seele)

Spectrometer
Lamella

c) Known/possible field of Reinforcement and monitoring of concrete and Structural health monitoring of ropes.
application wooden structures.
Critical deflection of structural elements.
Critical crack formation.
Evidence of functionality, reliability and safety
evidence for remaining useful life.

d) Possible sensor variants Incorporation of fiber Bragg gratings before or after Targeted analysis of individual specific substances
textile processing. with desired concentration content.

e) Opportunities and ++ Fast and reliable application for building ++ High response sensitivity, even to individual
challenges refurbishments media only
++ No temperature dependence ++ High mechanical strength
++ Low manufacturing and general cost

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Light-guide sheath with a lower refractive index

than the conductor core, light-guide sheath made of
fluoride glass with lower hydrolytic resistance
II ENERGY SUPPLY

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 6–8
 INDUTECH

PAGE 130 STRAIN SENSOR CONTROL TEAR STRIP

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Visual assessment, electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, diameter 0.5–2.5 mm Linear

5 | MATERIAL Kevlar, carbon-black-filled silicone rubber Polyester; silver-plated polyamide; metallic fine
wires; cellulose fiber filled with carbon; glass

a) Procedural principle Measuring arrangement for determining the strain Permanent indication of a one-time load overrun
p21 state in ropes.
p21 Based on the location of metal of a belt due to the failure of a control tear thread
balls incorporated at defined distances by electro- at a defined elongation value which is significantly
magnetic means, the strain results from the distance below the elongation at break of the belt. [4]
and the traversing speed of the balls, since these
variables are associated with a change in the specific
electrical parameters. [4]

b) Schematic sketch

Distance d Tension
Speed v
Metal sphere

Induction sensor Textiles Weight breakage

carrier band

c) Known/possible field of Detection of individual wire breaks in steel ropes, Structural health monitoring of ropes.
application e.g., in kevlar elevator ropes. Use for in situ
monitoring and determination of load cycles.

d) Possible sensor variants Measurement of strains and strain peaks on the Non-conductive control tear thread: Consisting of
basis of a reproducible dependence on strain and textile materials such as polyester or polyamide,
electrical resistance, also while maintaining the whose geometric integration into the textile load
strain state by plastic deformation. [4] handling attachment is decisive for the elongation of
the overall system at which failure occurs. Detections
of a few percent can be realized by means of control
yarns of non-typical textile elongations such as carbon
fiber, glass fiber or Twaron aramid filament yarn.

e) Opportunities and ++ For protection against overloading, it is not ++ Silver-coated polymer thread: unsuitable as
challenges necessary for the sensor thread to fail. Exceeding electrically conductive control tearing thread,
a defined strain state is sufficient for the output of since elongations at break cannot be reproduced
an alarm signal or the parallel position of the untwisted
++ By also detecting strain peaks, strain sensors filaments results in only individual filaments
open up a wide range of applications, from crack tearing in case of failure and the applied tension
sensors to sensors for detecting strain peaks remaining constant
−− Process cannot be applied to man-made fiber
tapes and ropes −− Metallic fine wire: very sensitive to breakage,
otherwise excessively high elongation at break
compared to load-bearing agent
−− Cellulose fiber with carbon filling: lower,
moisture-dependent conductivity than silver-
plated polyamide yarns or fine wires.
−− Optically conductive control thread: buckling
sensitivity, critical mechanical behavior.

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Hardness: 50 ± 5 Shore A; density: 1.13 g/cm³; tear

strength: ≥3.5 N/mm²; elongation at break: ≥200%;
specific volume resistance: ≤12 Ωcm
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 INDUTECH
SENSOR FOR DETERMINING FRICTION-SPUN ABRASION
PAGE 131
MANTLE SLIPPAGE SENSOR THREAD
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread, weave Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, planar Linear

5 | MATERIAL Polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate

p22
a) Procedural principle Sensor with optical
p22 signal output in the event of Sensor with optical signal output in the event of
critical wear or damage to the outer sheath of a critical wear or damage to the outer sheath of a
load-bearing rope or tape. The sensor thread has a load-bearing rope or tape. The sensor thread has a
core-sheath structure, the signal-colored core being core-sheath structure, the signal-colored core being
sheathed with thermoplastic staple fiber. This has sheathed with thermoplastic staple fiber. This has
the color of the load-bearing textile and is integrated the color of the load-bearing textile and is integrated
into its outer shell in such a way that it is exposed to into its outer shell in such a way that it is exposed to
abrasion during use. [4] abrasion during use. [4]

b) Schematic sketch

Electricity
Signal-
Relative movement Mantle of staple fibers in
Core colored
Mantle between mantle and color of the load-bearing
core
core band

c) Known/possible field of Control and monitoring when guiding a rope with Structural health monitoring of ropes.
application small deflection radii, since there can be relative
movements between the core and sheath in the
form of sheath slippage or compression and the
introduction of forces into the textile sheath, which
is designed as a non-load-bearing element, leads to
impermissible wear on the rope.

d) Possible sensor variants Arrangement of the conductor loops in dimensions Variation of the ratio of core to shell diameter.
that correspond to the pole configuration of a planar Core yarn made of PET, sheath yarn made of PP;
permanent magnet. Conductor loops as an execution core thread not signal-colored, but rather made of
of adjacent meshes through which a sectionally fluorescent material for UV detection.
magnetized longitudinal structure can be moved. By
matching conductor loops and permanent magnets, Variation of core and sheath strength.
the induction voltages of all conductor loops add up. Core yarn made of PP, sheath yarn made of PET.

e) Opportunities and ++ Accelerations due to relative movements of ++ The use of a fluorescing signal thread in the
challenges core and mantle are shown in a manner directly thread core enables an automated visual
proportional to the magnitude of the stress inspection of the wear condition by means
induced in the meshes of the mantle of camera technology, even on soiled or very
++ The magnetized threads can be oriented along colorful load-bearing textiles
the expected displacement and anchored to the ++ With increasing sheath fineness, there is a
core significant increase in bearable double chafing

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None None

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 6–8
 INDUTECH

PAGE 132 WEAR SENSOR 2 STRAIN SENSOR 2

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear, diameter ø = 0.5–2.5 mm

p25
5 | MATERIAL Aramid Carbon-black-filled silicone rubber

a) Procedural principle Measurement of wear by a disruption sensor made Measurement of strains and strain peaks based on
of aramid. Carbon fibers integrated into a rope a reproducible dependence on strain and electrical
are contacted electronically. As the disintegration resistance, even while maintaining the state of strain
progresses, the electrical resistance increases, which through plastic deformation.
serves as a characteristic value for wear.

b) Schematic sketch
Electricity I ~ electric
resistance R
Drag

Carbon fiber
Electric contact

c) Known/possible field of Use for in situ monitoring and determination of load

application cycles.

d) Possible sensor variants

e) Opportunities and ++ For protection against overloading, it is not

challenges necessary for the sensor thread to fail. Exceeding
a defined strain state is enough for the output of
an alarm signal
++ By also detecting strain peaks, strain sensors
open a wide range of applications, from crack
sensors to sensors for detecting strain peaks

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Hardness: 50 ± 5 Shore A; density: 1.13 g/cm³; tear

strength: ≥3.5 N/mm²; elongation at break: ≥200%;
specific volume resistance: ≤12 Ωcm
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 9
 INDUTECH

PAGE 133 FIBER-COATED SENSORS

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weave
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar

5 | MATERIAL FBG fibers in fabric

a) Procedural principle FBG is a distributed Bragg reflector constructed in a short segment of optical fiber that reflects wavelengths
of light and transmits all others. This is achieved by creating a periodic variation in the refractive index of the
fiber core, which generates a wavelength-specific dielectric mirror. [23]

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of Used in seismology, pressure sensors for extremely harsh environments, and downhole sensors in oil and
application gas wells for measurement of the effects of external pressure, temperature, seismic vibrations and inline
flow measurement.

d) Possible sensor variants Integration of Bragg fiber as warp thread; into a 3D woven; embedded in a conveyor belt; inserted into a
groove and threaded into flat-woven fabric.

e) Opportunities and ++ Inline optical filter to block certain wavelengths, or as a wavelength-specific reflector
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL <6
 MEDTECH
INTEGRATED OPTICAL
PAGE 134 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
FREQUENCY DOUBLER
1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electric current, electromagnetic light spectrum,

transmitted light, temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Metals, electrically conductive polymers, glass fibers

a) Procedural principle Determination of absolute temperatures by Design of thread-shaped sensors for the
means ofp8 optical frequency doubling, in which investigation of thermal loads based on low-melting
a special light wavelength is required for a metal wires, which change their electrical properties
known temperature of the resonator in order to under thermal load. [4]
achieve a frequency conversion (phase matching Temperature determination by measuring the
of fundamental and harmonic wave) with high change of the refraction coefficient of the light-guide
efficiency. [1] sheath under temperature change, which leads to a
corresponding transmission difference. [9]

b) Schematic sketch

Heat

Low-melting metal

c) Known/possible field of Temperature monitoring of textile structures. Temperature monitoring of textile structures.
application

d) Possible sensor variants Particularly high efficiency. Use of threads of electrically conductive polymers
or electrically conductive coated polymers.
Temperature sensors based on the principle of
absorption edge displacement using filter glasses
instead of semiconductor elements.

e) Opportunities and −− The prerequisite for measurement is a tunable, ++ High reproducibility

challenges coherent light source with enough power to ++ Short response time
operate the resonator ++ High accuracy
++ Low tendency for thread or surface production
due to unfavorable properties of the metals

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current None

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES 50–250 °C

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 MEDTECH

PAGE 135 RAPID-SHRINK FIBER STRAIN/PRESSURE SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Warp knit, weave Weft knit, warp knit

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, planar Planar

5 | MATERIAL Elastomer (polyutherane, rubber) Stainless steel

a) Procedural principle A polymer fiber which shrinks rapidly at ordinary Spacer weft-knit made of electrically conductive
temperature and in contact with water, but retains stainless-steel-fiber yarns for detecting the position
its shape (impact strength), has high absorbency of the contact and the size of the contacting surface
p24
and has performance characteristics such as rubber when the specific electrical resistance of the
elasticity. [14] electrically conductive conductor paths changes as a
result of elongation or pressure. [21]

b) Schematic sketch

Radius r Knitted surface

Water-absorbent
shrinkable yarn
Pitch d

Rapidly shrinking fiber

Twist angle
Polfiber

c) Known/possible field of Disposable diapers; fastening tapes; cloths as covers Flat pressure load in buildings.
application for dampening units in offset printers; cords or
cylinders for plant cultivation; cords and nets for the
food industry; bank reinforcements.

d) Possible sensor variants A water-absorbing, shrinkable yarn produced Spacer warp-knit can also be used instead of spacer
by blending or by blending spinning the rapidly weft-knit.
shrinking fiber and a fiber that shrinks slower
than said fiber upon absorption of water. A water-
absorbing shrinkable material which consists of
a water-absorbing shrinkable fibrous web and a
water-absorbing shrinkable yarn that absorbs water
at a higher rate and to a greater extent than the
fibrous web, with the water-absorbing shrinkable
yarn containing the rapidly shrinking fiber.

e) Opportunities and −− Spacer warp-knit has a hysteretic force behavior

challenges and is therefore less suitable as a pressure sensor

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES At 20 °C, maximum percentage shrinkage >30%

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current

III RESOLUTION 0–10 s

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES At 20 °C, shrinkage stress = 0.351–1.755 kg/m²

(30–150 mg/den)

VI TRL 9 6–8
 MEDTECH
CLOTHING INDICATOR FOR
PAGE 136 TEXTILES WITH SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
UV RADIATION AND OZONE
1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment, electric current Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY

5 | MATERIAL Hollow polymers modified with moisture-sensitive

gels

a) Procedural principle Garment comprising sensory and/or actuatorically Small-scale application of a variety of fashionable
modified polymers which, in the event of a health design forms whose color change is accompanied
and/or environmental hazard, change their color, by influencing factors from the environment and at
geometric shape or other physical, biological or least semi-quantitatively correlates with the hazard
chemical properties to protect the wearer in a potential. The measurement is carried out either by
defined manner. [27] the iodine method, acetone decomposition, oxalic
acid decomposition or an immune globuline (IG)
dosimeter.

b) Schematic sketch
Humidity sensor, p.2

Basic thread in right-left-binding

c) Known/possible field of Monitoring of danger conditions. Sensor application to swimwear, leisurewear and
application workwear for outdoor activities for the detection of
UV radiation.

d) Possible sensor variants Sensor element can be formed from: temperature Determination of the intensity of UV radiation by
sensors, pressure sensors, humidity sensors, measurement using iodine method, acetone decay,
pH value sensors, radiation sensor. oxalic acid decomposition or IG dosimeter.

e) Opportunities and ++ Good resistance of the textile carrier to the hazard

challenges potential, sensitization technology and reactions
causing color change

−− Doubts as to whether the concentration and

intensity of the hazard potential is sufficient to
initiate the chemical reaction on the textile

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 <6

 MEDTECH

PAGE 137 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 1 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 3

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical, mechanical Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Conductive yarn Weft knit, warp knit, weave

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Sheath diameter: 0.125 mm; core diameter: 0.09 mm

