Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:812–821

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12393-021-09284-x

Isochoric Freezing and Its Emerging Applications in Food Preservation

Sundus Nida1 · J. A. Moses1 · C. Anandharamakrishnan1

Received: 3 October 2020 / Accepted: 24 March 2021 / Published online: 31 March 2021
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
The preservation of foods at low temperatures is a well-established concept. While conventional methods of food freezing
rely on the isobaric (constant pressure) approach, they often result in a series of irreversible changes that can significantly
hamper the quality of frozen foods. In recent years, taking its roots from the biomedical industry, isochoric (constant volume)
freezing is gaining both research and commercial interest as an effective method of food preservation. The focus of this
review is to present the state of the art of isochoric freezing of foods, highlighting the underlying mechanisms that make it
unique, and understanding its impact on food quality, considering reports published in the past decade. An exclusive section
is dedicated to its non-food applications, and this work also provides insights into the costs and economics of the process.
Importantly, as this is an emerging area, the review concludes by highlighting the challenges and provides perspectives on
the directions for future research.

Keywords Isochoric freezing · Food preservation · Food freezing · Food quality · Low-temperature preservation

Food Freezing [2]. Ice nucleation begins after this super-cooling stage, fol-
lowed by the release of latent heat of crystallization. In the
Freezing is an ancient method of food preservation, and next stage, the temperature of the food is further lowered as
apart from its domestic application, it is used at various more water gets converted to ice and reaches the eutectic
levels of the commercial food supply chain. In general, the point. Finally, the temperature of the product would equal
conventional food freezing process involves lowering the the freezing medium’s temperature. What makes the process
temperature of the food material to −18 °C or below. When challenging is the intricate nature of the food matrix and its
exposed to the freezing medium, with heat transfer, the tem- composition; foods are composed of a mixture of solutes
perature of the food lowers. Several aspects such as system with different freezing temperatures. Nevertheless, all foods
designs, ice crystallization, and phase change, freezing time, are subject to these stages during the freezing process [1].
and others affect the quality of foods. The freezing process Conventional freezing processes employ an isobaric
is associated with several challenges; for example, non- approach in which temperature and volume vary in tandem.
uniformity in freezing rates and costs involved, apart from An unrestricted amount of solution in the food gets frozen
the use of improper temperature ranges/freezing conditions in the isobaric system. Ice crystal formation inside the food
that can result in significant detrimental effects. In general, causes damage to the cellular structure of foods. Overcom-
the process of food freezing involves five stages [1]. Dur- ing such limitations, isochoric freezing of biological systems
ing the pre-cooling stage, the temperature of the product is can avoid the risk of such cell integrity losses.
reduced to the initial freezing point (~0 °C). Further removal
of heat to less than 10 °C results in the super-cooling phase
Thermodynamics of Isochoric Systems

* C. Anandharamakrishnan The thermodynamic principles of isochoric preservation

[email protected] were first studied in the year 2005 by Rubinsky and his fel-
1
low researchers [3]. During isochoric freezing, the volume
Computational Modeling and Nanoscale Processing Unit,
Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Indian Institute
of the system remains constant while variables like pressure
of Food Processing Technology (IIFPT), Thanjavur, and temperature vary in tandem. The phase diagram of pure
Tamil Nadu 613005, India

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Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:812–821 813

