Computers in Human Behavior 61 (2016) 176e185

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Full length article

Teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in teaching-learning process: Scale

validity and reliability study
€ khan Baş a, Milan Kubiatko b, *, Ali Murat Sünbül c
Go
a
Faculty of Education, University of Nigde, Merkez, 51100 Nigde, Turkey
b
Faculty of Humanities, University of Zilina, Univerzitna 1, 010 26 Zilina, Slovakia
c lu Education Faculty, University of Necmettin Erbakan, Meram, 42100 Konya, Turkey
Ahmet Keleşog

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The purpose of this study was to develop a scale for measuring teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in
Received 5 July 2015 teaching-learning process in the classroom. The sample of the study consisted of volunteering Turkish
Received in revised form teachers (n ¼ 200). This study developed a new scale for measuring teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in
5 March 2016
teaching-learning process. In order to test the validity of the scale, the exploratory factor analysis (EFA)
Accepted 8 March 2016
and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were carried out in the research. A result of the EFA, the scale
consisted of three factors: attitude, usage, and belief with 25 items. It was also seen that there were
positive correlations amongst the three factors of the scale. Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient value
Keywords:
Perceptions
was found as 0.92 and Spearman-Brown split-half correlation value was found as 0.85 in the study. It was
Information and communication seen that reliability coefficient values of the factors of in the scale ranged between 0.88 and 0.72 in the
technologies (ICTs) research. Lastly, as a result of the CFA, it was understood that the obtained values (Dc2 (n ¼ 200)/
Scale development df ¼ 4.85/3; GFI ¼ 0.96; AGFI ¼ 0.94; RMSEA ¼ 0.026; CFI ¼ 0.97; TLI ¼ 0.98) confirmed the three-factor
Teachers structure of the scale.
Questionnaire © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction reliable information (Qing, 2007). Students' motivation and confi-

dence are increased when technology is integrated into classroom
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have got instruction (Torff & Tirotta, 2010). Computer engagement also im-
still very impact on the teaching-learning process, their effect was proves student's academic achievement (House, 2012; Mercier &
also in the past at the beginning of the century, when Richards Higgins, 2013). Teachers at any grade level can easily create
(2005) wrote, that many teachers find that interesting and well- collaborative activities for students on the web (Holcomb & Beal,
planned tasks, projects, and resources provide a key to harness- 2010).
ing the educational potential of digital resources, Internet com- Many of devices are still on the beginning of their using in the
munications and interactive multimedia to engage the interest, education, but they have got high potential as iPads and tablets
interaction, and knowledge construction of young learners. There is (Sullivan, 2013). Researchers found that iPads help special needs
a growing demand on educational institutions to use ICTs to teach students improve basic skills, such as reading and writing, and
the skills and knowledge students need for the 21st century. ndez-Lo
increase their attention and interests in learning (Ferna pez,
Realising the effect of ICTs on the workplace and everyday life, Rodriguez-Fortiz, Rodríguez-Fo rtiz, Rodríguez-Almendros, & Mar-
today's educational institutions try to restructure their educational tínez-Segura, 2013).
curricula and classroom facilities, in order to bridge the existing It is seen, the ICTs are important for educational process, so the
technology gap in teaching and learning (Buabeng-Andoh, 2012). teachers should play the main role in the adoption and integration
There are many benefits to using ICTs as an educational tool. ICTs of ICTs in teaching-learning process. There are many factors, which
help students visualise abstract ideas and makes it easy to find are influencing this process. These factors are developing from the
previous century till today. Teachers' integration of ICTs into
teaching-learning is also influenced by organisational factors, at-
* Corresponding author. titudes towards technology and other factors (Chen, 2008; Tondeur,
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (G. Baş), [email protected] Van Braak, & Valcke, 2008; Lim & Chai, 2008; Clausen, 2007).
(M. Kubiatko).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.022
0747-5632/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 G. Baş et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 61 (2016) 176e185 177

Personal characteristics such as educational level, age, gender, Rana (2012) made research among teachers from India. The results
educational experience, experience with the computer for educa- showed that most of the teacher educators had positive attitudes
tional purpose and attitude towards computers can influence the towards the general role that ICTs could play in education and in
adoption of a technology (Schiler, 2003). For example Tondeur, the educational process. The findings showed no gender differences
Valcke, and Van Braak (2008) found out, that male teachers have on attitudes towards ICTs in teacher training, but it is possible to see
got more positive attitudes toward ICTs and their using of ICTs in differences in attitudes with respect to age. Alazam, Bakar, Hamzah,
education process is more frequent in comparison with female and Asmiran (2012) found out that teachers' ICTs skills were at
teachers. Among the factors that influence successful integration of moderate levels, and that a vast majority of teachers who partici-
ICTs into teaching are teachers' attitudes and beliefs towards pated in this study were moderate users of ICTs in classroom
technology (Hew & Brush, 2007; Keengwe & Onchwari, 2008). If teaching. There were significant differences of teachers' ICTs skills
teachers' attitudes are positive towards the use of educational as a function of demographic factors: gender, age, years of teaching
technology then they can easily provide useful insight about the experience. Similar problems is possible to find in the study of
adoption and integration of ICTs into teaching and learning process. Buabeng-Andoh (2012). Ndibalema (2014) found that African
Research has shown that teachers' attitudes towards technology teachers had positive attitudes towards the usage of ICTs as a
influence their acceptance of the usefulness of technology and its pedagogical tool but they did not integrate it in their teaching
integration into teaching and learning (Huang & Liaw, 2005). effectively. Also, low familiarity with ICTs usage as a pedagogical
Teachers' computer experience relates positively to their computer tool amongst teachers was found to be a problem.
attitudes. The more experience teachers have with computers, the There is one crucial question. Why is needed other tool
more likely that they will show positive attitudes towards com- regarding to ICT? After careful searching and reading of literature,
puters (Rozell & Gardner, 1999). Positive computer attitudes are that not all concepts, which were described below are functional in
expected to foster computer integration in the classroom (Van the conditions of Turkey. Other reason was, that it is very important
Braak, Tondeur, & Valcke, 2004). According to Woodrow (1992), to take into account local conditions. So, if some research tool is
for successful transformation in educational practice, user need to valid and reliable in some country, for example in USA, it need not
develop positive attitudes towards the innovation. be functional in other country. So this the reason why we are trying
There is needed to remember, teacher's attitude plays an to create and validate research tool focused on teachers' percep-
important role in influencing the effectiveness of ICTs education tions of ICT.
from a variety of perspectives (Kusano et al., 2013). Voogt (2010) The research goals of the study were: 1. to create research tool;
found that teachers who use technology extensively in their les- 2. to validate and to determine reliability of the research tool.
sons tend to have a high level of confidence in pedagogical tech-
nology skills and focus on a learner-centered approach. They are 2. Methodology
more engaged in professional development activities and collabo-
ration with colleagues than teachers who don't use technology very 2.1. Sample
often. Other research shows that teachers' pedagogical beliefs (e.g.,
philosophies of teaching and learning) are correlated to their The sample of the study consisted of volunteering teachers
technology integration. In order to change teachers' beliefs, schools (n ¼ 200), selected according to cluster sampling method from
must develop strong leaderships. Also, school principals should not three layer groups (high-middle-low socio-economic structure)
only be an official supervisor, but be a personal advisor to provide (McMillan & Schumacher, 2006) of six different public high schools
assistance to individual teachers and staffs (Kim, Kim, Lee, Spector, in Nigde province (37 570 N, 34 400 E), a rather small province with a
& DeMeester, 2013). population of 343.658 (Turkish Statistical Institution [TSI], 2013), in
The basic results of some researches regarding to presented the central Anatolia region of Turkey. Of the participants, 46.50%
problematic are described below. As it is possible to see, all authors (n ¼ 93) were men and 53.50% (n ¼ 107) were women in the study.
described some problems with the adoption and integration of ICTs According to Kline (1994), a sample group of 100e200 subjects is
into education process, but nearly all authors see the big impor- suitable for scale development so that the quality of the sample
tance of ICTs in the education process. For example Cavas, Cavas, group can be stated to be suitable for such a study. In the research,
Karaog lan, and Kısla (2009) realised research among Turkish sci- Anatolian high school teachers (n ¼ 96, 48.00%) constituted the
ence teachers. The results indicated that Turkish science teachers largest group, followed by vocational and technical high school
had positive attitudes towards ICTs and although teachers' atti- teachers (n ¼ 74, 37.00%), and science high school teachers (n ¼ 30,
tudes towards ICTs did not differ regarding gender However, it 15.00%). With regard to occupational experience, 12 (6.00%)
differed regarding age, computer ownership at home and computer teachers had 1e5 years of experience, 54 (27.00%) teachers had
experience. Martinovic and Zhang (2012) examined pre-service 6e10 years of experience, 79 (39.50%) teachers had 11e15 years of
teachers' expectations of and attitudes towards the learning and experience, and 55 (27.50%) teachers had an experience of above 16
integrating of ICTs into their teaching and their perceptions of the years in the study. Finally, the participants' age ranged from 25 to
availability and usage of ICTs. The main results were, there was not 52 years (M ¼ 29.6, SD ¼ 1.13) in the research.
enough comfort with ICTs usage among future teachers, despite
skill level; future teachers had high expectations in learning and 2.2. The development of the scale
teaching with ICTs; access to ICTs was limited in the schools. Al-
Zaidiyeen, Mei, and Fook (2010) found out teachers had a low First, an extensive literature review was made and some items
level of ICTs usage for educational purpose, teachers hold positive were written for trial based on the relevant literature. A pool con-
attitudes towards the usage of ICTs, and a significant positive cor- sisting of 35 items were formed by the researchers. Then, the first
relation between teachers' level of ICTs usage and their attitudes form of the scale consisting of 35 items was presented to the views
towards ICTs was found. Peeraer and Van Petegem (2011) found out of a group of experts in order to test the content validity of the scale.
among Vietnamese teachers the usage of ICTs applications in Experts from the fields of curriculum and instruction, educational
teaching practice remains limited, mostly replacing traditional measurement and evaluation, psychological guidance, instructional
teaching practices. The factors currently determining the usage of technology, and linguistics were asked to comment on the items
ICTs in teaching practice are ICTs skills and computer confidence. prepared for the scale. Based on the views of these experts,
178 G. Baş et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 61 (2016) 176e185