5 | MATERIAL Silver/gold-coated nylon

a) Procedural principle Recording of physiological states via sensors, Integration of a fiber-optic temperature-sensing
transmission via electrically conductive conductor element into a fabric The temperature sensing
paths in clothing and processing in measuring element is an optical fiber containing one or more
equipment. [31] fiber-Bragg-grating sensors. Light is introduced
into the optical single-mode fiber and directed
to a grating interface adjacent to the wearer. A
reflux signal is received by a reflection mode or
p35 a transmission mode, the reflux signal having a
wavelength shift indicative of temperature by the
Bragg resonance effect. [42]

b) Schematic sketch
Single fiber Bragg grid

Power distribution profile Refractive index

Mantle Transmitted light

Light input
Light loss
Reflected light

Light loss
Light reflection from each
grid interface

c) Known/possible field of Sportswear and medical clothing for monitoring

application bodily functions.
Multimedia clothing for adapting media enjoyment
to physiological conditions.

d) Possible sensor variants Sportswear/medical clothing. [32], [33], [34], [35], [36] Processing of the thread in a weft knit, warp knit,
Textile electrode in spacer warp-knit. [37], [38], [39] or weave.
Multifunctional apparel system. [40]

e) Opportunities and ++ Advantageous contact behavior due to pressure-

challenges elastic behavior when using monofilaments
++ Acceptance by the wearer due to attractive
appearance
++ Comfortable to wear due to the flexibility of the
garment

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Electrical resistance: <5 Ω/cm; diameter of

monofilaments: >100 μm
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 9 6–8
 MEDTECH

PAGE 138 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 4 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 5

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical, chemical, thermal Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Elastic weave or fleece containing electrically Weft knit containing electrically conductive threads
PRINCIPLE conductive fibers

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, planar Punctiform, linear or planar

5 | MATERIAL Elastomers filled with conductive particles or

electrically conductive metals

a) Procedural principle Garment with belts running transversely to the Sensor consisting of strain gauges, piezoelectric
longitudinal axis of the wearer, which can be elements, length gauges or pressure sensors, all
stretched in the longitudinal direction and in of which change their electrical properties under
which strain gauges are incorporated, which allow mechanical deformation. [44]
physiological functions to be determined via
changes in electrical conductivity. [43]

b) Schematic sketch
Conductor
track

Connection wire Belt

Connection wire
Back section

Conductor track Leg

Sensor

c) Known/possible field of Clothing for monitoring heart activity and recording Garment for determining a posture or movement of
application skin resistance, perspiration and body temperature. the body.

d) Possible sensor variants The carrier material of the electrically conductive Sensor element can be formed from strain gauges.
threads is knitted fabric made of cotton with
elastane content or viscose, or synthetic or
microfiber. Conductive particles in the elastor of the
strain sensor can be carbon particles or hydrogels.

e) Opportunities and ++ The garment should be resistant to perspiration ++ Piezoelectric elements

challenges and to washing ++ Magnetic, capacitive or optical length gauges.
++ Increase of sensor sensitivity through path- ++ High wearing comfort due to the unobtrusive
shaped guidance of the strain sensor, since the integration of the sensor elements into the
transverse elongation is low compared to a garment
longitudinal elongation

−− An insulating layer should prevent moisture

from influencing the measuring signal of the
extensometers
−− The elastomer should be more extensible than
the substrate on which the sensor is placed so
that the extensibility of the sensor does not limit
that of the garment

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Specific sensor resistance: 5–30,000 Ωcm

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 MEDTECH

PAGE 139 TENSILE STRAND PHYSIOLOGICAL STRAIN SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit, warp knit, weave Elastic fabric containing electrically conductive
PRINCIPLE filaments

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, planar Linear, planar

5 | MATERIAL Elastic, electrically conductive core thread;

bimetallic sheathing

a) Procedural principle Thread for determining the tensile stress. The Electrically conductive thread for determining
thread consists of an elastic core thread and has at the state of respiration and movement, which
least one sheath, this sheath changing its electrical changes its electrical properties under tensile or
property, in particular
p37
its electrical resistance and/ compressive load, above all its electrical resistance
or its capacitance, when the length of the core and inductance. [46]
thread changes. As a result of the tensile stress, the
pressure is exerted on the body of the wearer. [45]

b) Schematic sketch
Longitudinal extension R

Electricity I ~ resistance R
Elastic core thread and induction L
Sensor thread
Drag
Shell Pressure
Pressure
Drag
Core thread
Insulating layer
Shell Interlayer
(non conductive) Interlayer

c) Known/possible field of Bandage or compression stocking. Clothing for monitoring respiratory and physical
application Sheathing can release substances to the skin of the activity of newborns, children, adults and even non-
wearer. human mammals.

d) Possible sensor variants Processing of the thread—preferably as weft Clothing for monitoring respiratory and physical
thread—in a weft knit, warp knit, or weave. activity of newborns, children, adults and even non-
human mammals.

e) Opportunities and ++ Single- or multilayer sheathing ++ Moisture resistant, i.e., washable

challenges ++ Thread with one or more wrapping threads ++ High measurement accuracy
++ No slipping of the sensors, due to precise
positioning in the garment
++ Increased wearing comfort due to the nottoo
tight fit of the garment

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 MEDTECH

PAGE 140 PRESSURE SENSOR KNITTED BREATHING SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current, pressure Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Elastic weft-knit or warp-knit containing electrically

PRINCIPLE conductive threads

4 | GEOMETRY Dimensions of the pressure sensor: 10 mm x 10 mm

x 1 mm

5 | MATERIAL Electrically conductive metals Electrically conductive polyester with stainless-steel

content

a) Procedural principle Pressure sensor with strip-like or filament-like Measurement of respiratory movement by changing
elements which each have a layered structure the electrical resistance when weft knits made of
and are electrically conductive. When pressure is conductive polyester fiber yarns with stainless-steel
applied, the layers
p37 touch each other and a closed content are stretched. [48]
circuit is formed which indicates the pressure. [47]

b) Schematic sketch

Electricity I ~ resistance R
and induction L

Drag
Pressure
Pressure
Drag

c) Known/possible field of Clothing for monitoring heart activity and recording

application skin resistance, perspiration and body temperature.

d) Possible sensor variants Pressure sensitive stocking. [49] Right/left weft knit with conductive stripes.
Right/left lining weft knit in which the conductive
yarn no longer forms any stitches, but is merely
integrated with handles in the non-conductive basic
knit
Right/right weft knits where the electrical resistance
is less dependent on elongation

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Environmentally stable at 0–50 °C, 30–90% relative

humidity
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE Surface pressure: 0–10 kg/cm²

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 MEDTECH
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
PAGE 141 FIBER-OPTIC RESONATOR
SPACER WARP-KNIT
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electromagnetic light spectrum, temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Warp knit Fiber-optic conductor

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Linear

5 | MATERIAL

a) Procedural principle Three-dimensional spacer warp-knit with integrated Stabilization of the system consisting of a
P39 / P69 in edited version ultrasonic sensors for monitoring body movement. semiconductor laser and a fiber-optic resonator
[50] in a resonance, i.e., at maximum transmission
and minimum reflection, respectively, by retuning
the wavelength of the laser light by the operating
current when the temperature and the optical path
length of the fiber-optic resonator change. [1]

b) Schematic sketch

Poorly conductive
Electrically
polymer shell
conductive fiber

Polymer
fiber

Longitudinal section

c) Known/possible field of Medical applications.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Flexible elastane material guarantees flexibility and Possibility to measure absolute temperatures after
wearing comfort. calibration of the system.

e) Opportunities and −− Restricted measuring range

challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE 20 °C

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 MEDTECH
MINIATURE SENSOR FOR CHECKING
PAGE 142 GLASS FIBER SENSOR
SEAM AND THREAD TENSION
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current, electromagnetic light spectrum Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Yarn Fiber

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Glass

p69
a) Procedural principle Microsensors for detection of elongation, bending, A change in the light frequency due to the measured
displacement or pressure in thread and seam. When variable to be determined can be recorded as a
the thread is subjected to tensile stress, there is a typical characteristic value. [59]
characteristic change in the electrical properties
(electrical resistance, capacitance, inductance,
electromagnetism) or in the transmission behavior
of the light in the thread. [58]

b) Schematic sketch

Strain gauges Thread

c) Known/possible field of Medical applications (measurement of seam and Fiber-optic sensors in chemical process control,
application thread tension to avoid excessive thread tension). automotive engineering, shipbuilding, mining,
medicine and nuclear industry.
Level sensor.

d) Possible sensor variants Measurement via the electrical resistance: strain Sensor system differentiated according to fiber-optic
gauge, direct or hydrostatic, coupled pressure transmitter, hybrid system and use of the fiber itself
sensor, linear potentiometer. as a sensor (internal/external modulation).
Measurement over capacity: deformed dielectric, Alternative use of plastic fibers in short-distance
variable pitch capacitor, plate spacing. systems.
Measurement via inductance: coil with movablecore,
differential transformer.
Measurement via electromagnetism: force–current
converter.
Measurement via magnetism: reverberation effect.
Measurement via light: curved/drawn fiber, light-
emitting diode and quadrant diode.

e) Opportunities and ++ No available data concerning the biological tissue, ++ Low volume
challenges since it is generally inhomogeneous, anisotropic ++ Low weight
and highly time-variant; inhomogeneity of the ++ Galvanic isolation of input and output makes
tissue makes precise measurement necessary; earthing unnecessary
compatibility of the sensor in the organism; ++ No interference from external electromagnetic
limited installation space; high sensitivity fields
necessary for low measuring range ++ No danger of explosion

−− Problems with the coupling of fibers

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL <6 9
 MEDTECH

PAGE 143 3D TUBULAR FABRIC CAPACITIVE BREATHING SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electromagnetic field

3 | CONSTRUCTION Tube fabric Conductive ink between textile layers

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Three-dimensional Planar

5 | MATERIAL Polyester-laminated aluminum tape fabric Combination of stretchable and non-stretchable

textile with conductive ink

a) Procedural principle Tubular fabric in which conductive aluminum Respiration measurement via capacitive proximity
ribbons are woven. Under pressure load, the hose is sensor. Respiratory frequency is measured by
compressed and acts as a condenser. This produces the displacement of two textile layers, which are
a voltage change that can be correlated with the connected by a conductive layer, caused by the
pressure load. respiratory movement. [54]

b) Schematic sketch

Non-stretchable fabric Stretchable fabric

Conductive ink
Stretchable fabric Non-stretchable fabric
Non-stretchable fabric Stretchable fabric
Conductive ink
Stretchable fabric Non-stretchable fabric

c) Known/possible field of Measuring changes in pressure load, e.g., decubitus

application prohylaxis or fall prevention; improvement of
ergonomics.

d) Possible sensor variants Temporal resolution subject to sensor design.

e) Opportunities and ++ Tubular shape allows even compression under

challenges strain without the risk of the conductive belts
shifting against each other
++ Production in one weaving process possible

−− Correlation of position/load and measuring

signal for each position of the ligament tissue to
be re-determined

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Operating range -20 to +50 °C

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION 250 ms

IV SENSITIVITY Changes in capacitance of 2%

V MEASUREMENT RANGE Pressure up to 150 kg

VI TRL 6–8 <6

 MEDTECH
CARBON NANOTUBE (CNT)
PAGE 144 PRESSURE MAPPING SYSTEM
STRAIN SENSOR
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Yarn Three layers of fabric

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Planar

5 | MATERIAL Carbon nanotube yarn Piezoresistive semiconductive polymers between

two layers of highly conductive ripstop nylon fabric

a) Procedural principle Electrical resistance of twisted CNT yarns changes Using piezoresistive sensors to quantify the pressure
with load or temperature change. [55] between two contacting objects, such as a person
and his or her support surface. [23]

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of Monitoring of motion and temperature. Monitoring of vital functions.

application

d) Possible sensor variants An advanced strain sensor for human motion Thin mats are composed of a matrix of small sensors
detection was introduced by Yamada. It uses a and a cover. When a person sits on such a mat, the
new material, namely thin films of aligned single- sensors read pressure at individual locations on
walled carbon nanotubes. Unlike traditional rigid the thigh or buttock. This data is transferred to a
materials such as silicon, nanotube films fracture computer, where a clinician can analyze it. Evenly
into gaps and islands, and bundles bridge the gaps. distributed pressure is preferred.
This allows the films to function as strain sensors Used by clinicians to determine the suitability
capable of measuring strains of up to 280% with of a wheelchair cushion, and by researchers
high durability. investigating support surfaces, risk factors for
ulceration and ulcer prevention protocols.
Used in industrial and engineering environments for
product design and verification, process control or
quality assurance.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY Strain: 1.4 to 1.8 mV/V/1000 m; temperature:

91 mA/°C
V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL <6 9
 MEDTECH

PAGE 145 CAPACITIVE PRESSURE SENSOR BIOPOTENTIAL SENSORS

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weave Weaves, weft knits, embroidered electrodes

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Planar

5 | MATERIAL Piezoresistive material between fabric layers Silver yarns for electrodes

a) Procedural principle Resistive pressure sensor is comprised of a matrix Electrocardiography (ECG) and electromyography
of capacitive-sensing elements. Pressure applied (EMG) are the electrical potentials periodically
to the surface of the sensing element causes a changed by cardiovascular and muscular activities.
change in capacitance that is correlated to a change [60]
in pressure. Proprietary Windows-based software
compensates for sensor non-linearity, hysteresis and
creep over time, resulting in enhanced accuracy. [23]