water in Fig. 1 shows that isochoric freezing is followed pressure, and ∆T(c) is the temperature depression as a func-
by a liquidus path that lies between ice I, ice III, and liq- tion of solute concentration, c [3].
uid water. The system exhibits equilibrium pressure until The Helmholtz free energy can be used to explain the
the triple point at the given sub-zero temperature. For pure thermodynamic equilibrium conditions in an isochoric sys-
water, the triple point is a temperature of 21.985 °C and a tem on contrary to the minimization of Gibbs free energy
pressure of 209.9 MPa. Importantly, unique conventional that results in the thermodynamic equilibrium of isobaric
freezing process, ice growth cannot occur due to the constant systems [7]. The differentiation of Gibbs free energy and
volume, which in turn generates a hydrostatic pressure in Helmholtz free energy explains the critical cluster radius
the isochoric system [4]. Theoretical and experimental data (rcritical) of ice in an isochoric system and can be obtained
confirm that 45% of the volume remains unfrozen at the tri- from Eq. (2)
ple point in a constant volume freezing process [3, 5]. This
−2𝜎𝜐i
effect takes the benefit of the Le Chatelier’s principle which rcritical = −L(T) ( (2)
explains that the high pressure developed inside a system
) 𝜐l
T
Tm −T + k
upon freezing would restrict any further development of ice
[6]. In an isochoric system, the freezing temperature of an where σ is the surface tension between ice and liquid in J/
aqueous solution can be given by Eq. (1). m2, υi is the specific volume of ice (­ m3/kg), υl is the spe-
cific volume of liquid ­(m3/kg), L is the latent heat of fusion
Tph (P, c) = T ◦ + ΔT(P) + ΔT(c) (1) per unit mass (J/m3), Tm is the melting temperature (K) at a
given pressure (N/m2), and k is the slope at any point of the
where Tph is the phase change temperature, T° is the freezing curve ­(m3/J) [7]. Theoretical analyses show that the critical
temperature of pure water at the reference pressure of 1 atm, radius for ice nucleation in an isochoric process requires
∆T(P) is the temperature depression due to an increase in temperatures less than −100 °C, much lower than the 0 °C

Fig. 1  Phase diagram of pure water. The liquidus curve between liquid water, ice I, and ice III marks the equilibrium pressure that an isochoric
system will experience at a given subzero temperature higher than the triple point [4]

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814 Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:812–821

requirement in isobaric systems [7]. Mathematical data is tightly packed and no air or liquid can escape out of it. A
explains that the chances of vitrification (direct transition of temperature bath is used to cool the system. Most systems
a liquid to a glassy state) are higher in an isochoric process also have pressure transducers and thermistors linked to the
because of the reduced chances of random ice nucleation. data acquisition card and connected to a computer for data
The maintained intracellular and extracellular osmolality processing [6].
also play an important role in hindering the formation of ice The principles of thermodynamics explain that temper-
during isochoric preservation. On the contrary, enhanced ature and pressure are dependent on an isochoric process
extracellular osmolality due to ice crystal formation causes and the system is also characterized by the quality of the
damages in conventional isobaric processes [5]. Table 1 solution (that is, the relative percentage between the ice and
shows the major differences between the isobaric and iso- liquid fractions). The phase change can occur at multiple
choric freezing systems. A unique thermodynamic behavior pressure–temperature combinations. When freezing takes
is recently being studied in isochoric systems by coupling place at a particular temperature and pressure, the percent-
the latent and sensible heats at all sub-zero temperatures, age of ice and water will also self-adjust to attain a state of
associated with temperature fluctuations in an isochoric stor- thermodynamic equilibrium [3].
age. This explains that foods stored in isochoric systems
act like an optimized phase change material that enhances
the thermal mass. Increment in the thermal mass provides
temperature stability to the system with a plethora of ben- Non‑food Applications of Isochoric Freezing
efits focusing on improved food quality by avoiding moisture
migration, weight loss, and freeze burn [4]. To better understand the reason behind its growing inter-
est in food systems, this section explains the origins of this
method of preservation, focusing primarily on biomedi-
Isochoric Freezing and System Designs cal applications. While the material of interest is different,
these concepts and salient findings can serve as a valuable
In a typical isochoric process, the food material is immersed resource for food technologists.
in an isotonic solution inside a rigid container that is capable Organ transplants are extremely significant for patients
of withstanding elevated pressures. Depending on the pres- who suffer organ failure. Nevertheless, it is limited to the
sure and temperature, materials such as stainless steel cylin- availability of the matching donor organ, preservation facil-
ders, carbon fiber composites, and hard phenolic thermosets ity, and the transportation time for the donor organ to reach
with pressure transducers and rupture disks are employed for the patient [8]. The kidney was the first organ that was suc-
isochoric processes. Sugar or salt solutions are used for pres- cessfully transplanted in 1954 and the process involved a
ervation. Then, ice crystals are introduced in the container static cold storage preservation approach, considered as the
as the nucleation site and the chamber is tightly packed. To gold standard for organ preservation. Ideally, the organ is
preserve food materials in their aqueous phase without the stored in an icebox under static storage conditions. Trans-
formation of ice crystals, it is important to insert this nuclea- plantation of the highest quality organ within hours of organ
tor. The chamber is then sealed with a metal screw to restrict procurement is performed using this method [9]. While
any passage of air in and out of the container [3]. This pre- the metabolism is not completely stopped in this process,
serves the food material in a two-phase thermodynamic depletion of adenylate triphosphate (ATP) and formation of
condition, without the risk of cellular injury (Fig. 2). The ischemia–reperfusion injury (IRI) metabolites can result in
two-phase isochoric system is achievable only if the system injury during subsequent processes [10, 11]. By decreasing