necessary changes and/or improvements were made in regard of result of the EFA so that the CFA was applied to test the model
language and intelligibility of the expressions of the items in the derived as a result of the EFA. On the other hand, as a result of the
scale. The items in the scale were designed according to 5-point CFA various goodness of fit indices are obtained. In the related
Likert (1932) type scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 literature, it is accepted as reasonable to use multiple goodness of
(totally agree) to indicate teachers' level of agreement or fit indices instead of one single fit index so as to test the model
disagreement with each of these items. The scale, then, was final- derived as a result of the EFA (Jo € reskog & So€ rbom, 1993; Kline,
ised as consisting of 30 items for pilot study. Five items were 2005; Marsh, Balla, & McDonald, 1988; Schumacker & Lomax,
removed from the scale because of the negative views of the sug- 1996; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). As a result of teachers' percep-
gestions of the experts. The final form of the scale was prepared and tions towards ICTs in teaching-learning process scale, in addition to
then applied on a group of high school teachers. All of the items traditional chi-square (Dc2) analysis, various goodness of fit indices
were presented in the Turkish language. The translation between including the goodness of fit index (GFI), the comparative fit index
English and Turkish in this study was completed by one of the (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), the root mean square error of
authors. In order to sustain the content validity of the scale, the approximation (RMSEA), and adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI)
exploratory factor analysis (EFA) based on a principal component are used in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). While the ratio of
analysis (PCA) was applied (Murphy & Davidshofer, 1991; chi-square e degrees of freedom (Dc2/df) should be less than 3, GFI,
Reuterberg & Gustafsson, 1992), then the confirmatory factor CFI, TLI, and AGFI values can vary from 0 to 1 and the values
analysis (CFA) was conducted to determine whether the defined exceeding 0.90 indicate a good fit. Also, RMSEA should be less than
construct was valid (Jo € reskog & So €rbom, 1993; Tabachnick & Fidell, 0.05, with values less than 0.06 representing good fit (Hu & Bentler,
2001). 1999; Jo€reskog & So € rbom, 1993; Kline, 2005; Thompson, 2004).
In the first phase of the validity and reliability studies of the After the CFA of the scale, Cronbach's (1990) Alpha internal con-
scale, studies regarding the EFA were carried out. In the evaluation sistency coefficients were calculated for reliability of the scale.
of the EFA, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy
(KMO) and Bartlett's test of sphericity were used in the study. KMO 2.3. Procedure
sampling adequacy and Bartlett's test of sphericity are used as a
criterion for the EFA. KMO sampling adequacy and Bartlett's test of Firstly, numerical data for teachers and schools in the high
sphericity values were examined in order to test the eligibility of school level of the education system was obtained from the data-
the data obtained for the EFA (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000; Murphy & base of the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) of Turkey. Then,
Davidshofer, 1991). In the related literature, it is stated that KMO the questionnaires for participants were developed and prepared
value should be greater than 0.60 (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000; for the application. The questionnaires were delivered by one of the
Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001) as well as Bartlett's test of sphericity researchers visiting the high schools in the sample of the study. In
should be significant to conduct a factor analysis (Murphy & the study, all participants were administrated paper and pencil
Davidshofer, 1991; Reuterberg & Gustafsson, 1992). Also, the questionnaires. For each item in the questionnaire, participants
eigenvalue and Scree plot were used to determine the number of were asked to circle the response which best represented their level
factors extracted as a result of the EFA (Kline, 1994). In the EFA, of agreement with the statements. The questionnaires with par-
factors with eigenvalues equal to 1.00 or more than this value are ticipants were conducted in their schools during weekday time. The
accepted as important factors (Kline, 1994; Tabachnick & Fidell, application of the questionnaires on participants took approxi-
2001). Besides, in the related literature factor loads ranging be- mately four weeks (about one month time). Also, the question-
tween 0.30 and 0.40 can be taken as the lowest limits in deter- naires took approximately 20 min to be completed by each
mining whether the items were included in the scale (Diekhoff, participant. After the application of the questionnaires, they were
1992; Ferguson & Takane, 1989). According to Diekhoff (1992), a collected by the same researcher himself visiting the high schools
factor loading is considered as “excellent” if it is 0.71 (which ex- again. For the participants' non-responses, unintentional skips or
plains 50% of the variance). According to Tabachnick and Fidell unidentifiable marks on some items on the questionnaires, this
(2001), it is considered as “pretty good” if it is 0.63 (which ex- study processes these items as missing data. The questionnaires
plains 40% of the variance), as “good” if it is 0.55 (which explains containing missing data were discarded from the analyses. Finally,
30% of the variance), as “average” if it is 0.45 (which explains 20% of each questionnaire paper was numbered and then coded in MS
the variance), and “poor” if it is 0.32 (which explains 10% of the Excel 2007 package and then transferred to SPSS® 11.0 and IBM
variance). As there are different views in determining the lowest AMOS™22.0 softwares for the statistical analyses. The studies
factor loading limit (e.g., Diekhoff, 1992; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001), regarding the EFA were made through SPSS® 11.0 and the studies in
Ferguson and Takane (1989) indicate that 0.40 should be taken as relation with the CFA were made through IBM AMOS™22.0 in the
the lowest factor loading limit in order to create factor patterns. research.
Therefore, 0.40 was accepted as the lowest factor loading limit in
this study. On the other hand, the total factors were not limited in
this study and factors with eigenvalues above 1.00 were included in 3. Results
the scale. In the related literature, eigenvalues above 1.00 were
defined as important factors (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). In this In this part of the study, the validity and reliability analyses of
study, the eigenvalue was adopted as 1.00 so that three factors were the scale were presented. The statistical processes were gathered
determined which had eigenvalues more than 1.00. under the titles of validity and reliability in the study.
In order to test validity of the structure as a result of the EFA, the
CFA was conducted in the study. As a result of the EFA, it was seen 3.1. Results for the construct validity of the scale
that the scale had a structure of three factors with 25 items. The CFA
was used to examine whether the structure identified in the EFA The results for the construct validity of the scale were gathered
worked in a new sample. Hence, the three-factor structure derived in two different titles in the study. The results for the construct
as a result of the EFA was applied on a group of 200 high school validity of the scale were examined under results of the exploratory
teachers similar to the sample group of the study. Also, Kline (2005) factor analysis (EFA) and results of the confirmatory factor analysis
suggests that a CFA should be conducted on the model derived as a (CFA) titles.
 G. Baş et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 61 (2016) 176e185 179