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of Monitoring of vital functions.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Capacitive-based pressure-imaging sensors Nervous stimuli and muscle contraction can be
developed by XSENSOR Technology Corporation easily detected by measuring the ionic current flow
(Calgary, Alberta, Canada) can graphically display in the body. This measurement is accomplished by
pressure distributions in real time between virtually attaching biopotential electrodes to the skin surface.
any two surfaces in contact. The sensor element is ECG/EMG-monitoring systems: the electrodes
accurate, thin, flexible and robust. These physical are either made of gel or stuck to the skin using
characteristics minimize any artificial influences conductive adhesives in order to develop better
created by the presence of the sensor during data contact to the skin.
collection.
To improve contact between the electrodes and the
skin, skin preparation is required, such as shaving,
abrading, and cleaning the skin surface.
Wearable electrode is created by weaving, knitting
or stitching silver yarns on the inner surface of the
clothing. Irregular surface structures create high
impedance, and therefore high-frequency noise.

e) Opportunities and ++ Accurate, thin, flexible and robust −− Gelatinous substances dry out over a long period
challenges of time and cause the electrode to come off the
skin. Adhesives can irritate the skin, leading to a
loss of signal quality

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 MEDTECH
RESPIRATORY SENSORS INDUCTIVE FLEXIBLE SKIN-ATTACHABLE
PAGE 146
PLETHYSMOGRAPHY (RIP) PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Metal wire in textile strips Scrim

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Planar

5 | MATERIAL Metal wires PVDF TrFE nanofiber material and Au-sputtered

PDMS sheets

a) Procedural principle RIP signals can be caught by an insulated sinusoidal Piezoelectric nanofiber-based sensors made
wire coil embedded into a stretchable textile strap. from electrospun nanofiber material of
[60] poly(vinylidenefluoride-co-trifluoroethylene) (PVDF
TrFE) that is sandwiched between two elastomer
sheets with gold-sputtered electrodes as an active
layer. [54]

b) Schematic sketch
PVA-PDMS

Piezoelectric
nanofiber mat

PI-PDMS Sputtered gold

c) Known/possible field of
application

d) Possible sensor variants Wound around the chest or abdomen, the textile Targeted uses as a high-precision pulse-monitoring
strap is intended to be stretched by respiration. The device.
coil inductance is directly governed by the change of
sinusoid shapes.

e) Opportunities and ++ Ultra-thin, stretchable, flexible sensor that can be

challenges attached to the skin

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION 10 μm skin displacement

IV SENSITIVITY 1 μm coefficient of variation

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 6–8
 MEDTECH

PAGE 147 PRESSURE FORCE MAPPING SENSOR TEXTILE-BASED GONIOMETER

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weave, weft knit Weft knit

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Planar

5 | MATERIAL Carbon black, metal, and metal oxide particles Combination of electroconductive (Belltron® by
Kanebo Ltd.) and elastic (Lycra®) yarns

a) Procedural principle The technology behind force mapping is typically Knitted piezoresistive fabrics modify their electrical
a grid of individual force sensor elements. The core resistance when they are elongated or flexed. The
principle of electrical resistance-based pressure main requirement for the application of the single-
mapping is the special property of electrically layer sensors is that the human movements must
p. 81 Textile-based goniometer
conducting polymer composites (ECPC), that their produce a strain field which can be detected in terms
deformation, which could be caused by either tension of resistance variation. For this reason, single-layer
or pressure, will cause its electrical impedance in the sensors must be integrated into adherent garments
vicinity of the deformation to change. [56] close to the human joint under investigation. [25]

b) Schematic sketch

L1 h0
∆θ
L1 L2 h0
l0

h1
h1 h2
h3
l1 ≠ l0

c) Known/possible field of Hand motion sensing: a kinesthetic sensing glove

application was developed for the ambulatory evaluation of the
residual hand function and its recovery in post-
stroke patients; scapular movement detection.

d) Possible sensor variants Force sensors can be implemented based on various Single-layer sensor or double-layer sensors.
principles, such as piezoresistive, piezoelectric,
piezomagnetic, capacitive, magnetic and optical.
The basic physical structure of capacitive-based
pressure mapping sensors is two parallel conductive
plates separated with a flexible, non-conductive
layer as the dielectric spacer.

e) Opportunities and ++ The sensing elements can be isolated from −− Needs to closely adhere to joint moving
challenges the skin by either additional regular textile
layers or direct isolation coatings to avoid any
complications from electrode–skin contact.
++ Easily scalable in terms of sensing channels;
this is mainly because of the simplicity of the
measuring structure

−− Higher data processing/transmission

requirements; the need for special conductive
and/or dielectric materials; relatively complex
sensor structures

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION 40 Hz

IV SENSITIVITY Single layer: 6405 Ω for Δθ = 37°

V MEASUREMENT RANGE Double layer: 5100 Ω for Δθ = 37°

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 HOMETECH

PAGE 148 FIBER-OPTIC TEMPERATURE SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical, chemical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION n/a
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear

5 | MATERIAL n/a

a) Procedural principle Permanent identification of harmful environmental influences through the use of threads which change
their shape, color or volume while absorbing liquids. The core yarn must be UV-resistant and clearly
p.3
distinguished in color from the load-bearing tape. For the sheath fibers of the yarn, a material must be
selected which is changed in shape, color or structure by UV radiation. [4]

b) Schematic sketch

Core yarn
(UV sensor)

Coat fiber
(wear sensor)

c) Known/possible field of A friction-spun sensor thread represents a combination of an abrasion sensor and a UV sensor.
application

d) Possible sensor variants Decrease in abrasion resistance with increasing exposure to UV radiation.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9
 HOMETECH
TEMPERATURE-CONTROLLED
PAGE 149 INTELLIGENT MEMBRANE
RADIATION TRANSMISSION
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electromagnetic light spectrum, electric current,

noise level

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fleece Fiber bundle in woven or knitted structure

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Flat, fiber diameter of 0.01 to 10 mm Areal, change of shape up to 8 times its size

5 | MATERIAL Thermotropic polymer blends Nickel titanium alloy

a) Procedural principle A polymer-based material having temperature- A membrane with built-in sensors which reacts
controlled radiation transmission which is present to stimuli such as light, contact, noise or
within core/sheath fibers in a core. A transparent environmental movements in a mobile manner
shell surrounds the core of thermotropic polymer via muscle wires made of Ni-Ti alloy developing
mixture, which becomes turbid beyond the so-called different temperatures at certain currents and
lower critical demixing temperature (LCST) due to passing through different movements. [22]
a changing radiation emission. This turbidity effect
occurs due to a structural change in the polymer
system, in which the components with different
refractive indices separate due to temperature
change. A variation of the relative contents of the
individual comonomers causes turbidity at different
temperatures. [17]

b) Schematic sketch
Heat radiation

Core
Transparent mantle

c) Known/possible field of Temperature-dependent control of radiation

application transmission on buildings (awnings, roller blinds,
venetian blinds), technical equipment, in the
clothing industry and for decorative purposes.

d) Possible sensor variants Incorporation of a non-thermotropic but Use in any size possible.
mechanically highly resilient material into the
polymer core.

e) Opportunities and ++ Advantage of core-shell structure when using −− Very expensive materials
challenges aids with low compatibility to thermotropic core
material

−− Expensive production
−− Bonding of polymers only possible at high
application temperatures
−− Limited possibility of reversible structural change
−− Low mechanical load capacity

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Relative proportion of comonmers between 0.1 and

50 mol%
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electromagnetically Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 <6
 HOMETECH

PAGE 150 ALARM WALLPAPER 3D TUBULAR FABRIC

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber fleece Tube fabric

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Three-dimensional

5 | MATERIAL Fiber fleece: plastic; conductor paths: electrically Polyester-laminated aluminum tape fabric
conductive metals

a) Procedural principle Surface monitoring system with coating of plastic Tubular fabric in which conductive aluminum
fiber fleece coated with electrically conductive, ribbons are woven. Under pressure load, the hose is
metal-free conductive tracks which trigger an alarm compressed and acts as a condenser. This produces
in case of damage. [15] a voltage change that can be correlated with the
pressure load.

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of Alarm in case of damage to surfaces. Measuring changes in pressure load, e.g., decubitus
application prohylaxis or fall prevention; improvement of
ergonomics.

d) Possible sensor variants Simple retrofitting possible. Temporal resolution subject to sensor design.

e) Opportunities and ++ Self-calibration function ++ Tubular shape allows even compression under
challenges ++ Device not detectable via instruments strain without the risk of the conductive belts
++ Side-effects (noises, vibrations and temperature shifting against each other
fluctuations) are not recorded ++ Production in one weaving process possible
++ Modular system structure possible
++ Roll material for use in all cases of need −− Correlation of position/load and measuring
signal for each position of the ligament tissue to
−− Impairment by nails, screws or dowels in the wall be re-determined

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Operating range -20 to +50 °C

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION 250 ms

IV SENSITIVITY Changes in capacitance of 2%

V MEASUREMENT RANGE Pressure up to 150 kg

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 HOMETECH

PAGE 151 PRESSURE MAPPING SYSTEM CAPACITIVE PRESSURE SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Three layers of fabric Weave

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Planar

5 | MATERIAL Piezoresistive semiconductive polymers between Piezoresistive material between fabric layers
two layers of highly conductive ripstop nylon fabric

a) Procedural principle Using piezoresistive sensors to quantify the The resistive pressure sensor is comprised of a matrix
pressure between two contacting objects, such as a of capacitive-sensing elements. Pressure applied to
person and his or her support surface. [23] the surface of the sensing element causes a change in
capacitance that is correlated to a change in pressure.
Proprietary Windows-based software compensates
for sensor non-linearity, hysteresis and creep over
time, resulting in enhanced accuracy. [23]

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of Monitoring of vital functions. Monitoring of vital functions.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Thin mats are composed of a matrix of small Capacitive-based pressure-imaging sensors
sensors and a cover. When a person sits on such developed by XSENSOR Technology Corporation
a mat, the sensors read pressure at individual (Calgary, Alberta, Canada) can graphically display
locations on the thigh or buttock. This data is pressure distributions in real time between virtually
transferred to a computer, where a clinician can any two surfaces in contact. The sensor element is
analyze it. Evenly distributed pressure is preferred. accurate, thin, flexible and robust. These physical
Used by clinicians to determine the suitability characteristics minimize any artificial influences
of a wheelchair cushion, and by researchers created by the presence of the sensor during data
investigating support surfaces, risk factors for collection.
ulceration and ulcer prevention protocols.
Used in industrial and engineering environments
for product design and verification, process control
or quality assurance.

e) Opportunities and ++ Accurate, thin, flexible and robust. Accurate, thin,

challenges flexible and robust

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 HOMETECH

PAGE 152 PRESSURE FORCE MAPPING SENSOR TEXTILE-BASED GONIOMETER (TBC)

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weave, weft knit Weft knit

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Planar

5 | MATERIAL Carbon black, metal, and metal oxide particles Combination of electroconductive (Belltron® by
Kanebo Ltd.) and elastic (Lycra®) yarns

a) Procedural principle The technology behind force mapping is typically Knitted piezoresistive fabrics modify their electrical
a grid of individual force sensor elements. The core resistance when they are elongated or flexed. The
principle of electrical resistance-based pressure main requirement for the application of the single-
mapping is the special property of electrically layer sensors is that the human movements must
conducting polymer composites (ECPC), that their produce a strain field which can be detected in terms
deformation, which could be caused by either of resistance variation. For this reason, single-layer
tension or pressure, will cause their electrical sensors must be integrated into adherent garments
impedance in the vicinity of the deformation to close to the human joint under investigation. [25]
change. [56]

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of Hand motion sensing: a kinesthetic sensing glove

application was developed for the ambulatory evaluation of the
residual hand function and its recovery in post-
stroke patients; scapular movement detection.

d) Possible sensor variants Force sensors can be implemented based on various Single-layer sensor or double-layer sensors.
principles such as piezoresistive, piezoelectric,
piezomagnetic, capacitive, magnetic and optical.
The basic physical structure of capacitive-based
pressure-mapping sensors is two parallel conductive
plates separated with a flexible, non-conductive
layer as the dielectric spacer.

e) Opportunities and ++ The sensing elements can be isolated from −− Needs to closely adhere to joint moving
challenges the skin by either additional regular textile
layers or direct isolation coatings to avoid any
complications from electrode–skin contact
++ Easily scalable in terms of sensing channels;
this is mainly because of the simplicity of the
measuring structure

−− Higher data processing/transmission

requirements; the need for special conductive
and/or dielectric materials; relatively complex
sensor structures
I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION 40 Hz

IV SENSITIVITY Single layer: 6405 Ω for Δθ = 37°

V MEASUREMENT RANGE Double layer: 5100 Ω for Δθ = 37°

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 MOBILTECH
MOISTURE- AND CHEMICAL-SENSITIVE
PAGE 153 CARBON-FILLED CELLULOSE PHASE
SENSOR THREAD
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical, chemical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION n/a Fiber, filament, film

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear, planar

5 | MATERIAL p.5 n/a Polymer

a) Procedural principle Permanent identification of harmful environmental Carbon-filled cellulose fiber. Detection of liquids
influences through the use of threads which change or vapors via electrically conductive filaments
their shape, color or volume while absorbing liquids. from dry-wet spun cellulose dotted with charge
The core yarn must be UV-resistant and clearly carriers (graphite, carbon black, pigments with
distinguished in color from the load-bearing tape. semiconducting layers, metallic fibers or carbon
p.3 For the sheath fibers of the yarn, a material must fibers) whose conductivity changes under tension/
be selected which is changed in shape, color or pressure or with increasing moisture content. [8]
structure by UV radiation. [4]

b) Schematic sketch
Humidity

Core yarn
(UV sensor) Drag

Coat fiber
(wear sensor) Print
C-doped
core Mantle

c) Known/possible field of A friction-spun sensor thread represents a Detection of liquids or vapors.