Table 1  Major differences Parameters Isobaric system Isochoric system References

between isobaric and isochoric
freezing systems Thermodynamic principles Constant pressure Constant volume [3]
Atmospheric pressure High hydrostatic pressure [4]
Helmholtz free energy Gibbs free energy [7]
Critical radius At less than 0 °C At less than −100 °C [7]
Ice nucleation Heterogeneous nucleation Homogenous nucleation [7]
Design Open vessel Closed rigid container [6]
Energy High energy consumption 70% less energy than conven- [4]
tional method
Cost High Low [4]

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Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:812–821 815

Fig. 2  Schematic of an isochoric (constant-volume) system in exterior and cross-sectional views at various sub-freezing temperatures [27]

the temperature by several degrees during preservation, 18]. Despite advancements in organ preservation using such
metabolic reaction rates can be retarded, with associated techniques, it is important to note that the risk of random
changes in ATP loss and the formation of IRI metabolites ice formation as ice nucleation is a stochastic process [19].
[12]. Ice crystals formed in a highly super-cooled solution have
The use of sub-zero temperature is another technique for a sharper dendritic shape, causing more cellular damage
the preservation of organs. This was proved with studies on [20]. Cryopreservation (using liquid nitrogen at −196 °C)
the sustenance of wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) in extremely and vitrification by the utilization of cryoprotectants are
low temperatures for months. In this process, ice formation other freezing techniques for organ preservation. However,
is confined to the extracellular space, and the process is such cryoprotectants can cause toxicity and osmotic effects,
termed “partial freezing” [13]. Synthesis of low molecular which subsequently result in cell injury [21]. Such limita-
weight carbohydrates in the wood frog provides tolerance to tions explain the rising interests in the isochoric approach.
freezing conditions and stabilizes the phospholipid bilayer, Isochoric freezing is providing a novel paradigm in organ
avoiding the formation of intracellular ice [14, 15]. This transplantation and eliminates the harmful effects of cryo-
type of preservation method involves the use of cryopro- protective agents and suppresses ice formation inside the
tectants (such as 3-O-methyl glucose (3-OMG), trehalose) organ through the thermodynamic approach. A whole model
via injection before freezing and ice nucleating approaches multicellular organism (Caenorhabditis elegans) survived at
further increase the survival from 14 to 49 days [13, 16]. It a sub-freezing temperature in isochoric conditions (−5 °C
is hypothesized that the use of biocompatible ice nucleators and 60 MPa), proving its promising potential for biotechnol-
can minimize cryoinjury, and a recent preliminary investiga- ogy and medical applications [22]. Isochoric preservation
tion on simple blood vessels supports this hypothesis [13]. of mammalian cells (Madin–Darby canine kidney epithelial
Super-cooling is a non-equilibrium process in which the cells) in phosphate buffer solution at −10 °C and 96.5 MPa
complete removal of ice is achieved at high sub-zero tem- for 60 min resulted in 60% alive cell and only 18% survived
peratures. It is an effective approach; for example, rat liver after 120 min. With further increase in pressure, at −15 °C
super-cooled to −6 °C could be preserved for 3–4 days [17, (162 MPa) and −20 °C (205 MPa), alive cell percentages