3.1.1. Results of the exploratory factor analysis the factor loadings rotated by varimax ranged from 0.483 to 0.740.
In this part of the study, the analyses in regard of the EFA for the Explained variance of this factor was calculated as 17.208%. Lastly,
scale were presented. After the pilot form of the scale was applied in terms of the third factor, Belief (BEL), consisted of 5 items and the
on the selected teacher group, the EFA was conducted in order to factor loadings rotated by varimax ranged from 0.449 to 0.809.
test the structure validity of the perceptions towards ICTs in Explained variance of this factor was calculated as 10.161% in the
teaching-learning process scale. As a result of the EFA conducted, study. The total explained variance of the scale was found as
while the items which had 0.40 loading item value were taken into 48.634% in the study. Variance ratios ranging from 40% to 60% are
the scale, five items were calculated to be under the lowest factor accepted as sufficient in social sciences (Kline, 1994) so that the
loading limit so that these items were removed from the scale. After total explained variance of the scale was considered as sufficient.
the items which were calculated to be under the lowest factor Also, Cattel's Scree test (Kline, 1994) was applied on the data in
loading limit were removed from the scale, the rest of the items order to test the structure with the factors of the scale (see Fig. 1).
were numbered again. A second EFA was conducted on the items As a result of the Scree test result shown in Fig. 1, it was decided
which had 0.40 or above the level of factor loading value and KMO that the scale consisted of three factors. As looked at the graphic
sampling adequacy and Bartlett's test of sphericity values were (see Fig. 1) again, it was seen that there were three important
determined. In this study, KMO sampling adequacy value was factors in the scale. It is understood that the point which the
found as 0.91, which means excellent for testing the eligibility of graphic curve falls down fast is the fourth point in the Scree test
the data (Murphy & Davidshofer, 1991). Bartlett's test of sphericity result. The next factors at the fourth and the following points are
value was also found as significant (Dc2 (n ¼ 200) ¼ 1949.642/ both small and the same in regard of their contribution to the total
df ¼ 300, p < 0.000). As a result of these tests, it was decided that variance of the scale (Fabrigar, Wegener, MacCallum, & Strahan,
the EFA could be applied on the data set of the scale. As a result of 1999). Hence, it could be said that the scale was consisted of
these analyses, it was decided that the EFA could be applied on the three factors. On the other hand, the correlations matrix for the
relevant data in the study. In this study, the eigenvalue was adopted three factors in the scale was also presented in the study (see
as 1.00 so that three factors were determined as a result of the EFA. Table 2).
For this reason, a PCA was conducted on the data and three factors It is seen in Table 2 that the results demonstrate that there were
for the scale were determined as a result of it (see Table 1). positive and significant correlations amongst three factors of the
As a result of the EFA, it was decided that the scale had a scale. According to the Pearson's correlation analysis carried out, it
structure of three factors with 25 items. It was understood that the was seen that there was a significant correlation between attitude
factor loads of the first factor, Attitude (ATT), consisted of 10 items and usage (r ¼ 0.658, p < 0.01) and attitude and belief (r ¼ 0.595,
and the factor loadings rotated by varimax ranged from 0.578 to p < 0.01). Also, there was a significant correlation between usage
0.708. Explained variance of this factor was calculated as 21.264%. and attitude (r ¼ 0.658, p < 0.01) and usage and belief (r ¼ 0.574,
In regard of the second factor, Use (US), consisted of 10 items and p < 0.01). Lastly, there was a significant correlation between belief
and attitude (r ¼ 0.595, p < 0.01) and belief and use (r ¼ 0.574,
p < 0.01), respectively. In general, it was seen that there were
Table 1
positive correlations amongst the three factors on the scale ranging
Rotated factor loadings for the three factors of the scale.
between 0.574 and 0.658 in the study (ps < 0.01).
Items Factorsa

Attitudeb Usagec Beliefd 3.1.2. Results of the confirmatory factor analysis

Attitude
According to Brown (2006), “confirmatory factor analysis is
V14 0.708 almost always used during the process of scale development to
V23 0.671 examine the latent structure of a test instrument” (p. 1). Therefore,
V21 0.667 the CFA was applied on the three-factor structure obtained from the
V28 0.660
scale's exploratory factor analysis to verify factor structure on a
V25 0.645
V18 0.624 group of 200 teachers similar to the sample group of this study. On
V17 0.606 examining the compatibility index results of the constructed
V30 0.583 equation model, the model-data compatibility was found out to be
V20 0.589
high enough (see Table 3).
V15 0.578
Usage
As a result of the CFA, chi-square e degrees of freedom ratio was
V8 0.740 found as 1.12 (Dc2/df ¼ 1.25/1). In the study, GFI value was found
V3 0.671
V6 0.633
V1 0.607
V24 0.585
V2 0.576
V7 0.547
V12 0.514
V9 0.486
V11 0.483
Belief
V13 0.809
V5 0.633
V26 0.585
V19 0.484
V10 0.449

Note.
a
Total variance explained ¼ 19.97%.
b
Total variance explained ¼ 19.97%.
c
Total variance explained ¼ 19.97%.
d
Total variance explained ¼ 19.97%. Fig. 1. Scree plot of the eigenvalues of the factors.
180 G. Baş et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 61 (2016) 176e185

Table 2 Table 4
Correlations matrix of the three factors of the scale. Determination of the inter validity of the scale.