application combination of an abrasion sensor and a UV sensor.

d) Possible sensor variants Decrease in abrasion resistance with increasing Mechanically stable even at high temperatures.
exposure to UV radiation. Sometimes even fire-retardant.

e) Opportunities and −− Increasing carbon-black content reduces

challenges substance strength, ductility and toughness
−− Doping with carbon black influences the material
viscosity to such an extent that stable thread
formation is not possible at normal spinning
speeds
−− If the doping with soot is too high, the electrical
resistance increases disproportionately

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 9 6–8
 MOBILTECH
INTEGRATED OPTICAL
PAGE 154 FIBER-OPTIC PH SENSOR
FREQUENCY DOUBLER
1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber Fiber-optic conductor

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Polymer, glass

a) Procedural principle Utilization of the light absorption dependent on the Determination of absolute temperatures by
pH value of the surrounding medium in a fiber- means of optical frequency doubling, at which
optic probe consisting of a segment of a multimode a special light wavelength is required for a
optical fiber whose end forms the sensor head. known temperature of the resonator in order to
In this area, both the coating and the cladding of achieve a frequency conversion (phase matching
the fiber are removed, so that a sensitive layer of of fundamental and harmonic wave) with high
a copolymer with immobilized dye is polymerized efficiency. [1]
onto the core. Electromagnetic radiation is guided
in such a way that the light rays pass through the
interface between the fiber core and the sensitive
layer and are returned to the core by total reflection
p.6 at the interface between the sensitive layer and the
aqueous analyte. Wavelength-selective absorption
occurs. [10]

b) Schematic sketch

Cladding Coating pH-sensitive Mirror layer

layer
Protective layer

6–20 mm
Unmirrored
face Fiber core Shaft Epoxy resin

c) Known/possible field of Chemical-analytical measurements. Temperature monitoring of textile structures.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Low influence of the internal thickness on the sensor Particularly high efficiency.
characteristic curve.

e) Opportunities and ++ High long-term stability −− The prerequisite for measurement is a tunable,
challenges ++ High sensitivity coherent light source with enough power to
++ Damping arm operate the resonator

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Six months service life

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES At 680 nm, 0.06 absorbance units per pH unit over
the measuring range of four pH units
VI TRL 9 6–8
 MOBILTECH

PAGE 155 TEMPERATURE SENSOR PYROMETERS

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electric current, electromagnetic light spectrum, Electromagnetic light spectrum, temperature
transmitted light, temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread Fiber-optic conductor

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Metals, electrically conductive polymers, glass fibers Sapphire glass, quartz glass

a) Procedural principle Design of thread-shaped sensors for the

p17 Fiber optic measurement method that determines
investigation of thermal loads based on low-melting the temperature by analyzing the cavity radiation of
metal wires, which change their electrical properties a black body. The radiation spectrum of the black
under thermal load. [4] body shifts according to Planck’s law of radiation
Temperature determination by measuring the depending on temperature. [1]
change of the refraction coefficient of the light-guide
sheath under temperature change, which leads to a
corresponding transmission difference. [9]

b) Schematic sketch

Heat
Electricity

Fiber
Low-melting metal
Heat radiation

c) Known/possible field of Temperature monitoring of textile structures. Non-contact temperature measurement.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Use of threads of electrically conductive polymers Very small heat capacity allows measurement of
or electrically conductive coated polymers. rapid temperature changes.
Temperature sensors based on the principle of
absorption edge displacement, using filter glasses
instead of semiconductor elements.

e) Opportunities and ++ High reproducibility ++ Measurement of very high temperatures possible

challenges ++ Short response time
++ High accuracy
++ Low tendency for thread or surface production
due to unfavorable properties of the metals

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL Measurement accuracy of 0.05%

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES 50–250 °C Up to about 2000 °C

VI TRL 6–8 9
 MOBILTECH
SENSOR THREAD WITH COLOR
PAGE 156 WEAR SENSOR
AND LIGHT EFFECTS
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical, chemical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL

a) Procedural principle Permanent signals of loading and wear of the Visual assessment of wear by binding colored
material are visualized without the supply of threads under the fabric surface of tapes and ropes.
auxiliary energy by generating the following effects: If wear occurs, the colored threads become visible
decomposition of the sensor thread, change in color, on the surface. [4]
shape or volume (swelling, shrinkage, crimping,
bending), turbidity or change in mechanical
properties (e.g., embrittlement by UV radiation). The
p19
preferred design form is the core-sheath structure
of friction-spun wrapping yarns, in which after
destruction of the sensor material arranged in the
sheath a luminous signal thread arranged in the core
becomes visible. [4]

b) Schematic sketch
Chemicals

UV radiation
Core
Colored threads below the
Mantle textile surface

c) Known/possible field of Structural health monitoring of ropes. Structural health monitoring of ropes.
application

d) Possible sensor variants

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 9
 MOBILTECH

PAGE 157 STRAIN SENSOR CONTROL TEAR STRIP

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Visual assessment, electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, diameter: 0.5–2.5 mm Linear

5 | MATERIAL Kevlar, carbon-black-filled silicone rubber Polyester, silver-plated polyamide, metallic fine
wires, cellulose fiber filled with carbon, glass

a) Procedural principle Measuring arrangement for determining the strain Permanent indication of a one-time load overrun
state inp21
ropes. Based on the location of metal of a belt due to the failure of a control tear thread
p21
balls incorporated at defined distances by electro- at a defined elongation value which is significantly
magnetic means, the strain results from the distance below the elongation at break of the belt. [4]
and the traversing speed of the balls, since these
variables are associated with a change in the specific
electrical parameters. [4]

b) Schematic sketch

Distance d Tension

Speed v
Metal sphere

Induction sensor Textiles Weight breakage

carrier band

c) Known/possible field of Detection of individual wire breaks in steel ropes, Structural health monitoring of ropes.
application e.g., in kevlar elevator ropes. Use for in situ
monitoring and determination of load cycles.

d) Possible sensor variants Measurement of strains and strain peaks on the Non-conductive control tear thread: Consists of
basis of a reproducible dependence on strain and textile materials such as polyester or polyamide,
electrical resistance, while maintaining the strain whose geometric integration into the textile load-
state by plastic deformation. [4] handling device is decisive for the elongation of the
overall system at which failure occurs. Detections of a
few percent can be realized by means of control yarns
of non-typical textile elongations such as carbon
fiber, glass fiber or Twaron aramid filament yarn.

e) Opportunities and ++ For protection against overloading, it is not ++ Silver-coated polymer thread: unsuitable as
challenges necessary for the sensor thread to fail. Exceeding electrically conductive control tearing thread,
a defined strain state is sufficient for the output of since elongations at break cannot be reproduced
an alarm signal or the parallel position of the untwisted
++ By also detecting strain peaks, strain sensors filaments results in only individual filaments
open up a wide range of applications, from crack tearing in case of failure and the applied tension
sensors to sensors for detecting strain peaks remaining constant

−− Process cannot be applied to man-made fiber −− Metallic fine wire: very sensitive to breakage,
tapes and ropes otherwise excessively high elongation at break
compared to load-bearing agent
−− Cellulose fiber with carbon filling: lower,
moisture-dependent conductivity than silver-
plated polyamide yarns or fine wires.
−− Optically conductive control thread: buckling
sensitivity, critical mechanical behavior.

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Hardness: 50 ± 5 Shore A; density: 1.13 g/cm³; tear

strength: ≥3.5 N/mm²; elongation at break: ≥200%;
specific volume resistance: ≤12 Ωcm
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 9 9
 MOBILTECH
FRICTION-SPUN ABRASION ADAPTIVE FIBER COMPOSITES
PAGE 158
SENSOR THREAD (ADAPTRONICS)
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Vibration, deformation

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear

5 | MATERIAL Polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate

a) Procedural principle Sensor with optical signal output in the event of Active vibration suppression by piezoelectric films
critical wear or damage to the outer sheath of a and fibers which self-adjust to changing component
load-bearing rope or tape. The sensor thread has a vibrations and deformations by integrated sensors,
core-sheath structure, the signal-colored core being as well as initiate counter-signals via actuators into
sheathed with thermoplastic staple fiber. This has the textile structure. [20]
the color of the load-bearing textile and is integrated
into its outer shell in such a way that it is exposed to
abrasion during use. [4]

b) Schematic sketch

Signal-
colored Mantle of staple fibers in
core color of the load-bearing
band

c) Known/possible field of Structural health monitoring of ropes.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Variation of the ratio of core to shell diameter. Lightweight construction possible; high-stiffness
Core yarn made of PET, sheath yarn made of PP; core and high-strength fiber composites.
thread not signal-colored, but made of fluorescent
material for UV detection.
Variation of core and sheath strength.
Core yarn made of PP, sheath yarn made of PET.

e) Opportunities and ++ The use of a fluorescing signal thread in the −− Fundamentally low mechanical resistance to
challenges thread core enables an automated visual noise and vibration
inspection of the wear condition by means
of camera technology, even for soiled or very
colorful load-bearing textiles
++ With increasing sheath fineness, there is a
significant increase in bearable double chafing

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None None

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 9
 MOBILTECH

PAGE 159 STRAIN/PRESSURE SENSOR INTELLIGENT MEMBRANE

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electromagnetic light spectrum, electric current,

noise level

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit, warp knit Fiber bundle in woven or knitted structure
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Areal, change of shape up to 8 times its size

5 | MATERIAL Stainless steel Nickel titanium alloy

a) Procedural principle Spacer weft-knit made of electrically conductive A membrane with built-in sensors which reacts
stainless-steel-fiber yarns for detecting the position to stimuli such as light, contact, noise or
of the contact and the size of the contacting surface environmental movements in a mobile manner
when the specific electrical resistance of the via muscle wires made of Ni-Ti alloy developing
electrically conductive conductor paths changes as a different temperatures at certain currents and
result of elongation or pressure. [21] passing through different movements. [22]

b) Schematic sketch
Knitted surface

Polfiber

c) Known/possible field of Flat pressure load in buildings.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Spacer warp-knit can also be used instead of spacer Use in any size possible.
weft-knit.

e) Opportunities and −− Spacer warp-knit has a hysteretic force behavior −− Very expensive materials
challenges and is therefore less suitable as a pressure sensor

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 6–8 <6

 MOBILTECH
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
PAGE 160 PRESSURE SENSOR
SPACER WARP-KNIT
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current, pressure Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Elastic weft-knit or warp-knit equipped with Warp knit

PRINCIPLE electrically conductive threads

4 | GEOMETRY Dimensions of the pressure sensor: 10 mm x 10 mm Planar

x 1 mm

5 | MATERIAL Electrically conductive metals

P39 / P69 in edited version

a) Procedural principle Pressure sensor with strip-like or filament-like Three-dimensional spacer warp-knit with integrated
elements which each have a layered structure ultrasonic sensors for monitoring body movement.
and are electrically conductive. When pressure is [50]
applied, the layers touch each other and a closed
circuit is formed which indicates the pressure. [47]

b) Schematic sketch

Poorly conductive
Electrically
polymer shell
conductive fiber

Polymer
fiber

Longitudinal section

c) Known/possible field of Clothing for monitoring heart activity and recording

application skin resistance, perspiration and body temperature.

d) Possible sensor variants Pressure sensitive stocking. [49] Flexible elastane material guarantees flexibility and
wearing comfort.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Environmentally stable at 0–50 °C, 30–90% relative

humidity
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE Surface pressure: 0–10 kg/cm²

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 MOBILTECH

PAGE 161 INTELLIGENT SKIN ARCHITECTURE GYROSCOPE (ROTATION SENSOR)

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weave Fiber optic

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Linear conductor, fiber length between 100 and

1000 m

5 | MATERIAL

a) Procedural principle Optical fibers woven into a carrier material Ring interferometer which evaluates the phase
which serve as sensors for optical information difference between the opposing light waves, which
transmission. [53] is dependent on the angular velocity, as a measured
variable. Polarized laser light passes between two
beam splitters before it is coupled into the two ends
of the same fiber coil. In the case of a stationary
system, light paths of equal lengths of the circulating
modes result in a constructive interference at
the output of the second beam splitter, whereas
a destructive interference occurs at the output
p52
of the first beam splitter. The relativistic Sagnac
effect results in a phase difference ΔΦ between the
light waves rotating in opposite directions, which
is proportional to the product of the conversion
number m and the enclosed area A. [1]

b) Schematic sketch Detector 2 Detector 1

Fiber coil

Ray splitter 2 Ray

Laser Polarizer splitter 1
Surface A
Polarizer

m convolutions

c) Known/possible field of Acquisition of data; image processing; Earth rotation measurement.

application communication. Navigation tools.
Robot control.
d) Possible sensor variants Supporting weaving of the optical fibers into Integrated optical resonator: sensitivities up to
channels. Arrangement of the optical fibers in a grid- several 100s of °/h.
like mat consisting of fibers of any carrier material.
Woven structure comprising a first group of warp-
direction yarns and a second group of weft-direction
yarns with optical fibers arranged between selected
pairs of the first group.
Optoelectronic packaging structure with two
sections, in each of which the abovementioned
woven structure is placed.
e) Opportunities and ++ Low construction volume; low weight ++ Miniaturization of the fiber-optic gyroscope
challenges ++ High tensile strength; high elasticity; high through integrated optics
resistance to weathering; high resistance to ++ Use in areas with short-term stability as well as
chemicals; high tear strength; high dimensional with required long-term stability possible
stability; high wear resistance
−− Sensitivity to deflection, leading to a
deterioration in transmittance

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None Laser light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY Up to 3–10 °/h

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 9
 MOBILTECH

PAGE 162 SENSOR HEATING ELEMENT OVERSTITCHED SYSTEM

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical, thermal Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fleece Spacer warp-knit consisting of two metallized

PRINCIPLE fabrics and spacer material (warp knit or fleece)

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Linear, planar

5 | MATERIAL Carrier film: polymide (PI), PET, PEN; conductor Electrically conductive metals
tracks: copper; protective layer: plastic or fleece

a) Procedural principle Flexible sensor unit for detecting seat occupancy in System having at least two flat conductors formed
a passenger car, which is in the form of a conductive from metallized fabric, which are electrically
film laminated
p89 onto a carrier material. The heating insulated from one another by a spacer material
conductors are arranged between the conductor (warp-knit or fleece) and conduct electricity only on
tracks of the film. A change in the pressure on or contact. The spacer material is used for electrical
temperature of the sensor tracks is accompanied insulation of the electrical conductors, and for the
by a change in their electrical properties (electrical seat and climatic comfort of the driver. [62]
resistance), which in turn influences the electric
current to be measured. [61]

b) Schematic sketch

Topcoat
Electrical conductor
Protecting layer
Distance layer
Electric conductor
Carrier fleece

c) Known/possible field of Capacitive occupancy detection system integrated in

application the seat of a motor vehicle.

d) Possible sensor variants Realization by pressure or temperature sensors.