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816 Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:812–821

were around 19 and none, respectively [23]. In another study, in the food industry is being explored as an approach to
preserving a rat’s heart in isochoric freezing conditions lower food wastage and preserve the nutritional and sensory
showed that mammalian organs can survive at low-temper- attributes, apart from enhancing the shelf-life of perishable
ature freezing without utilizing cryoprotective additives. products. A summary list of biological materials preserved
Preservation of the heart in a specifically prepared solution at various isochoric conditions and key highlights of these
at a sub-freezing temperature of −4 °C and 41 MPa pressure studies is presented in Table 2. This section focuses on
showed relative results to the heart preserved in hypothermic how isochoric freezing can be used as a food preservation
conditions at 0 °C (atmospheric pressure). The interstitial method.
edema was much lower under isochoric conditions than in
the conventional hypothermic freezing approach, indicat- Effect on Microorganisms
ing low vascular injuries in isochoric preservation (−4 °C
and 41 MPa) [24]. Further decreasing the temperature to In general, the isochoric process results in changes in the
−6 °C (60 MPa) and −8 °C (80 MPa) was found to cause cell physical integrity of microorganisms. Isochoric cooling of
injury and extensive edema because of elevated pressures Escherichia coli at −15 °C was found to result in membrane
[24]. Preservation of pancreatic islets without the use of the damage, alteration in the shape and size of the cell, protru-
cryoprotective agents at − 3 °C and 34 MPa pressure could sions, ruptured membrane, and expulsion of intracellular
survive up to 72 h with good morphological integrity and matter [26]. Another study reported a 2.5 log decrease in
showed intact clusters of cells without any dissociation [25]. the E. coli load at −15 °C (145 MPa) and −20 °C (186 MPa)
Therefore, isochoric freezing allows preservation of organs after 12 h of freezing. A decrement by 75% in the survived
with good structural integrity and low vascular injuries. organism was observed after 24 h at −20 °C [27]. Isochoric
This approach when applied to foods proved its poten- preservation also helps in decreasing the pathogenic bacteria
tial in preserving foods with good cellular integrity when (Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella typhimurium) to
compared with conventional freezing as explained in the unrecoverable levels at −15 °C and 135 MPa for 24 h.
following sections. The impact of high pressure in isochoric freezing seems
advantageous in terms of microbial destruction. Isochoric
preservation completely exterminated E. coli at −15 °C
Emerging Food Applications because bacterial suspension at this temperature is in a met-
astable and amorphous liquid state, not conducive for the
Almost all biological materials hold significant levels of bacteria to survive [26]. It was observed that partial destruc-
water and lowering down the temperature to the freezing tion of E. coli occurs at −20 °C and −30 °C in the isochoric
point of water can cause physical injury. Intracellular and freezing process due to the ice III and ice Ih formations
extracellular ice formation brings a marked difference in the where some E. coli try to shelter inside ice crystals and rep-
overall quality of the stored material. Isochoric preservation licate after the freezing process [26].

Table 2  List of biological materials preserved at various isochoric conditions

Biological matter Isochoric conditions Key highlights References

C. elegans −5 °C and 60 MPa Survives under isochoric conditions [22]

Kidney epithelial cells −10 °C, 96.5 MPa, 60 min 60% alive cells [23]
Rat’s heart −4 °C and 41 MPa Lower interstitial edema [24]
Pancreatic islets −3 °C and 34 MPa Survival up to 72 h, good morphological integrity [25]
E. coli −15 °C Complete elimination of microbe [26]
E.coli −20 °C, 186 MPa 75% reduction after 24 h [27]
L. monocytogenes and S. −15 °C, 135 MPa, 24 h Unrecoverable levels [28]
Typhimurium
Potatoes −5 °C and −3 °C (30 MPa) Maintained cell integrity, good quality attributes [5, 29]
Sweet cherry −4 °C, 29.5 MPa, 24 h Better textural and nutritional properties, good color values, [32]
reduced drip loss
Spinach −4 °C, 29.7 MPa Maintaining cell integrity and turgidity [33]
No cellular dehydration
Tomato −2.5 °C, 25 MPa Maintained physicochemical and nutritional properties [34]
Tilapia fish −5 °C, 3 h Similar to fresh tissue [30]
Tilapia fillets −3 °C, 37 MPa, 2 weeks No change in TBARS and TVB-N contents [31]