Factors M SD 1 2 3 Factors Items Groups M SD t

1. Attitude 4.11 6.89 e 0.658** 0.595** Attitude V13 Upper27% 4.57 0.60 9.280**
2. Usage 3.93 7.90 0.658** e 0.574** Lower27% 2.83 1.24
3. Belief 3.74 4.29 0.595** 0.574** e V16 Upper27% 4.74 0.48 8.922**
** Lower27% 3.14 1.21
Note. p < 0.01.
V24 Upper27% 4.64 0.51 8.879**
Lower27% 3.03 1.22
V20 Upper27% 4.70 0.50 9.373**
Table 3 Lower27% 3.25 1.30
Goodness of fit indices as a result of the CFA. V18 Upper27% 4.62 0.55 9.093**
Lower27% 2.85 1.32
Fit indices Perfect fit Acceptable fit Obtained fit
V22 Upper27% 4.62 0.52 8.104**
c2(df)a,b,h 3 4e5 4.85 (3) Lower27% 3.03 1.34
RMSEAc,d 0.05 0.06e0.08 0.026 V15 Upper27% 4.40 0.90 6.714**
CFIa,e,f 0.95 0.90 0.97 Lower27% 2.94 1.32
GFIg,h 0.95 0.90 0.96 V17 Upper27% 4.79 0.45 8.179**
AGFIg,h 0.95 0.90 0.94 Lower27% 3.12 1.42
TLIe 0.95 0.90 0.98 V14 Upper27% 4.59 0.53 11.139**
Lower27% 2.70 1.12
Note.
a V25 Upper27% 4.64 0.51 9.854**
Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001;
b Lower27% 2.79 1.27
Kline, 2005.
c € Usage V7 Upper27% 4.64 0.70 4.954**
Joroskog&So€ rbom, 1993.
d Lower27% 3.66 1.27
Brown, 2006.
e V3 Upper27% 4.53 0.50 7.129**
Hu & Bentler, 1999.
f Lower27% 3.29 1.17
Thompson, 2004.
g V5 Upper27% 4.59 0.56 7.411**
Schumacker & Lomax, 1996.
h Lower27% 3.11 1.35
Hooper et al., 2008.
V1 Upper27% 4.33 0.75 3.861**
Lower27% 3.51 1.35
V6 Upper27% 4.66 0.51 8.821**
out as 0.96 and AGFI vale was found as 0.94 so that they can be Lower27% 3.14 1.15
perceived as sufficient. In this research, RMSEA value was found as V21 Upper27% 4.70 0.50 8.255**
0.026 so that it is considered as a perfect goodness of fit. Besides, in Lower27% 3.25 1.18
V2 Upper27% 4.70 0.46 4.710**
this study, CFI value was found out as 0.97. Lastly, TLI value was 0.98
Lower27% 3.77 1.36
in this study. It is seen in Table 3 that the results demonstrate that V11 Upper27% 4.72 0.45 7.218**
all the values obtained through the CFA were satisfactory for Lower27% 3.35 1.31
acceptable fit (Dc2 (n ¼ 200)/df ¼ 4.85/3; GFI ¼ 0.96; AGFI ¼ 0.94; V8 Upper27% 4.79 0.40 8.257**
RMSEA ¼ 0.026; CFI ¼ 0.97; TLI ¼ 0.98). Thus, according to these Lower27% 3.37 1.20
V10 Upper27% 4.51 0.86 5.994**
findings, the values obtained in this study can be considered as Lower27% 3.18 1.38
sufficient goodness of fit (Brown, 2006; Hooper, Coughlan, & Belief V12 Upper27% 4.45 0.57 7.975**
Mullen, 2008; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Jo €reskog & So €rbom, 1993; Lower27% 2.94 1.21
Kline, 2005; Schumacker & Lomax, 1996; Tabachnick & Fidell, V23 Upper27% 4.50 0.77 7.432**
Lower27% 2.87 1.41
2001; Thompson, 2004). These findings provide evidence that the
V9 Upper27% 4.55 0.69 7.259**
scale can be used for measuring teachers' perceptions towards ICTs Lower27% 3.03 1.37
in teaching-learning process at school. V4 Upper27% 4.61 0.56 8.003**
Lower27% 3.14 1.21
V19 Upper27% 4.51 0.69 10.002**
3.2. Results for the validity and reliability of the scale
Lower27% 2.62 1.20
**
The items of the scale were analysed via computing item-total Note. p < 0.01.

correlations for each factor and the independent samples t-test

values were computed to compare both the item and factor scores
Table 5
of upper and lower 27% groups. In this sense, the scores were Cronbach's alpha values of the three factors in the scale.
ranked from the smallest value to the largest value so as to calculate
Factors Item number Alpha (a)
the upper and lower 27% groups. Thus, the scores of the partici-
pants fell in upper and lower 27% were compared with each other Attitude 13 16 24 20 18 22 15 17 14 25 0.88
Usage 7 3 1 5 6 21 2 11 8 10 0.85
(see Table 4).
Belief 12 23 9 4 19 0.72
When looked at Table 4, it was seen that the test scores of the
upper group were significantly different compared to lower group.
According to the analysis conducted, it was understood that the test
scores of the upper group were significantly higher than the scores values of the factors, it was seen that ATT factor was calculated as
of the lower group (ps < 0.01). These results showed that the items 0.88, US factor was found as 0.85, and the last factor, BEL was
had a high level of distinctiveness as well as had an internal validity calculated as 0.72, respectively. Also, the general reliability coeffi-
in the scale. On the other hand, Cronbach's Alpha internal consis- cient value for the scale was found as 0.92 in the study. Reliability
tency coefficients were calculated in order to test the reliability of coefficients in reliability studies values between 0.60 and 0.70 are
the factors of the scale (see Table 5). accepted as sufficient Cronbach (1990). However, it is generally
As looked at the results in Table 5, it was seen that Cronbach's accepted that the reliability coefficient must be 0.70 in a lesser
Alpha internal consistency coefficients of the factors obtained range extent (Anderson, 1988; Peers, 1996; Scherer, 1988).
between 0.88 and 0.72 in the study. When looked at the alpha Secondly, Spearman-Brown correlation coefficient for the scale
 G. Baş et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 61 (2016) 176e185 181