Design of the seat occupancy detection sensor for
deactivation/activation of airbags in the automotive
sector.
Design of the seat occupancy detection sensor to
detect a pressure profile that is correlated with the
heat output.

e) Opportunities and ++ Simplified sensor design ++ Simple manufacturing process of a system of any
challenges ++ Simplified manufacturing process by reducing given size in only one process
the number of process steps in a combination of ++ Minimized risk of an electrical short-circuit during
sensor and heating element the sewing process due to elastic overstitch
++ Reduced number of components protection layer
++ Cost saving

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current None

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 MOBILTECH

PAGE 163 PRESSURE SENSOR FIBER-COATED SENSORS

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weave
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Planar

5 | MATERIAL FBG fibers in fabric

a) Procedural principle Realization of a pressure sensor with the help of two FBG is a distributed Bragg reflector constructed in
aligned optical waveguides (one fixed, the other a short segment of optical fiber that reflects certain
movable). wavelengths of light and transmits all others. This
p116
is achieved by creating a periodic variation of the
refractive index of the fiber core, which generates a
wavelength-specific dielectric mirror. [23]

b) Schematic sketch

Printing plate Pressure

Optical fiber

Light source
Mode stripper
Detector

c) Known/possible field of Used in seismology, pressure sensors for extremely

application harsh environments, and downhole sensors in oil
and gas wells for measurement of the effects of
external pressure, temperature, seismic vibrations
and inline flow measurement.

d) Possible sensor variants Pressure measurement using the "microbending- Integration of Bragg fiber as warp thread; into a 3D
effect", in which small deviations of the optical fiber woven; embedded in a conveyor belt; inserted into a
axis from a straight line cause mechanical stresses groove and threaded into flat-woven fabric.
in the core and cladding, which in turn cause light to
be decoupled.

e) Opportunities and ++ Inline optical filter to block certain wavelengths,

challenges or as a wavelength-specific reflector

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light Light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY 0–20 bar

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 <6

 ECOTECH

PAGE 164 HUMIDITY SENSOR OPTOELECTRONIC SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit Fiber

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Linear

5 | MATERIAL Electrically conductive yarn Plexiglas

a) Procedural principle Knitted fabric with a basic weft-knit which contains Detection of adhering liquid components in or on
at least one thread made of a material which liquid-storing substances by detecting the change
changes its electrical resistance when affected in the transmission of light in a light-guide with the
by moisture. The weft knit is equipped with an liquid component to be taken. [3]
integrated moisture sensor consisting of at least
two electrodes arranged at a distance, which are
Optoelectronic sensor
electrically connected to each other in case of
moisture. [2] , p.3

Humidity sensor, p.2

b) Schematic sketch
Basic thread in right-left-binding

Beam
Light conductor

c) Known/possible field of Woven fabrics in which electrically well conducting Detection of liquid content of soils, textiles or
application and electrically not well conducting threads are granulates.
alternately woven with each other. Monitoring tasks, for example in landfills.
Electrical connection means in the form of
terminals, plug-in connection parts.

d) Possible sensor variants Electrical means of connection can be connected to Cost-effective.

the monitoring station via textile conductors. The
textile behavior ensures that the joint is extremely
flexible and elastic.

e) Opportunities and ++ Integration of the sensor directly into the

challenges garment, with no external application necessary

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Light

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 6–8 9
 ECOTECH
MOISTURE- AND CHEMICAL-SENSITIVE
PAGE 165 WATER DETECTOR
SENSOR THREAD
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical, chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION n/a Textile tape, thread, thread bundle, textile fiber

PRINCIPLE composite, fleece, paper, film, wire, warp knit

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Punctiform, linear, planar, voluminous

5 | MATERIAL n/a Cellulose, polyolefin, nylon, Nomex, Teflon, plastic,

polyester, ceramic, metal, wool

a) Procedural principle Permanent identification of harmful environmental Textile probe with sufficiently large stored active
influences through the use of threads which change substance depot, which on contact with the
their shape, color or volume while absorbing liquids. substance to be investigated causes a visual
The core yarn must be UV-resistant and clearly chemical change in the detector depending on the
distinguished in color from the load-bearing tape. composition and movement of the analyte. The
For the sheath fibers of the yarn, a material must change occurs in the form of a substance solution,
p.3
be selected which is changed in shape, color or substance deposition or formation of a new
structure by UV radiation. [4] substance at the detector itself. [5]

b) Schematic sketch

Core yarn
(UV sensor)

Coat fiber
(wear sensor)

c) Known/possible field of A friction-spun sensor thread represents a Analysis of gas and water, and also soil and
application combination of an abrasion sensor and a UV sensor. sediment, samples.

d) Possible sensor variants Decrease in abrasion resistance with increasing The resistance of the optically visually-recognizable
exposure to UV radiation. color pattern of the detector to water with a different
composition to that of the measuring point and the
atmosphere, which is exposed to short-term effects,
prevents falsification of the measurement.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None None

III RESOLUTION >1 h

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 9 9
 ECOTECH

PAGE 166 DETECTION MEANS FIBER-OPTIC SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber Fiber

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, planar Linear

5 | MATERIAL Cellulose, plastic, glass, ceramics Cotton for protective vision, fluoride glass for light-
guide sheath and core

a) Procedural principle Detection of substances with shaped and unshaped Fiber-optic sensor for detecting gaseous or liquid
detection means, containing fibers and/or adhesives media, surrounded by an optical fiber sheath
which react to environmental influences via a color consisting of a fluoride glass of low chemical
change, which serves as an indicator. [6] resistance to be detected on contact with the
analyte, decomposition of the sheath takes place
within a characteristic chemically induced reaction
time until the sensor responds as a function of the
original thickness of the sheath, the temperature
and the concentration of the attacking medium
while maintaining the total reflection condition
left, p.5 (lower refractive index of the sheath with respect
to the optical fiber core). A hygroscopic textile
protective layer around the light-guide sheath
increases the corrosive effect of the attacking
medium on the light-guide sheath. [7]

b) Schematic sketch

Fiber-optic core
Fiber-optic sheath
Gas- and liquid-permeable
protective cover

c) Known/possible field of Analysis of water, soil and sediment samples Detection of gaseous and liquid media.
application of natural and artificial constituents including Monitoring of electrical cables and lines, as well as
radioactive contaminants. endangered installations, pipelines, equipment and
Control measures in food and feed production. buildings for the ingress of water, water vapor, acids,
Production and monitoring of industrial products, alkalis or other gases and liquids.
including gases.
Monitoring and control of industrial processes.
Control measures in the nuclear sector.
d) Possible sensor variants Spatially and temporally seamless qualitative High mechanical strength.
monitoring and documentation of processes
possible.

e) Opportunities and −− The detection medium can also be used to a ++ High response sensitivity, even to individual
challenges limited extent as a filter for certain substances media only
++ Targeted analysis of individual specific
substances with desired concentration content
++ Low manufacturing and general cost

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Light-guide sheath with lower refractive index than

conductor core, light-guide sheath made of fluoride
glass with lower hydrolytic resistance
II ENERGY SUPPLY None None

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 9 6–8
 ECOTECH

PAGE 167 PH SENSOR FIBER OPTIC SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Cotton for protective vision, fluoride glass for light-

guide sheath and core

a) Procedural principle Measurement of substance concentrations, which Fiber-optic sensor for detecting gaseous or liquid
are not directly accessible spectroscopically, with a media, surrounded by an optical fiber sheath
sensitive chemoreceptor. This receptor is a sensor, consisting of a fluoride glass of low chemical
at the end of which a specific indicator (e.g., phenol resistance to be detected on contact with the
red in polyacrylamide) is immobilized, by which a analyte, decomposition of the sheath takes place
change in pH is measured either in reflection or as within a characteristic chemically induced reaction
fluorescence. [9] time until the sensor responds as a function of the
original thickness of the sheath, the temperature
pH sensor, p.6 and the concentration of the attacking medium
while maintaining the total reflection condition
(lower refractive index of the sheath with respect
left, p.5 to the optical fiber core). A hygroscopic textile
protective layer around the light-guide sheath
increases the corrosive effect of the attacking
medium on the light-guide sheath. [7]

b) Schematic sketch

Optical fiber

Optical fiber
Fiber-optic core
Fiber-optic sheath
Immobilized indicator
Gas- and liquid-permeable
Permeable membrane
protective cover

c) Known/possible field of Detection of gaseous and liquid media.

application Monitoring of electrical cables and lines, as well as
endangered installations, pipelines, equipment and
buildings for the ingress of water, water vapor, acids,
alkalis or other gases and liquids.

d) Possible sensor variants Very accurate pH measurement only achievable for High mechanical strength.
very small ranges (approximately three pH units).

e) Opportunities and ++ High response sensitivity, even to individual

challenges media only
++ Targeted analysis of individual specific
substances with desired concentration content
++ Low manufacturing and general cost

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Light-guide sheath with lower refractive index than

conductor core, light-guide sheath made of fluoride
glass with lower hydrolytic resistance
II ENERGY SUPPLY None None

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES 0.005 pH units

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 ECOTECH
INTEGRATED OPTICAL
PAGE 168 INTEGRATED OPTICAL RESONATOR
FREQUENCY DOUBLER
1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL LiNbO3

a) Procedural principle Determination of absolute temperatures by The temperature changed by means of optical
means of optical frequency doubling, in which resonators integrated in LiNbO3 with a periodic
a special light wavelength is required for a characteristic curve. To be able to record the
known temperature of the resonator in order to number of orders passed as a function of the
achieve a frequency conversion (phase matching
p7 direction of the phase (or temperature) change
of fundamental and harmonic wave) with high requires two signals phase-shifted by 90°. It is
efficiency. [1] advantageous to use the output signals to arrive at
an evaluation, which counts in each case with the
zero crossing, and thus an independence from slow
fluctuations of the light intensity is obtained. The
phase modulation required for differentiation is
achieved by frequency modulation of the laser light
or by electro-optical modulation of the optical path
length of the resonator. [1]

b) Schematic sketch

Light

c-Axis
TiLiNb03
LiNb03

c) Known/possible field of Temperature monitoring of textile structures. Temperature monitoring of textile structures.
application

d) Possible sensor variants Particularly high efficiency. The sensitivity of the temperature sensor can be
determined in wide ranges by the length of the
textile component and the wavelength of the light.

e) Opportunities and −− The prerequisite for measurement is a tunable ++ Simple measuring system with high accuracy
challenges coherent light source with enough power to when supplying the resonator sensor element via
operate the resonator a polarization-maintaining monomode fiber
++ Measurement of smallest temperature changes
possible due to the strong temperature
dependence of the refractive index

−− Measurement of absolute temperatures not

possible

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current None

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL Sensitivity of 35 impulses/K, resolution of

29 impulses/K
V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 ECOTECH

PAGE 169 TEMPERATURE SENSOR FIBER-OPTIC TEMPERATURE SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electric current, electromagnetic light spectrum, Electromagnetic light spectrum, temperature
transmitted light, temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread Fiber processed into fabric

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Flat, length of one optical waveguide up to 20 m

5 | MATERIAL Metals, electrically conductive polymers, glass fibers Fiber made of glass, sheet material, e.g., geotextile

a) Procedural principle Design of thread-shaped sensors for the Textile temperature-measuring mat with
investigation of thermal loads based on low-melting meandering optical waveguide for checking and
metal wires, which change their electrical properties monitoring the insulation of cladding pipe sections.
p8
under thermal load. [4] The temperature is measured via a fiber-optic
Temperature
p9 determination by measuring the recording of the temperature-dependent anti-Stokes
change of the refraction coefficient of the light-guide line in the optical waveguide. The temperature can
sheath under temperature change, which leads to a be measured either continuously or sequentially
corresponding transmission difference. [9] by evaluating the scattered light pulses depending
on the run time. From the registered temperature
curve, the effectiveness of the insulation can be
concluded. [11]

b) Schematic sketch
Optical fiber
Heat

Sheet
Velcro
Low-melting metal Recess in the
sheet

c) Known/possible field of Temperature monitoring of textile structures. Control and monitoring of the insulation of pipe
application sections.