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Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:812–821 817

Elevated pressure and low temperature are the factors and also result in the degradation of ascorbic acid. Isochoric
responsible for the decrement in microbial survival, but the freezing (−4 °C and −7 °C) of cherries can preserve the
mechanism behind the bactericidal effect needs to be further ascorbic acid content unlike isobaric freezing (−4 °C and
explored [28]. The simplicity of isochoric design makes it −7 °C) that shows around 63% and 51% losses, respectively.
convenient to be utilized even in domestic freezers and pro- Individual quick freezing (IQF) can also degrade ascorbic
vides the means to sterilize food items at home [28]. acid contents of cherries (−72% loss) because of the oxi-
dation of ascorbic acid oxidase [32]. Minimally processed
Effect on Enzymes potatoes showed losses in ascorbic acid content when stored
for 4 weeks in an isochoric freezing system at a temperature
The isochoric approach can reduce the browning of foods. of − 3 °C and a pressure of 30 MPa. Isochoric frozen mini-
Potatoes when stored at −5 °C under isochoric refrigeration mally processed potatoes could retain only 6.9% ascorbic
showed substantial differences in color as compared with acid, whereas isobaric system frozen counterparts retained
those stored under isobaric freezing at −5 °C [5]. The oxi- around 10.4% ascorbic acid. Broken cells which were dam-
dation of phenolic compounds by the action of polyphenol aged during the pre-processing (peeling, cutting, freezing)
oxidase (PPO) produces quinones that polymerize further of potatoes, release ascorbate oxidase enzyme that results in
to form insoluble melanins and a dark color in potatoes. A increased interaction between ascorbate oxidase and ascor-
breach in the cell membrane releases the enzyme from the bic acid, in turn, causing a reduction in the ascorbic acid
potatoes, resulting in enzymatic browning. Isochoric pres- content of potatoes in the isochoric system [29].
ervation can maintain cell integrity; therefore, the release of
PPO from the cell membrane of potatoes can be reduced, in Effect on Food Quality (Nutritional and Sensory
turn lowering browning effects [5]. Figure 3 shows the onset Aspects)
of browning in fresh and thawed potatoes when stored under
isochoric, isobaric, and individual quick freezing conditions The quality of the foods can be better preserved using a
at varying freezing times [29]. The presence of ice crys- constant-volume preservation technique in a closed rigid
tals during freezing of foods as in the conventional freezing container. Potatoes when stored in isochoric refrigeration
process at atmospheric pressure might alleviate undesirable (−5 °C) system immersed in 10% (w/w) sucrose solution
enzymatic reactions owing to the release of enzymes from experience no weight loss as cell integrity is maintained
the cell membrane [30]. The release of enzymes from dam- due to isosmotic conditions whereas in an isobaric freez-
aged membranes and a higher concentration of pro-oxidants ing, potato at the same temperature experiences weight loss
in unfrozen tissues were found to increase the thiobarbituric [5]. Minimally processed potatoes also showed good quality
acid reactive substances (TBARS) after preserving fish fil- attributes when stored under isochoric conditions at −3 °C
lets under super-chilling conditions for 1 week [31]. and 30 MPa [29]. The total phenolic content and antioxidant
Further, damage in cell membrane because of conven- activity were found to be higher with decreased drip loss and
tional freezing can facilitate enzyme–substrate reactions volume shrinkage in isochoric freezing of pre-cut potatoes

Fig. 3  Photographic images

of fresh and thawed potatoes
showing the onset of browning
when stored under isochoric,
isobaric, and individual quick
freezing conditions at varying
freezing times [29]

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818 Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:812–821