was calculated and the result in regard of the analysis was found as 2012), beliefs about ICTs (e.g., Chai, 2010; Deng, Chai, Tsai, & Lee,
0.85 in the study. In the related literature, values above 0.80 are 2014), and usage of ICTs (e.g., Chai, 2010; Isleem, 2003;
accepted as good for reliability (Anderson, 1988; Kline, 1994). Ac- Papanastasiou & Angeli, 2008; Tezci, 2010). Although these scale
€
cording to Ozen, Güçaltı, and Kandemir (2006), Spearman-Brown development studies contained teachers' attitudes and beliefs to-
correlation coefficient is a good was when it is hard to use the wards ICTs and usage of them separately, this study contained all
test for two times and/or prepare two equivalent forms of the those factors in one study.
similar test. Thus, the value obtained in regard of Spearman-Brown According to the results obtained in the research, KMO value
correlation coefficient for the scale can be defined as good (Murphy was calculated as 0.91, and Bartlett's test of sphericity was found
& Davidshofer, 1991; Reuterberg & Gustafsson, 1992). Also, the as significant. As a result of these tests, it was decided that the EFA
item-total correlations were calculated for the total scale and the could be applied on the relevant data. As a result of the EFA, it was
analyses were presented in Table 6. seen that the scale had a structure of three factors with 25 items
In Table 6, participants' perception scores (mean and standard since the lowest factor loading limit was accepted as 0.40 in order
deviation) towards ICTs in teaching-learning process as well as to create factor patterns in the study. In regard of the first factor,
item-total correlation values were given. As a result of Pearson's ATT consisted of 10 items and the factor loadings rotated by var-
correlation analysis, all the items in the scale were understood to be imax ranged from 0.578 to 0.708. Explained variance of this factor
correlated significantly with the total score at 0.01 level. was calculated as 21.264%. In terms of the second factor, US con-
sisted of 10 items and the factor loadings rotated by varimax
4. Discussion ranged from 0.483 to 0.740. Explained variance of this factor was
calculated as 17.208%. Lastly, the third factor, BEL consisted of 10
The purpose of this study was to develop a valid and reliable items and the factor loadings rotated by varimax ranged from
scale for determining teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in 0.449 to 0.809. Explained variance of this factor was calculated as
teaching-learning process. So, this study analyses the validity and 10.161% in the study. The total explained variance of the scale was
reliability of an instrument e the perceptions towards ICTs in found as 48.634% in the research. Although there appeared 10
teaching-learning process scale e that can facilitate research in this items for ATT and US factors each, BEL was consisted of only 5
scope. The developed scale is an instrument with validity and items because of the factor loadings were under 0.40 in this
reliability according to the conducted analyses in the study. The construct, which was determined as the lowest factor loading limit
scale is designed to measure the perceptions of teachers' towards in the study (see Ferguson & Takane, 1989; Tabachnick & Fidell,
ICTs in teaching-learning process at school. The scale is thought to 2001). On the other hand, it was seen that there were positive
be effective in measuring teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in correlations amongst the factors ranging between 0.574 and 0.658,
teaching-learning process in terms of attitude, use, and belief. respectively. When Cronbach's Alpha internal consistency co-
This study focuses on addressing preliminary psychometric efficients calculated for the scale, the following coefficients were
properties as well as on confirming the factor structure of the scale seen to be obtained; ATT ¼ 0.88, US ¼ 0.85, and BEL ¼ 0.72 in the
by considering in-service teachers. In the research literature, study. In the literature, reliability coefficients between 0.60 and
although no scale studies directly similar to this scale were found, it 0.70 are accepted as sufficient (Cronbach, 1990). When Spearmen-
was seen that there were some scale development studies con- Brown correlation coefficient of the scale was examined, it was
cerning teachers' attitudes towards ICTs (e.g., Albirini, 2006; Cavas understood that the correlation coefficient of the two forms of the
et al., 2009; Chai, 2010; Hernandez-Ramos, Martinez-Abad, scale in result of Spearman-Brown correlation analysis was 0.85 in
Penalvo, Garcia, & Conde, 2012; Metin, Yılmaz, Coşkun, & Birişçi, the study. In the related literature, values above 0.80 are accepted
as good for reliability (Anderson, 1988). Hence, the accounted
value for Spearman-Brown correlation analysis, 0.85 can be
considered as a good value (Murphy & Davidshofer, 1991;
Table 6
Item analysis calculations for the total scale. Reuterberg & Gustafsson, 1992). Although a scale gives very
good results in the end of the EFA, it may not give the same results
Item M SD Item-correlation
in the end of the CFA (Şimşek, 2007). Hence, it was considered the
V1 4.04 1.01 0.44 CFA could be applied on the three-factor structure of the scale as
V2 4.42 0.94 0.48 well as the EFA.
V3 4.06 0.97 0.53
V4 4.01 1.07 0.55
The CFA was applied to the three-factor construct obtained
V5 3.88 1.12 0.51 from the scale's EFA on a group of teachers similar to the sample
V6 4.03 1.05 0.60 group of this study. On examining the compatibility index results
V7 4.20 0.98 0.44 of the constructed equation model, the model-data compatibility
V8 4.18 1.00 0.63
was found out to be high enough. In the study, GFI value was
V9 3.81 1.27 0.47
V10 3.98 1.29 0.48 found out as 0.96 and AGFI vale was found as 0.94 so that they can
V11 4.15 1.01 0.60 be perceived as sufficient. In this research, RMSEA value was found
V12 3.55 1.29 0.43 as 0.026 so that it is considered as a perfect goodness of fit. Be-
V13 3.82 1.15 0.55 sides, in this study, CFI value was found out as 0.97. Lastly, TLI
V14 3.78 1.09 0.68
V15 3.90 1.14 0.52
value was 0.98 in this study. It is seen in Table 3 that the results
V16 3.94 1.06 0.57 demonstrate that all the values obtained through the CFA were
V17 4.13 1.15 0.60 satisfactory for acceptable fit (Dc2 (n ¼ 200)/df ¼ 4.85/3;
V18 3.97 1.15 0.62 GFI ¼ 0.96; AGFI ¼ 0.94; RMSEA ¼ 0.026; CFI ¼ 0.97; TLI ¼ 0.98).
V19 3.64 1.25 0.54
Thus, according to these findings, the values obtained in this study
V20 3.97 1.11 0.57
V21 4.11 1.01 0.61 can be considered as sufficient goodness of fit (Brown, 2006;
V22 3.96 1.16 0.58 Hooper et al., 2008; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Jo € reskog & So € rbom,
V23 3.69 1.30 0.42 1993; Kline, 2005; Schumacker & Lomax, 1996; Tabachnick &
V24 3.92 1.07 0.57 Fidell, 2001; Thompson, 2004). These findings provide evidence
V25 3.88 1.19 0.57
that the scale is both valid and reliable to be used for measuring
182 G. Baş et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 61 (2016) 176e185

teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in teaching-learning process at towards ICTs as well as beliefs about them must be taken into
school. Thus, the scale was found to be a valid and reliable in- consideration in order to better apply and/or use these technologies
strument for measuring the perceptions towards ICTs in teaching- in teaching and learning.
learning process. In light of these results driven from the related literature, it can
ICTs have a very strong effect in education and they provide be stated that the scale developed in this study may contribute to
enormous tools for enhancing teaching and learning (Cavas et al., the understanding of teachers' attitudes and beliefs in the effective
2009). There are many studies that the utilisation of ICTs in the usage of ICTs in teaching-learning process in the classroom. When
classroom may support teaching-learning process (e.g., Albirini, the related literature is reviewed, it was seen that there were many
2006; Al-Zaidiyeen et al., 2010; Cavas et al., 2009; Leach, Ahmed, scale studies regarding teachers' attitudes towards ICTs, but it was
Makalima, & Power, 2005; Metin et al., 2012; Tezci, 2010; Yılmaz, not seen any scale development study in terms of teachers' beliefs
2005). These technologies become important when teachers use about ICTs(e.g., Chai, 2010; Deng et al., 2014). It must be noted that
them in teaching-learning process at school (Tezci, 2010). Recent the studies in relation with beliefs about ICTs are associated mostly
research has shown that the successful implementation of ICTs with teachers' pedagogical beliefs, not with their beliefs about
depends largely on the attitudes, utilisation, and beliefs of teachers ICTs.
(Albirini, 2006). Thus, teachers play an important role in the This study only focused on teacher’ beliefs about ICTs as well as
implementation of ICTs into teaching-learning process in the their attitudes and usage of these technologies in teaching-learning
classroom (Al-Zaidiyeen et al., 2010). However, although the process. Also, most of the scales developed in the research litera-
research literature showed that teachers had positive attitudes ture have shown that these scales focused mostly on teachers' at-
towards the use of ICTs (e.g., Akbaba-Altun, 2001; Al-Zaidiyeen titudes towards ICTs (e.g., Cavas et al., 2009; Metin et al., 2012;
et al., 2010; Cavas et al., 2009; Rana, 2012; Tezci, 2010), it was Tezci, 2010), not on the attitudes towards ICTs, beliefs about
found out that few teachers use ICTs as an integral part of teaching- them, and the utilisation of them in teaching-learning process in
learning process at school (e.g., Pelgrum & Plomp, 1993; Pala, the classroom. This study combined all these factors (i.e., attitudes,
2006). During the process of integration of ICTs in teaching- beliefs, and use) in one scale and contributed to determine the role
learning process, teachers' attitudes towards and beliefs about of these factors in this process. With its psychometric proprieties,
these technologies are thought to be a crucial factor in the uti- this scale is thought to be used in the determination of teachers'
lisation of them in the classroom. As Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) and attitudes towards ICTs, beliefs about them, and the utilisation of
Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) indicated, attitudes can often foretell them in teaching-learning process at school. It is thought that this
future decision-making behaviour of people. According to Al- scale is convenient for measuring perceptions of teachers towards
Zaidiyeen et al. (2010), teachers' attitudes towards ICTs for educa- ICTs in teaching-learning process. The scale in this study has suf-
tional purposes is one key factor for the successful utilisation of ficient merits to justify further research in the area. Thus, this scale
these technologies at school. Teachers' attitudes towards ICTs may development study is considered to fill the gap in the related
determine the use of them in teaching-learning process (Tezci, literature regarding the perceptions of teachers towards ICTs in
2010). Teachers' attitudes towards ICTs are also a major enabling teaching-learning process.
or disabling factor in the adoption of these technologies (Bullock,
2004). As Woodrow (1992) asserts that any successful trans- 5. Implications for practice
formation in teaching-learning process requires the development
of positive attitudes towards the new technology. Teachers' positive The results of this study reveal some implications for practice.
or negative attitudes towards ICTs all together affect the use of Through the abovementioned analyses, a three-factor and 25-item
these technologies in teaching-learning process in the classroom scale with good psychometric properties for measuring teachers'
(e.g., Davis, 1989; Francis, Katz, & Jones, 2000; Tondeur, Van Braak, perceptions towards ICTs in teaching-learning process was devel-
& Valcke, 2007). If teachers have negative attitudes towards ICTs in oped in the study. The research results emphasised the importance
educational processes, they will not struggle to use these technol- of assuming a multifactor analytical approach in determining
ogies in the classroom. Hence, the development of teachers' atti- teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in teaching-learning process. It
tudes towards ICTs is seen as a key factor for enhancing technology is thought essential that the educational authorities should put
integration into teaching-learning process at school (Rogers, 1995; emphasis on various factors in implementing ICTs in teaching-
Watson, 1998). Although research results assert that teachers' at- learning process in the classroom. Establishing strategies for the
titudes towards ICTs can affect their use in teaching-learning pro- implementation of ICTs in teaching-learning process in light of the
cess, other important factors such as beliefs about ICTs may also perceptions of teachers is considered to be very important for a
affect the use of these technologies in teaching-learning process in successful educational reform by taking educational technology
the classroom (e.g., Lim & Chan, 2007; Teo, Lee, & Chai, 2008). into account.
Previous research has indicated that teachers' beliefs about ICTs This study presented an empirically validated model for
play an important role in determining the usage of these technol- measuring teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in teaching-learning
ogies in teaching-learning process by teachers (e.g., Chai, 2010; process. The 25-item scale that emerged demonstrated to produce
Ertmer, 2005; Ravitz, Becker, & Wong, 2000). Teachers' beliefs acceptable reliability values as well as the empirical evidence
about ICTs can create a barrier to the usage of them in teaching- supported its content and structure validities. The scale developed
learning process as well as they can help teachers use them effec- in this study can be used to assess teachers' perceptions towards
tively in the classroom (Ertmer, 2005). Research literature (e.g., Kim ICTs in teaching-learning process. Thus, this kind of evaluation can
et al., 2013; Loveless, 2003) has shown that there is a significant give insights to educational authorities regarding teachers' per-
correlation between teachers' beliefs and the integration of ICTs in ceptions towards ICTs in teaching-learning process and make them
teaching-learning process. Therefore, it is understood that teachers' adjust the technology implementation in this process accordingly.
beliefs about ICTs strongly affect the usage of these technologies in It must be noted that any kind of educational technology imple-
this process. In conclusion, it can be said that attitudes towards ICTs mentation act cannot be successful, if teachers do not have positive
and beliefs about them overall can highly affect their usage in views (i.e., attitudes, beliefs, etc.) towards that act or educational
teaching-learning process by teachers. As teachers are the key el- technology. As the scale developed in this study with good reli-
ements in the usage of ICTs in the classroom, their attitudes ability and validity can be periodically administrated on teachers to
 G. Baş et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 61 (2016) 176e185 183

get information about teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in provide researchers with an instrument for measuring teachers'
teaching-learning process and take the corrective actions if perceptions towards ICTs in teaching-learning process, and a basis
necessary for improvement. for explaining as well as comparing differences amongst the re-
sults of the studies.
6. Implications for research
7. Limitations
When the related literature is reviewed, it is seen that some
scales have been developed to measure teachers' perceptions to- Although this scale development study has good psychometric
wards ICTs so far. These scales have been focused especially on properties, this work has some limitations that should be taken into
teachers' attitudes towards these kinds of technologies. However, account in future studies. First, this study used 200 teachers from
according to previous literature, teachers' perceptions towards ICTs different high schools from a rather small province of Turkey. More
have a multifactor construct, not merely focussing on the sub- research sample was expected to be reached, however, only 200
dimensions of attitude, but on other psychological traits such as teachers accepted to participate in the study and responded posi-
beliefs about ICTs as found in this study, which cannot be measured tively. Hence, it can be stated that the sample group of the study is
only through attitudes. Thus, a standardised scale for measuring fairly small. Although the sample group seems to be fairly small, a
teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in teaching-learning process sample group of 100e200 subjects is accepted as suitable for scale
with desirable psychometric properties was developed in the study. development studies (see Kline, 1994). Second, the scale was
The validated 25-item scale consists of three factors as attitude, developed in the Turkish language so that further validity and
usage, and belief. reliability studies, as noted in “implications for research” part of the
The next step of this study should work on providing more study, should be done by considering different cultures. Third, this
strong evidence about the validity of the scale and further study did not check the scale's criterion-related validity, that is,
studying the affective domain. This scale was developed in the data were not collected on the scale as well as other similar scales
Turkish language so that further studies in terms of validity and concurrently. Lastly, future research may address the test-retest
reliability in different cultures should be carried out. The studies reliability of the scale, which is perceived as valuable for sustain-
testing the construct validity of the scale in different cultures are ing the reliability of the scale including short-and long-range sta-
considered as valuable acts to see the usefulness of the scale. Also, bility should be further assessed using the test-retest correlation
further model testing studies are also seen as important in order method in future research.
to test some variables in connection with the factors found in this
scale. Future research should continue to test the possible corre-
lations between teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in teaching- Appendix
learning process and their personal characteristics and/or behav-
iours. The scale with good reliability and validity values can