d) Possible sensor variants Use of threads of electrically conductive polymers Replacement of the fiber-optic cable by flat
or electrically conductive coated polymers. distributed single sensors.
Temperature sensors based on the principle of
absorption edge displacement using filter glasses
instead of semiconductor elements.

e) Opportunities and ++ High reproducibility ++ Simultaneous temperature measurement of

challenges ++ Short response time several locations by means of a light pulse and
++ High accuracy the dependence of the temperature on the
++ Low tendency for thread or surface production propagation time of the light
due to unfavorable ++ Temperature measurement already possible
during the manufacture of the pipe insulation
++ Cost-effective method, since one fiber-optic cable
is sufficient for temperature measurement in
principle
++ Location-dependent measurement enables local
weak points in the pipe insulation to be detected

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Fabrics not subject to tensile, compressive and tear

loads
II ENERGY SUPPLY None Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL 0.1 K

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES 50–250 °C 100–750 K

VI TRL 6–8 9
 ECOTECH
FIBER-OPTIC DISPLACEMENT
PAGE 170 ACTIVE FIBER-OPTIC SENSOR
TRANSDUCER
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Path, route Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor Fiber

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL

a) Procedural principle Measurement of paths on the basis of various Measurement of the distance between sensor and
principles. In particular, fiber optic measurements fluid environment, the concentration of chemicals
of a large number of physical quantities that can be in the fluid environment, the pH value of aqueous
converted into paths by test specimens. [1] solutions, and the partial pressures of a gas by
evaluating the light transmitted via the fiber-
optic laser, if this changes characteristically as a
p10 reaction between sensor reagent and surrounding
environment. [12]

b) Schematic sketch
Holding or
Element
sleeve element Shell Pipe
(spherical or egg-shaped)

Piece

Optical fiber (transmitting fiber) Optical fiber

(receiver fiber)
Photodetector

Light source

c) Known/possible field of Measurement technology, from displacement Control of chemical processes in nuclear and
application measurement, angle, pressure or acceleration can industrial areas, underground nuclear waste in the
also be measured, depending on the arrangement. environment, in medical and biological analysis,
as well as in the agri-food industry; medical
applications; biochemical applications; use in the
food industry.

d) Possible sensor variants Fiber optically active sensor. [13]

e) Opportunities and ++ Long service life

challenges ++ Simple sterilization
++ High stability

−− Limited pH measuring range

−− Limited reproducibility of the reaction between
optical fibers and the immobilized reagent

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Bulky sensor material

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE 10 -10–1 m

VI TRL 9 9
 ECOTECH

PAGE 171 SOUND SENSOR (HYDROPHONE) RAPID-SHRINK FIBER

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor Warp knit, weave

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear, planar

5 | MATERIAL Quartz glass Elastomer (polyutherane, rubber)

a) Procedural principle Fiber-optic hydrophone (Mach–Zehnder A polymer fiber which shrinks rapidly at ordinary
interferometer) for highly sensitive detection of temperature and in contact with water, but
pressure differences between measuring and retains the fiber shape (impact strength), has high
reference fibers. By modulating the refractive index absorbency and has performance characteristics
of the measuring fiber, the sound pressure changes such as rubber elasticity. [14]
the phase length of the passing light and thus
the interference signal, which is detected by two
photodiodes and fed to the amplifier via a high-
p12 pass filter. The signal behind the low pass is used to
stabilize the operating point of the interferometer
p11
against slow fluctuations, e.g., due to temperature
changes. [1]

b) Schematic sketch Measurand

Detectors Differential Radius r
amplifier
Measuring fiber
Comparison fiber Water-absorbent
Beamsplitter
shrinkable yarn
Phase compensation Pitch d
Low pass Rapidly shrinking fiber

Signal Lock In High pass Twist angle

c) Known/possible field of Metrology. Disposable diapers; fastening tapes; cloths as covers

application for dampening units in offset printers; cords or
cylinders for plant cultivation; cords and nets for the
food industry; bank reinforcements.

d) Possible sensor variants Due to the flexibility of the quartz glass fibers, A water-absorbing, shrinkable yarn produced by
sensors with directional characteristics can be blending or blending spinning the rapidly shrinking
manufactured. fiber and a fiber that shrinks slower than said
fiber upon absorption of water. A water-absorbing
shrinkable material which consists of a water-
absorbing shrinkable fibrous web and a water-
absorbent shrinkable yarn that absorbs water at a
higher rate and to a greater extent than the fibrous
web, with the water-absorbent shrinkable yarn
containing the rapidly shrinking fiber.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES At 20 °C, maximum percentage shrinkage >30%

II ENERGY SUPPLY Laser light

III RESOLUTION 0–10 s

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES At 20 °C, shrinkage stress = 0.351–1.755 kg/m²

(30–150 mg/den)
VI TRL 9 9
 ECOTECH

PAGE 172 PYROMETERS UV SENSOR FIBER

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum, temperature Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber-optic conductor Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear

5 | MATERIAL Sapphire glass, quartz glass

a) Procedural principle Fiber-optic measurement method that determines Permanent signaling of the reaching or exceeding
p20 the temperature by analyzing the cavity radiation of of a maximum permissible limit for the effect of
a black body. The radiation spectrum of the black UV radiation on load-bearing belts and ropes by
body shifts according to Planck's law of radiation accumulation sensors. In contrast to photochromic
depending on temperature. [1] materials, which only record the instantaneous
radiation intensity, accumulation sensors visualize
the total measure of the radiation effect. [4]

b) Schematic sketch

Electricity

Fiber
Core
Heat radiation Mantle

c) Known/possible field of Non-contact temperature measurement.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Very small heat capacity allows the measurement of Core-sheath structures in the form of friction and
rapid temperature changes. wrapping yarns, which consist of a UV-sensitive
sheath (sensor thread) and a luminous signal thread
in the core analogous to the abrasion-sensitive
sensor threads. Twisted yarns consisting of two or
more threads with almost identical (colorimetrically
adjusted) hues but different light fastness, which
change their appearance from self-colored to
multicolored after UV irradiation by bleaching of the
threads with lower light fastness.

e) Opportunities and ++ Measurement of very high temperatures possible ++ Semi-quantitative determination of the radiation
challenges dose using the reference filament
++ The elimination of twine production in one
additional operation means that the titre of the
individual yarns can also be adjusted to the yarns
used in the product
++ Both sensor thread and reference thread can
be processed individually in adjacent positions
in the tape fabric or braid, provided they are
suitable for the weave

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electromagnetic radiation

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY Measurement accuracy of 0.05%

V MEASUREMENT RANGE Up to about 2000 °C

VI TRL 9 9
 ECOTECH
CLOTHING INDICATOR FOR
PAGE 173 STRAIN/PRESSURE SENSOR
UV RADIATION AND OZONE
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit, warp knit

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar

5 | MATERIAL Stainless steel

a) Procedural principle Spacer weft-knit made of electrically conductive Small-scale application of a variety of fashionable
stainless-steel-fiber yarns for detecting the position design forms whose color change is accompanied
of the contact and the size of the contacting surface by influencing factors from the environment and at
when the specific electrical resistance of the least semi-quantitatively correlates with the hazard
electrically conductive conductor paths changes as a potential. The measurement is carried out either by
result of elongation or pressure. [21] the iodine method, acetone decomposition, oxalic
acid decomposition or an IG dosimeter.

b) Schematic sketch
Knitted surface

Polfiber

c) Known/possible field of Flat pressure load in buildings. Sensor application to swimwear, leisurewear and
application workwear for outdoor activities for detection of
UV radiation.

d) Possible sensor variants Spacer warp-knit can also be used instead of spacer Determination of the intensity of UV radiation by
weft-knit. measurement using iodine method, acetone decay,
oxalic acid decomposition or IG dosimeter.

e) Opportunities and −− Spacer warp-knit has a hysteretic force behavior ++ Good resistance of the textile carrier to the hazard
challenges and is therefore less suitable as a pressure sensor potential, sensitization technology and reactions
causing color change

−− Doubts as to whether the concentration and

intensity of the hazard potential is sufficient to
initiate the chemical reaction on the textile

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 <6

 ECOTECH

PAGE 174 PRESSURE SENSOR GYROSCOPE (ROTATION SENSOR)

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current, pressure Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Elastic weft-knit or warp-knit equipped with Fiber optic

PRINCIPLE electrically conductive threads

4 | GEOMETRY Dimensions of the pressure sensor: 10 mm x 10 mm Linear conductor, fiber length between 100 and
x 1 mm 1000 m

5 | MATERIAL Electrically conductive metals

a) Procedural principle Pressure sensor with strip-like or filament-like Ring interferometer which evaluates the phase
elements which each have a layered structure difference between the opposing light waves, which
and are electrically conductive. When pressure is is dependent on the angular velocity, as a measured
applied, the layers touch each other and a closed variable. Polarized laser light passes between two
circuit is formed which indicates the pressure. [47] beam splitters before it is coupled into the two ends
of the same fiber coil. In the case of a stationary
system, light paths of equal lengths of the circulating
modes result in a constructive interference at
the output of the second beam splitter, whereas
a destructive interference occurs at the output
of the first beam splitter. The relativistic Sagnac
effect results in a phase difference ΔΦ between the
p52
light waves rotating in opposite directions, which
is proportional to the product of the conversion
number m and the enclosed area A. [1]

b) Schematic sketch

Detector 2 Detector 1

Fiber coil

Ray splitter 2 Ray

Laser Polarizer splitter 1
Surface A
Polarizer

m convolutions

c) Known/possible field of Clothing for monitoring heart activity and recording Earth rotation measurement.
application skin resistance, perspiration and body temperature. Navigation tools.
Robot control.

d) Possible sensor variants Pressure sensitive stocking. [49] Integrated optical resonator: sensitivities up to
several 100s of °/h.

e) Opportunities and ++ Miniaturization of the fiber-optic gyroscope

challenges through integrated optics
++ Use in areas with short-term stability as well as
with required long-term stability possible

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Environmentally stable at 0–50 °C, 30–90% relative

humidity
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Laser light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY Up to 3–10 °/h

V MEASUREMENT RANGE Surface pressure: 0–10 kg/cm²

VI TRL 6–8 9
 PACKTECH

PAGE 175 RAPID-SHRINK FIBER CONTROL TEAR STRIP

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Visual assessment, electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Warp knit, weave Thread

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, planar Linear

5 | MATERIAL Elastomer (polyutherane, rubber) Polyester, silver-plated polyamide, metallic fine

wires, cellulose fiber filled with carbon, glass
p21
a) Procedural principle A polymer fiber which shrinks rapidly at ordinary Permanent indication of a one-time load overrun
temperature and in contact with water, but of a belt due to the failure of a control tear thread
retains the fiber shape (impact strength), has high at a defined elongation value which is significantly
absorbency and has performance characteristics below the elongation at break of the belt. [4]
such as rubber elasticity. [14]
b) Schematic sketch Radius r

Water-absorbent Tension
shrinkable yarn
Pitch d

Rapidly shrinking fiber

Weight breakage
Twist angle

c) Known/possible field of Disposable diapers; fastening tapes; cloths as covers Structural health monitoring of ropes.
application for dampening units in offset printers; cords or
cylinders for plant cultivation; cords and nets for the
food industry; bank reinforcements.
d) Possible sensor variants A water-absorbing, shrinkable yarn produced by Non-conductive control tear thread: Consists of
blending or blending spinning the rapidly shrinking textile materials such as polyester or polyamide,
fiber and a fiber that shrinks slower than said whose geometric integration into the textile
fiber upon absorption of water. A water-absorbing load-handling attachment is decisive for the
shrinkable material which consists of a water- elongation of the overall system at which failure
absorbing shrinkable fibrous web and a water- occurs. Detections of a few percent can be realized
absorbing shrinkable yarn that absorbs water at a by means of control yarns of non-typical textile
higher rate and to a greater extent than the fibrous elongations such as carbon fiber, glass fiber or
web, with the water-absorbent shrinkable yarn Twaron aramid filament yarn.
containing the rapidly shrinking fiber.
e) Opportunities and ++ Silver-coated polymer thread: unsuitable as
challenges electrically conductive control tearing thread,
since elongations at break cannot be reproduced
or the parallel position of the untwisted
filaments results in only individual filaments
tearing in case of failure and the applied tension
remaining constant

−− Metallic fine wire: very sensitive to breakage,

otherwise excessively high elongation at break
compared to load-bearing agent
−− Cellulose fiber with carbon filling: lower,
moisture-dependent conductivity than silver-
plated polyamide yarns or fine wires.
−− Optically conductive control thread: buckling
sensitivity, critical mechanical behavior.

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES At 20 °C, maximum percentage shrinkage >30%

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current

III RESOLUTION 0–10 s

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE At 20 °C, shrinkage stress = 0.351–1.755 kg/m²

(30–150 mg/den)

VI TRL 9 9
 PACKTECH

PAGE 176 FRICTION-SPUN ABRASION SENSOR THREAD

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Thread
PRINCIPLE
p22 4 | GEOMETRY Linear

5 | MATERIAL Polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate

a) Procedural principle Sensor with optical signal output in the event of critical wear or damage to the outer sheath of a load-
bearing rope or tape. The sensor thread has a core-sheath structure, the signal-colored core being sheathed
with thermoplastic staple fiber. This has the color of the load-bearing textile and is integrated into its outer
shell in such a way that it is exposed to abrasion during use. [4]

b) Schematic sketch

Signal-
colored Mantle of staple fibers in
core color of the load-bearing
band

c) Known/possible field of Structural health monitoring of ropes.

application

d) Possible sensor variants Variation of the ratio of core to shell diameter.

Core yarn made of PET, sheath yarn made of PP; core thread not signal-colored, but made of fluorescent
material for UV detection.
Variation of core and sheath strength.
Core yarn made of PP, sheath yarn made of PET.

e) Opportunities and ++ The use of a fluorescing signal thread in the thread core enables an automated visual inspection of the
challenges wear condition by means of camera technology, even on soiled or very colorful load-bearing textiles
++ With increasing sheath fineness, there is a significant increase in bearable double chafing

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8
 PROTECH
MOISTURE- AND CHEMICAL-SENSITIVE
PAGE 177 RAPID-SHRINK FIBER
SENSOR THREAD
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical, chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION n/a Warp knit, weave

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear Linear, planar

5 | MATERIAL n/a Elastomer (polyutherane, rubber)

a) Procedural principle Permanent identification of harmful environmental A polymer fiber which shrinks rapidly at ordinary
influences through the use of threads which change temperature and in contact with water, but
their shape, color or volume while absorbing liquids. retains the fiber shape (impact strength), has high
p12 The core yarn must be UV-resistant and clearly absorbency and has performance characteristics
distinguished in color from the load-bearing tape. such as rubber elasticity. [14]
p.3
For the sheath fibers of the yarn, a material must
be selected which is changed in shape, color or
structure by UV radiation. [4]

b) Schematic sketch
Radius r

Core yarn
Water-absorbent
(UV sensor)
shrinkable yarn

Pitch d
Coat fiber
Rapidly shrinking fiber
(wear sensor)
Twist angle

c) Known/possible field of A friction-spun sensor thread represents a Disposable diapers; fastening tapes; cloths as covers
application combination of an abrasion sensor and a UV sensor. for dampening units in offset printers; cords or
cylinders for plant cultivation; cords and nets for the
food industry; bank reinforcements.

d) Possible sensor variants Decrease in abrasion resistance with increasing A water-absorbing, shrinkable yarn produced by
exposure to UV radiation. blending or blending spinning the rapidly shrinking
fiber and a fiber that shrinks slower than said
fiber upon absorption of water. A water-absorbing
shrinkable material which consists of a water-
absorbing shrinkable fibrous web and a water-
absorbing shrinkable yarn that absorbs water at a
higher rate and to a greater extent than the fibrous
web, with the water-absorbent shrinkable yarn
containing the rapidly shrinking fiber.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES At 20 °C, maximum percentage shrinkage >30%

II ENERGY SUPPLY None

III RESOLUTION 0–10 s

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES At 20 °C, shrinkage stress = 0.351–1.755 kg/m²

(30–150 mg/den)
VI TRL 9 9
 PROTECH
TEMPERATURE CONTROLLED
PAGE 178 STRAIN/PRESSURE SENSOR
RADIATION TRANSMISSION
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fleece Weft knit, warp knit

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Flat, fiber diameter: 0.01 to 10 mm Planar

5 | MATERIAL Thermotropic polymer blends Stainless steel

a) Procedural principle A polymer-based material having temperature- Spacer weft-knit made of electrically conductive
controlled radiation transmission which is present stainless-steel-fiber yarns for detecting the position
within core/sheath fibers in a core. A transparent of the contact and the size of the contacting surface
shell surrounds the core of thermotropic polymer when the specific electrical resistance of the
mixture, which becomes turbid beyond the so-called electrically conductive conductor paths changes as a
lower critical demixing temperature (LCST) due to result of elongation or pressure. [21]
a changing radiation emission. This turbidity effect
occurs due to a structural change in the polymer
system, in which the components with different
refractive indices separate due to temperature
change. A variation of the relative contents of the
individual comonomers causes turbidity at different
temperatures. [17]

b) Schematic sketch

c) Known/possible field of Temperature-dependent control of radiation Flat pressure load in buildings.

application transmission on buildings (awnings, roller blinds,
venetian blinds), technical equipment, in the
clothing industry and for decorative purposes.

d) Possible sensor variants Incorporation of a non-thermotropic but Spacer warp-knit can also be used instead of spacer
mechanically highly resilient material into the weft-knit.
polymer core.

e) Opportunities and ++ Advantage of core-shell structure when using aids −− Spacer warp-knit has a hysteretic force behavior
challenges with low compatibility with thermotropic core and is therefore less suitable as a pressure sensor
material

−− Expensive production
−− Bonding of polymers only possible at high
application temperatures
−− Limited possibility of reversible structural change
−− Low mechanical load capacity

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Relative proportion of comonmers between 0.1 and

50 mol%
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electromagnetically Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 6–8
 PROTECH

PAGE 179 TEXTILE NETTLE CELL TEXTILES WITH SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Temperature Visual assessment, electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Wire, integrated in support fabric

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar

5 | MATERIAL Shape-memory metal Hollow polymers modified with moisture-sensitive

gels

a) Procedural principle Implementation of the textile sensor in the initial Garment comprising sensory and/or actuatorically
fabric by which it autarkically warns the wearer of modified polymers which, in the event of a health
excessive heat stress on the outside of the garment and/or environmental hazard, change their color,
due to irritation on the inside of the fabric. Heat geometric shape or other physical, biological or
collectors (metal plates) pass heat onto a heat chemical properties to protect the wearer in a
insulator (time delay element), which delivers a defined manner. [27]
defined amount of heat to a rolled, blunt needle
made of shape-memory metal (nitinol). With
sufficient heat, the needle stretches through the
undergarment and irritates the skin of the wearer.
[26]

Humidity sensor, p.2

b) Schematic sketch
Basic thread in right-left-binding

________
Protective clothes

Time delay part

Needle
Underclothes
Skin

c) Known/possible field of Personnel potentially exposed to high temperatures. Monitoring of danger conditions.
application

d) Possible sensor variants Simple configuration of sensor sensitivity via Sensor element can be formed from: temperature
material selection. sensors, pressure sensors, humidity sensors,
pH sensors, radiation sensor.

e) Opportunities and ++ Cost-effective and unproblematic made-to-

challenges measure clothing
++ Self-sufficient and redundant system
++ No susceptible cabling
++ Fast location and size estimation of the heat
source
++ No warning signals need to be monitored
continuously
++ Having few layers of clothing prevents greater
heat stress

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Heat

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 PROTECH
CLOTHING INDICATOR FOR
PAGE 180 INDICATIVE COLOR SENSOR
UV RADIATION AND OZONE
1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Visual assessment

3 | CONSTRUCTION Printed fabric

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Punctiform and areal

5 | MATERIAL Fluorescent agent

a) Procedural principle A light-sensor layer, temperature sensor layer and Small-scale application of a variety of fashionable
fluorescent layer with applied writing, pattern design forms whose color change is accompanied
p32 or three-dimensional form, which change their by influencing factors from the environment and at
shape and aesthetic impression when externally least semi-quantitatively correlates with the hazard
influenced. [28] potential. The measurement is carried out either by
the iodine method, acetone decomposition, oxalic
acid decomposition or an IG dosimeter.

b) Schematic sketch
Light-sensor layer
Surface Photosensitive
material

Cloth

c) Known/possible field of Light-sensor layer for detection of UV radiation. Sensor application to swimwear, leisurewear and
application Temperature sensor layer for temperature workwear for outdoor activities for the detection of
determination. UV radiation.
Fluorescent layer for generating fluorinating light.

d) Possible sensor variants Determination of the intensity of UV radiation by

measurement using iodine method, acetone decay,
oxalic acid decomposition or IG dosimeter.

e) Opportunities and ++ Optically appealing design of signal bodies ++ Good resistance of the textile carrier to the hazard
challenges potential, sensitisation technology and reactions
causing color change

−− Doubts as to whether the concentration and

intensity of the hazard potential is sufficient to
initiate the chemical reaction on the textile

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light and heat Light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 <6

 PROTECH

PAGE 181 ABC PROTECTIVE CLOTHING PHOSPOHR TEMPERATURE SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical, chemical, thermal Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit, warp knit, weave, scrim, fleece and Weave
PRINCIPLE composite fabrics

4 | GEOMETRY Punctiform, linear or planar Planar

5 | MATERIAL p8 MPD-I, PPD-T, PBI

a) Procedural principle Protective clothing against biological and chemical Multilayer garment whose outer sheath is equipped
toxins and pollutants that warns of exposure to with a temperature sensor. This ensures rapid
hazards by using at least one sensor and changing expansion of the textile under the effect of heat
its electrical properties. [29] to ensure a heat-insulating intermediate layer to
protect the body. [30]

b) Schematic sketch

Eu-dopted Glass fiber

phosphor

c) Known/possible field of PPE Protective clothing (coat, jacket, trousers) for

application firefighters or industrial applications under high
heat exposure.

d) Possible sensor variants Sensor element can be formed from: temperature A 25% increase in time until second-degree burn on
sensors, pressure sensors, humidity sensors, the skin occurs compared to conventional protective
pH sensors, radiation sensor. clothing.

e) Opportunities and ++ Indication of the end of the recommended

challenges wearing period
++ No time limit for the wearing period

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Riskiness from 1.5 to 4

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Heat

III RESOLUTION 0–3 s

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 9
 PROTECH

PAGE 182 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 1 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 2

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical, mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Conductive yarn Fiber, fiber braid, diffraction grating

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Optical fiber with outer diameter of 125 μm, grating
diameter of 6–9 μm, sensor diameter of 150–250 μm

5 | MATERIAL Silver/gold-coated nylon Polymers, glass, electrically conductive metals

a) Procedural principle Recording of physiological states via sensors, with A patient-monitoring system comprising a plurality
transmission
p35 via electrically conductive conductor of diffraction gratings arranged along an optical
paths in clothing and processing in measuring fiber. Each optical fiber and grating is configured to
equipment. [31] change either the effective refractive index or the
grating periodicity of the corresponding grating at
its location along the fiber in response to at least
one desired external stimulus. [41]

b) Schematic sketch

Bragg grid

Optical
Opticalfiber
fiber
Protective core
core
layer

c) Known/possible field of Sportswear and medical clothing for monitoring Nursing of newborns.
application bodily functions.
Multimedia clothing for adapting media enjoyment
to physiological conditions.

d) Possible sensor variants Sportswear/medical clothing. [32], [33], [34], [35], [36] Reduced number of required connection options.
Textile electrode in spacer warp-knit. [37], [38], [39]
Multifunctional apparel system. [40]

e) Opportunities and ++ Advantageous contact behavior due to pressure- ++ Hygiene

challenges elastic behavior when using monofilaments ++ Skin sensitivity
++ Acceptance by the wearer due to attractive ++ Wear acceptance
appearance
++ Comfortable to wear due to the flexibility of the
garment

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Electrical resistance <5 Ω/cm; diameter of

monofilaments >100 μm
II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 PROTECH

PAGE 183 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 3 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 4

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Mechanical, chemical, thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit, warp knit, weave Elastic weave or fleece equipped with electrically
PRINCIPLE conductive fibers

4 | GEOMETRY Sheath diameter: 0.125 mm; core diameter: 0.09 mm Linear, planar

5 | MATERIAL Elastomers filled with conductive particles or

electrically conductive metals

a) Procedural principle Integration of a fiber-optic temperature-sensing Garment with belts running transversely to the
element into a fabric. The temperature sensing longitudinal axis of the wearer, which can be
element is an optical fiber containing one or more stretched in the longitudinal direction and in
fiber-Bragg-grating sensors. Light is introduced which strain gauges are incorporated, which
into the optical single-mode fiber and directed allow physiological functions to be determined by
p35 to a grating interface adjacent to the wearer. A changing the electrical conductivity. [43]
reflux signal is received by a reflection mode or a
transmission mode, with the reflux signal having a
p36
wavelength shift indicative of temperature by the
Bragg resonance effect. [42]

b) Schematic sketch
Single fiber Bragg grid Conductor
track
Power distribution profile Refractive index
Connection wire Belt
Mantle Transmitted light
Light input Connection wire
Light loss Back section
Reflected light

Light loss
Light reflection from each Conductor track Leg
grid interface Sensor

c) Known/possible field of Clothing for monitoring heart activity and recording

application skin resistance, perspiration and body temperature.

d) Possible sensor variants Processing of the thread in a weft knit, warp knit or The carrier material of the electrically conductive
weave. threads is knitted fabric made of cotton with
elastane content or viscose, or synthetic or
microfiber. Conductive particles in the elastor of the
strain sensor can be carbon particles or hydrogels.

e) Opportunities and ++ The garment should be resistant to perspiration

challenges and at the same time resistant to washing
++ Increase of sensor sensitivity through path-
shaped guidance of the strain sensor, since the
transverse elongation is low compared to a
longitudinal elongation

−− An insulating layer should prevent moisture

from influencing the measuring signal of the
extensometers
−− The elastomer should be more extensible than
the substrate on which the sensor is placed so
that the extensibility of the sensor does not limit
that of the garment