Perceptions towards ICTs in teaching-learning process scale

Item Factors/Itemsa,b,c

Attitude (ATT)
1 The use of ICTs in teaching-learning process is important.
2 The use of ICTs makes teaching-learning process more interesting.
3 The use of ICTs in teaching-learning process is valuable.
4 The use of ICTs in teaching-learning process makes students more motivated.
5 The use of ICTs in teaching-learning process makes communication more functional.
6 The use of ICTs in teaching-learning process makes curriculum more functional.
7 Studying with ICTs makes teaching-learning process more enjoyable.
8 I reinforce my colleagues to use ICTs in teaching-learning process.
9 I consider the use of ICTs a suitable tool for teaching-learning process.
10 I am eager to participate in in-service training seminars about the use of ICTs.
Usage (US)
11 The use of ICTs in teaching-learning process makes save energy.
12 The use of ICTs in teaching-learning process makes save time.
13 I try to use ICTs in teaching-learning process in the classroom.
14 I give priority to use ICTs more than textbooks in teaching-learning process.
15 The use of ICTs helps me organise teaching-learning process better.
16 The use of ICTs helps me integrate the curriculum and teaching-learning process.
17 I reinforce my students to use ICTs in teaching-learning process.
18 The use of ICTs assists me design teaching-learning process in the classroom.
19 I try to use educational software through the use of ICTs in teaching-learning process.
20 I am satisfied with using ICTs in teaching-learning process in the classroom.
Belief (BEL)
21 I believe that ICTs enhance students' learning in teaching-learning process.
22 ICTs present students life-like applications in teaching-learning process.
23 I consider ICTs as valuable tools in students' learning in the classroom.
24 I believe ICTs as powerful tools helping students' understanding of abstract content.
25 I think all students should use ICTs in teaching-learning process in their classrooms.

Note.
a
All the items in the scale were grouped under the factors and then numbered accordingly.
b
The scale is designed in 5-point Likert type (Totally Disagree ¼ 1; Disagree ¼ 2; Uncertain ¼ 3; Agree ¼ 4; Totally Agree ¼ 5).
c
All the items in the scale are positive. Thus, there is no item in the scale that is coded reversibly.
184 G. Baş et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 61 (2016) 176e185

References Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cut off criteria for fit indexes in covariance
structural analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural
Equation Modeling, 6, 1e55.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social
Isleem, M. B. (2003). Relationships of selected factors and the level of computer use for
behavior. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
instructional purposes by technology education teachers in Ohio public schools: A
Akbaba-Altun, S. (2001, September). Elementary school principals' attitudes towards
statewide survey. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Ohio State University.
technology and their computer experiences. Spain: The world congress on
€reskog, K. G., & So
Jo €rbom, D. (1993). LISREL 8: Structural equation modeling with the
computational intelligence (WCCI).
simplis command language. Lincolnwood: Scientific Software International, Inc.
Al-Zaidiyeen, N. J., Mei, L. L., & Fook, F. S. (2010). Teachers' attitudes and levels of
Keengwe, J., & Onchwari, G. (2008). Computer technology integration and student
technology use in classrooms: the case of Jordan schools. International Educa-
learning: barriers and promise. Journal of Science Education and Technology,
tion Studies, 3(2), 211e218.
17(6), 560e565.
Alazam, A., Bakar, A. R., Hamzah, R., & Asmiran, S. (2012). Teachers' ICT skills and ICT
Kim, C., Kim, M., Lee, C., Spector, J. M., & DeMeester, K. (2013). Teacher beliefs and
integration in the classroom: the case of vocational and technical teachers in
technology integration. Teaching and Teacher Education, 29, 76e85.
Malaysia. Creative Education, 3(suppl.), 70e76.
Kline, P. (1994). An easy guide to factor analysis. London: Routledge.
Albirini, A. (2006). Teachers' attitudes toward information and communication
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York:
technologies: the case of Syrian EFL teachers. Computers & Education, 47(4),
Guilford Publications, Inc.
373e398.
Kusano, K., Frederiksen, S., Jones, L., Kobayashi, M., Mukoyama, Y., Yamagishi, T.,
Anderson, L. W. (1988). Attitudes and their measurement. In J. P. Keeves (Ed.),
et al. (2013). The effects of ICT environment on teachers' attitudes and tech-
Educational research, methodology and measurement: An international handbook
nology integration in Japan and the U.S. Journal of Information Technology Ed-
(pp. 885e895). New York: Pergamon Press.
ucation: Innovations in Practice, 12(1), 29e43.
Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York:
Leach, J., Ahmed, A., Makalima, S., & Power, T. (2005). DEEP impact: An investigation
Guilford Publications.
of the use of information and communication technologies for teacher education in
Buabeng-Andoh, C. (2012). Factors influencing teachers' adoption and integration of
the global south. London: Department for International Development.
information and communication technology into teaching: a review of the
Likert, R. (1932). A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psy-
literature. International Journal of Education and Development using Information
chology, 27(140), 44e55.
and Communication Technology, 8(1), 136e155.
Lim, C. P., & Chai, C. S. (2008). Teachers' pedagogical beliefs and their planning and
Bullock, D. (2004). Moving from theory to practice: an examination of the factors
conduct of computer-mediated classroom lessons. British Journal of Educational
that preservice teachers encounter as they attempt to gain experience teaching
Technology, 39(5), 807e828.
with technology during field placement experiences. Journal of Technology and
Lim, C. P., & Chan, B. C. (2007). MicroLESSONS in teacher education: examining pre-
Teacher Education, 12(2), 211e237.
lan, B., & Kısla, T. (2009). A study on science teachers' service teachers' pedagogical beliefs. Computers & Education, 48(4), 474e494.
Cavas, B., Cavas, P., Karaog
Loveless, A. (2003). The interaction between primary teachers' perceptions of ICT
attitudes toward information and communication technologies in education.
and their pedagogy. Education and Information Technologies, 8(4), 313e326.
Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 8(2), 20e32.
Marsh, H. W., Balla, J. R., & McDonald, R. P. (1988). Goodness-of-fit indexes in
Chai, C. S. (2010). The relationships among Singaporean pre-service teachers' ICT
confirmatory factory analysis: the effects of sample size. Psychological Bulletin,
competencies, pedagogical beliefs and their beliefs on the espoused use of ICT.
103(3), 391e410.
The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 19(3), 387e400.
Martinovic, D., & Zhang, Z. (2012). Situating ICT in the teacher education program:
Chen, C. H. (2008). Why do teachers not practice what they believe regarding
overcoming challenges, fulfilling expectations. Teaching and Teacher Education,
technology integration? The Journal of Educational Research, 102(1), 65e75.
28(3), 461e469.
Clausen, J. M. (2007). Beginning teachers' technology use: first-year teacher
McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2006). Research in education: Evidence based in-
development and the institutional context's affect on new teachers' instruc-
quiry. Boston: Brown and Company.
tional technology use with students. Journal of Research on Technology in Edu-
Mercier, E. M., & Higgins, S. E. (2013). Collaborative learning with multi-touch
cation, 39(3), 245e261.
technology: developing adaptive expertise. Learning & Instruction, 25(1), 13e23.
Cronbach, L. J. (1990). Essentials of psychological testing (5th ed.). New York: Harper
Metin, M., Yılmaz, G. K., Coşkun, K., & Birişçi, S. (2012). Developing an attitude scale
Collins Publishers.
towards using instructional technologies for pre-service teachers. Turkish On-
Davis, D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of
line Journal of Educational Technology, 11(1), 36e45.
information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319e340.
Murphy, K. R., & Davidshofer, R. (1991). Psychological testing: Principles and appli-
Deng, F., Chai, C. S., Tsai, C.-C., & Lee, M.-H. (2014). The relationships among Chinese
cations. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
practicing teachers' epistemic beliefs, pedagogical beliefs and their beliefs
Ndibalema, P. (2014). Teachers' attitudes towards the use of information commu-
about the use of ICT. Educational Technology & Society, 17(2), 245e256.
nication technology (ICT) as a pedagogical tool in secondary schools in
Diekhoff, G. (1992). Statistics for the social and behavioral sciences: Univariate,
Tanzania: the case of Kondoa district. International Journal of Education and
bivariate, multivariate. Washington, D.C.: Brown Publishers.
Research, 2(2), 1e16.
Ertmer, P. (2005). Teacher pedagogical beliefs: the final frontier in our quest for €
Ozen, Y., Gülaçtı, F., & Kandemir, M. (2006). Eg itim bilimleri araştırmalarında
technology integration. Educational Technology, Research and Development,
geçerlik ve güvenirlik sorunsalı. Erzincan Eg itim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8(1), 69e89.
53(4), 25e40. _
Pala, A. (2006). Ilko €gretim birinci kademe o €gretmenlerin eg itim teknolojilerine
Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. (1999). Evaluating the
yo€ nelik tutumları. Kırgızistan-Türkiye Manas Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi,
use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological
16, 177e188.
Methods, 4(3), 272e299.
Papanastasiou, E. C., & Angeli, C. (2008). Evaluating the use of ICT in education:
Ferguson, F., & Takane, Y. (1989). Statistical analysis in psychology and education.
psychometric properties of the survey of factors affecting teachers teaching
New York: McGraw-Hill.
ndez-Lo  Rodríguez-Fo
 pez, A., rtiz, M., Rodríguez-Almendros, M., & Martínez- with technology (SFA-T3). Educational Technology & Society, 11(1), 69e86.
Ferna
Peeraer, J., & Van Petegem, P. (2011). ICT in teacher education in an emerging
Segura, M. (2013). Mobile learning technology based on IOS devices to support
developing country: Vietnam's baseline situation at the start of ‘The Year of ICT’.
students with special education needs. Computers & Education, 61(1), 77e90.
Computers & Education, 56(4), 974e982.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behavior. Reading, MA:
Peers, I. (1996). Statistical analysis for education and psychology researchers: Tools for
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
researchers in education and psychology. London: Falmer Press.
Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2000). How to design and evaluate research in edu-
Pelgrum, W., & Plomp, T. (1993). The IEA study of computers in education: Imple-
cation. New York: McGraw-Hill.
mentation of an innovation in 21 education systems. London: Pergamon Press.
Francis, L., Katz, Y., & Jones, S. (2000). The reliability and validity of the Hebrew
Qing, L. (2007). Student and teacher views about technology: a tale of two cities?
version of the computer attitude scale. Computers & Education, 35(2), 149e159.
Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 39(4), 377e397.
Hernandez-Ramos, J. P., Martinez-Abad, F., Penalvo, F. J. G., Garcia, M. E. H., &
Rana, N. (2012). A study to assess teacher educators' attitudes towards technology
Conde, M. J. R. (2012). Teachers' attitudes regarding the use of ICT: a factor
integration in classrooms. Journal of Educational Studies, Trends & Practices, 2(2),
reliability and validity study. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 509e516.
190e205.
Hew, K. F., & Brush, T. (2007). Integrating technology into K-12 teaching and
Ravitz, J., Becker, H., & Wong, Y. (2000). Constructivist-compatible beliefs and prac-
learning: current knowledge gaps and recommendations for future research.
tices among U.S. teachers. Irvine, CA: Center for Research on Information and
Educational Technology Research and Development, 55(3), 223e253.
Communication Technology and Organizations.
Holcomb, L. B., & Beal, C. M. (2010). Capitalizing on Web 2.0 in the social studies
Reuterberg, S., & Gustafsson, J. E. (1992). Confirmatory factor analysis and reli-
context. TechTrends, 54(4), 28e33.
ability: testing measurement model assumptions. Educational and Psychological
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. (2008). Structural equation modeling:
Measurement, 52, 795e811.
guidelines for determining model fit. The Electronic Journal of Business Research
Richards, C. (2005). The design of effective ICT-supported learning activities:
Methods, 6(1), 53e60.
exemplary models, changing requirements, and new possibilities. Language
House, J. (2012). Science achievement of elementary-school students in the United
Learning & Technology, 9(1), 60e79.
States and Japan in TIMSS 2007: an assessment of the effects of technology
Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). New York: Free Press.
engagement and classroom lesson activities. International Journal of Instruc-
Rozell, E. J., & Gardner, W. L. (1999). Computer-related success and failure: a lon-
tional Media, 39(3), 263e274.
gitudinal field study of the factors influencing computer-related performance.
Huang, H. M., & Liaw, S. S. (2005). Exploring users' attitudes and intentions toward
Computers in Human Behavior, 15(1), 1e10.
the web as a survey tool. Computers in Human Behavior, 21(5), 729e743.
Scherer, R. F. (1988). Dimensionality of coping: factor stability using the ways of
 G. Baş et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 61 (2016) 176e185 185