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Specific sensor resistance: 5–30,000 Ωcm

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 9
 PROTECH

PAGE 184 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 5 PHYSIOLOGICAL STRAIN SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weft knit provided with electrically conductive Elastic fabric provided with electrically conductive
PRINCIPLE threads filaments

4 | GEOMETRY Punctiform, linear or planar Linear, planar

5 | MATERIAL
p37

a) Procedural principle Sensor consisting of strain gauges, piezoelectric Electrically conductive thread for determining
elements, length gauges or pressure sensors, all the state of respiration and movement, which
of which change their electrical properties under changes its electrical properties under tensile or
mechanical deformation. [44] compressive load, above all its electrical resistance
and inductance. [46]

b) Schematic sketch
Electricity I ~ resistance R
and induction L

Drag
Pressure
Pressure
Drag

c) Known/possible field of Garment for determining a posture or movement of Clothing for monitoring respiratory and physical
application the body. activity of newborns, children, adults and even non-
human mammals.

d) Possible sensor variants Sensor element can be formed from strain gauges. Clothing for monitoring respiratory and physical
activity of newborns, children, adults and even non-
human mammals.

e) Opportunities and ++ Piezoelectric elements ++ Moisture resistant, i.e., washable

challenges ++ Magnetic, capacitive or optical length gauges. ++ High accuracy of measurement
Pressure sensors ++ No slipping of the sensors due to precise
++ High wearing comfort due to unobtrusive positioning in the garment
integration of the sensor elements into the ++ Increased wearing comfort due to the not too
garment tight fit of the garment

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9 9
 PROTECH
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
PAGE 185 KNITTED BREATHING SENSOR
SPACER WARP-KNIT
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Warp knit

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar

P39 / P69 in edited version

5 | MATERIAL Electrically conductive polyester with stainless-steel
content
p37
a) Procedural principle Measurement of respiratory movement by changing Three-dimensional spacer warp-knit with integrated
the electrical resistance when weft knits made of ultrasonic sensors for monitoring body movement.
conductive polyester fiber yarns with stainless-steel [50]
content are stretched. [48]

b) Schematic sketch
Electricity I ~ resistance R Poorly conductive
Electrically
and induction L polymer shell
conductive fiber

Drag Polymer
Pressure fiber
Pressure
Drag

Longitudinal section

c) Known/possible field of
application

d) Possible sensor variants Right/left weft-knit with conductive stripes. Flexible elastane material guarantees flexibility and
Right/left lining weft-knit in which the conductive wearing comfort.
yarn no longer forms any stitches, but is merely
integrated with handles in the non-conductive basic
knit
Right/right weft-knits where the electrical resistance
is less dependent on elongation

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 PROTECH

PAGE 186 SHAPE-MEMORY SENSOR SAFETY CLOTHING

1 | SENSOR TYPE Thermal Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current, temperature Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Wire, integrated in support fabric Weft knit provided with electrically conductive
PRINCIPLE threads

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Linear, planar

5 | MATERIAL Metallic alloys, polymers Electrically conductive metals

a) Procedural principle By heating to a certain temperature via an electric Garment for locating stab wounds or gunshot
current, the fabric takes on a desired shape with wounds to the human body by using sensor
integrated conductive wires. When the electric units arranged in electrical conductor tracks, the
current is deactivated, the material returns to its operating principle of which is the piezoelectric
original shape. [51] effect. [52]

b) Schematic sketch

Electricity
~ temperature

c) Known/possible field of Protective suit for pilots of fighter planes who are Protective vests for the police and military.
application exposed to high forces on the body due to high
acceleration values.

d) Possible sensor variants Disposable shape-memory effect: by only one phase Variation of the conductor arrangement, preferably
transition in the metallic alloy, the material can only in wave or curve form, as these ensure an elastic
reach its original state. arrangement.
Two-way shape-memory effect: two different The construction of many smaller circuits enables
original material states can be achieved by varying a more precise location of the interruption of the
the temperature into a high and a low temperature. conductor path and thus of the injury to humans.
Polymer tracks can be printed, embroidered or
woven directly onto the fabric.

e) Opportunities and ++ Fast reaction time ++ Detection of impacts, pressure waves and
challenges ++ Functional maintenance even with minor damage detonations using piezoelectric elements
++ The total weight and installation space of the
device are less than those corresponding to the
state of the art

−− Permanent irreversible plastic deformation of

up to 0.1%

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION 0.2–1 s

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE <100 °C

VI TRL 9 9
 PROTECH

PAGE 187 INTELLIGENT SKIN ARCHITECTURE PRESSURE SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION Weave
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Linear

5 | MATERIAL

p116

a) Procedural principle Optical fibers woven into a carrier material Realization of a pressure sensor with the help of two
which serve as sensors for optical information aligned optical waveguides (one fixed, the other
transmission. [53] movable).

b) Schematic sketch

Printing plate Pressure

Optical fiber

Light source
Mode stripper
Detector

c) Known/possible field of Acquisition of data; image processing;

application communication.

d) Possible sensor variants Supporting weaving of the optical fibers into Pressure measurement using the “microbending-
channels. Arrangement of the optical fibers in a grid- effect”, in which small deviations of the optical fiber
like mat consisting of fibers of any carrier material. axis from a straight line cause mechanical stresses
Woven structure comprising a first group of warp- in the core and cladding, which in turn cause light to
direction yarns and a second group of weft-direction be decoupled.
yarns with optical fibers arranged between selected
pairs of the first group.
Optoelectronic packaging structure with two
sections, in each of which the abovementioned
woven structure is placed.

e) Opportunities and ++ Low construction volume; low weight

challenges ++ High tensile strength; high elasticity; high
resistance to weathering; high resistance to
chemicals; high tear strength; high dimensional
stability; high wear resistance

−− Sensitivity to deflection, leading to a

deterioration in transmittance

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY None Light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY 0–20 bar

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 6–8

 SPORTTECH

PAGE 188 INDICATIVE COLOR SENSOR PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 1

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical Chemical, mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Visual assessment Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Printed fabric Conductive yarn

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Punctiform and areal Planar

5 | MATERIAL Fluorescent agent Silver/gold-coated nylon

p32
a) Procedural principle A light-sensor layer, temperature sensor layer and Recording of physiological states via sensors,
fluorescent layer with applied writing, pattern transmission via electrically conductive conductor
or three-dimensional form, which change their paths in clothing and processing in measuring
shape and aesthetic impression when externally equipment. [31]
influenced. [28]

b) Schematic sketch
Light-sensor layer
Surface Photosensitive
material

Cloth

c) Known/possible field of Light-sensor layer for the detection of UV radiation. Sportswear and medical clothing for monitoring
application Temperature sensor layer for temperature bodily functions.
determination. Multimedia clothing for adapting media enjoyment
Fluorescent layer for generating fluorinating light. to physiological conditions.

d) Possible sensor variants Sportswear/medical clothing. [32], [33], [34], [35], [36]
Textile electrode in spacer warp-knit. [37], [38], [39]
Multifunctional apparel system. [40]

e) Opportunities and ++ Optically appealing design of signal bodies ++ Advantageous contact behavior due to pressure-
challenges elastic behavior when using monofilaments
++ Acceptance by the wearer due to attractive
appearance
++ Comfortable to wear due to the flexibility of the
garment

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Electrical resistance <5 Ω/cm; diameter of

monofilaments >100 μm
II ENERGY SUPPLY Light and heat Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8 9
 SPORTTECH

PAGE 189 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 4 PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSOR 5

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical, chemical, thermal Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Elastic weave or fleece provided with electrically Weft knit provided with electrically conductive
PRINCIPLE conductive fibers threads

4 | GEOMETRY Linear, planar Punctiform, linear or planar

5 | MATERIAL Elastomers filled with conductive particles or

electrically conductive metals

a) Procedural principle Garment with belts running transversely to the Sensor consisting of strain gauges, piezoelectric
longitudinal axis of the wearer, which can be elements, length gauges or pressure sensors, all
stretched in the longitudinal direction and in of which change their electrical properties under
which strain gauges are incorporated, which mechanical deformation. [44]
allow physiological functions to be determined by
changing the electrical conductivity. [43]

b) Schematic sketch
Conductor
track

Connection wire Belt

Connection wire
Back section

Conductor track Leg

Sensor

c) Known/possible field of Clothing for monitoring heart activity and recording Garment for determining a posture or movement of
application skin resistance, perspiration and body temperature. the body.

d) Possible sensor variants The carrier material of the electrically conductive Sensor element can be formed from strain gauges.
threads is knitted fabric made of cotton with
elastane content or viscose, or synthetic or
microfiber. Conductive particles in the elastor of the
strain sensor can be carbon particles or hydrogels.

e) Opportunities and ++ The garment should be resistant to perspiration ++ Piezoelectric elements

challenges and washing ++ Magnetic, capacitive or optical length gauges;
++ Increase of sensor sensitivity through path- pressure sensors
shaped guidance of the strain sensor, since the ++ High wearing comfort due to unobtrusive
transverse elongation is low compared to a integration of the sensor elements into the
longitudinal elongation garment

−− An insulating layer should prevent moisture

from influencing the measuring signal of the
extensometers
−− The elastomer should be more extensible than
the substrate on which the sensor is placed so
that the extensibility of the sensor does not limit
that of the garment

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES Specific sensor resistance: 5–30,000 Ωcm

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION

IV MATERIAL

V MATERIAL PROPERTIES

VI TRL 9 9
 SPORTTECH

PAGE 190 PRESSURE SENSOR

1 | SENSOR TYPE Chemical

2 | MEASURAND Electromagnetic light spectrum

3 | CONSTRUCTION
PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear

5 | MATERIAL
p116

a) Procedural principle Realization of a pressure sensor with the help of two aligned optical waveguides (one fixed, the other
movable).

b) Schematic sketch

Printing plate Pressure

Optical fiber

Light source
Mode stripper
Detector

c) Known/possible field of
application

d) Possible sensor variants Pressure measurement using the “microbending-effect”, in which small deviations of the optical fiber axis
from a straight line cause mechanical stresses in the core and cladding, which in turn cause light to be
decoupled.

e) Opportunities and
challenges

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY 0–20 bar

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 6–8
 SPORTTECH
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
PAGE 191 SHAPE-MEMORY SENSOR
SPACER WARP-KNIT
1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical Thermal

2 | MEASURAND Electric current Electric current, temperature

3 | CONSTRUCTION Warp knit Wire, integrated in support fabric

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Planar Planar

P39 / P69 in edited version p39

5 | MATERIAL Metallic alloys, polymers

a) Procedural principle Three-dimensional spacer warp-knit with integrated By heating to a certain temperature via an electric
ultrasonic sensors for monitoring body movement. current, the fabric takes on a desired shape with
[50] integrated conductive wires. When the electric
current is deactivated, the material returns to its
original shape. [51]

b) Schematic sketch

Poorly conductive
Electrically
polymer shell
conductive fiber

Polymer
fiber
Electricity
Longitudinal section ~ temperature

c) Known/possible field of Protective suit for pilots of fighter planes who are
application exposed to high forces on the body due to high
acceleration values.

d) Possible sensor variants Flexible elastane material guarantees flexibility and Disposable shape-memory effect: by only one phase
wearing comfort. transition in the metallic alloy, the material can only
reach its original state.
Two-way shape-memory effect: two different
original material states can be achieved by varying
the temperature into a high and a low temperature.

e) Opportunities and ++ Fast reaction time

challenges ++ Functional maintenance even with minor damage
++ The total weight and installation space of the
device are less than those corresponding to the
state of the art

−− Permanent irreversible plastic deformation of

up to 0.1%

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Electric current Electric current

III RESOLUTION 0.2–1 s

IV SENSITIVITY

V MEASUREMENT RANGE <100 °C

VI TRL 6–8 9
 SPORTTECH

PAGE 192 GYROSCOPE (ROTATION SENSOR)

1 | SENSOR TYPE Mechanical

2 | MEASURAND Electric current

3 | CONSTRUCTION Fiber optic

PRINCIPLE

4 | GEOMETRY Linear conductor, fiber length between 100 and 1000 m

5 | MATERIAL

a) Procedural principle Ring interferometer which evaluates the phase difference between the opposing light waves, which is
dependent on the angular velocity, as a measured variable. Polarized laser light passes between two beam
splitters before it is coupled into the two ends of the same fiber coil. In the case of a stationary system,
p52 light paths of equal lengths of the circulating modes result in a constructive interference at the output of
the second beam splitter, whereas a destructive interference occurs at the output of the first beam splitter.
The relativistic Sagnac effect results in a phase difference ΔΦ between the light waves rotating in opposite
directions, which is proportional to the product of the conversion number m and the enclosed area A. [1]

b) Schematic sketch

Detector 2 Detector 1

Fiber coil

Ray splitter 2 Ray

Laser Polarizer splitter 1
Surface A
Polarizer

m convolutions

c) Known/possible field of Earth rotation measurement.

application Navigation tools.
Robot control.

d) Possible sensor variants Integrated optical resonator: sensitivities up to several 100s of °/h.

e) Opportunities and ++ Miniaturization of the fiber-optic gyroscope through integrated optics

challenges ++ Use in areas with short-term stability as well as with required long-term stability possible

I MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II ENERGY SUPPLY Laser light

III RESOLUTION

IV SENSITIVITY Up to 3–10 °/h

V MEASUREMENT RANGE

VI TRL 9
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