coping questionnaire. Psychological Report, 62, 76e770. 962e976.

Schiler, J. (2003). Working with ICT: perceptions of Australian principals. Journal of Torff, B., & Tirotta, R. (2010). Interactive whiteboards produce small gains in
Educational Administration, 41(3), 171e185. elementary students' selfreported motivation in mathematics. Computers &
Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (1996). A beginner's guide to structural equation Education, 54(2), 379e383.
modeling. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Turkish Statistical Institution, [TSI]. (2013). Nigde 2013 with some selected indicators.
€ F. (2007). Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesine Giriş. Ankara: Ekinoks Yayınları.
Şimşek, O. Available from: http://www.tuik.gov.tr/.../iller/NIGDE.pdf.
Sullivan, R. M. (2013). The tablet inscribed: inclusive writing instruction with the Van Braak, J., Tondeur, J., & Valcke, M. (2004). Explaining different types of com-
iPad. College Teaching, 61(1), 1e2. puter use among primary school teachers. European Journal of Psychology of
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). Boston, Education, 19(4), 407e422.
MA: Allyn and Bacon. Voogt, J. J. (2010). Teacher factors associated with innovative curriculum goals and
Teo, T., Lee, C. B., & Chai, C. S. (2008). Beliefs about teaching and use of technology pedagogical practices: differences between extensive and non-extensive ICT-
among preservice teachers. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 36(2), using science teachers. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26(6), 453e464.
163e174. Watson, D. M. (1998). Blame the technocentric artifact! what research tells us about
Tezci, E. (2010). Attitudes and knowledge level of teachers in ICT use: the case of problems inhibiting teacher use of IT. In G. Marshall, & M. Ruohonen (Eds.),
Turkish teachers. International Journal of Human Sciences, 7(2), 19e44. Capacity building for IT in education in developing countries (pp. 185e192).
Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding London: Chapman and Hall.
concepts and applications. Washington: American Psychological Association. Woodrow, J. E. (1992). The influence of programming training on the computer
Tondeur, J., Valcke, M., & Van Braak, J. (2008). A multidimensional approach to literacy and attitudes of preservice teachers. Journal of Research on Computing in
determinants of computer use in primary education: teacher and school char- Education, 25(2), 200e218.
acteristics. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24(6), 494e506. Yılmaz, M. (2005). Ilk _ o
€gretim 7. sınıflarda simetri konusunun o €gretiminde egitim
Tondeur, J., Van Braak, J., & Valcke, M. (2007). Curricula and the use of ICT in ed- _
teknolojilerinin başarı ve tutuma etkisi. Unpublished master's thesis. Istanbul:
ucation: two worlds apart. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(6), Marmara Üniversitesi Eg itim Bilimleri Enstitüsü.