[29]. Similarly, isochoric freezing of baby-leaf spinach (Spi- and split regions between the connective tissues [30]. Interest-
nacia oleracea L. Regiment) in a 10°brix sucrose solution ingly, tilapia fillets stored in an isochoric system at −3 °C and
at −4.0 ± 0.9 °C and 29.7 ± 0.2 MPa could maintain the 37 MPa pressure showed similar texture as of the fresh fillets,
cell integrity, turgidity, and nutritional properties, whereas with superior quality as compared with those stored under the
isobaric freezing at −4 °C showed a loss in weight, thick- traditional chilling method at 5 °C, the super-chilling method
ness, and nutrient value due to ice crystal formation in the at −3 °C, and frozen at −20 °C that showed softer fillets.
cell, which in turn affected cell compartmentalization [33]. Importantly, isochoric freezing increases the amount of
In a recent study on isochoric freezing of tomatoes, it was water but not the amount of salt in fish fillets when stored
observed that the process resulted in better physicochemical in the isotonic salt solution. A study reported a 4% increase
and nutritional properties as compared with tomatoes stored in the mass of fish fillet when stored under isochoric con-
under cold storage and IQF conditions [34]. ditions while super-chilling and freezing caused drip losses
In another study, sweet cherry (Prunus avium) was that resulted in a significant reduction of mass as the muscles
stored in an isochoric freezing system in a 17.5°brix sucrose could not reabsorb water due to their shrunk fibers, cellu-
solution [32]. These researchers stored cherries at −4 °C lar damage, denaturation, and aggregation of protein [31].
(29.5 MPa) and −7 °C (62.1 MPa) for 1 day in the isochoric TBARS in isochoric frozen samples of fish were also found
system and compared their quality with isobaric frozen to remain similar to that of fresh samples during 2 weeks of
(−4 °C and −7 °C for 24 h) and individually quick-frozen storage as the low pressure of 37 MPa may not be enough
counterparts. Preservation of sweet cherries in the isochoric to produce auto-oxidation reactions. However, TBARS val-
system could better retain the textural and nutritional proper- ues were found to increase to 53%, 55%, and 34% in chilled,
ties with good color values and reduced drip loss, whereas super-chilled, and frozen samples, respectively [31]. Similarly,
conventional freezing resulted in significant losses in qual- the total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) content in isochoric
ity, texture, and nutritional parameters [32]. Lowering the preservation of fish fillets showed no significant difference
temperature to −7 °C showed drip loss and slight decre- from fresh samples after 2 weeks of storage, whereas conven-
ment in firmness and rigidity of cherries because of the high tional chilling and super-chilling preservation show three- and
hydrostatic pressure which affected the permeability across a two-fold increase in TVB-N content, respectively, subse-
the cell membrane [32]. quently resulting in bacterial spoilage of the food [31].
Isochoric freezing does not cause cell dehydration and
maintains morphological integrity as the extracellular osmolal-
ity is comparable to the intracellular osmolality of the cell [30]. Combined Techniques (Spontaneous)
Tilapia fish (Oreochromis aureus) fillets when preserved at
−5 °C for 3 h in isotonic saline solution of 0.9% showed no dif- Isochoric cryopreservation can tolerate liquid nitrogen tem-
ference when compared with fresh tissues as shown in Fig. 4. peratures and pressures ranging up to 413 MPa, explain-
Whereas, in the case of isobaric frozen fish muscles, the mor- ing that pressure measurement is crucial for the control of
phology of the tissue is changed, showing shrunk muscle fiber vitrification and devitrification in aqueous solutions [35].

Fig. 4  Comparison between A fresh muscle tissue, B tissue after 3-h isobaric preservation at −5 °C, and C tissue after 3-h isochoric preservation
at −5 °C [30]

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Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:812–821 819

Such ideas further helped in the experimental validation of systems makes them convenient and relatively economic in
the isochoric vitrification process. Vitrification in isochoric terms of usage [6].
freezing can be facilitated using additives such as propane-
diol and dimethyl sulfoxide (­Me2SO) at concentrations
ranging from 0 to 49% (w/v), and this has been proven for Challenges and Research Needs
cryopreservation of organs and tissues [36]. The concentra-
tion of cryoprotective additives for isochoric vitrification is Isochoric preservation offers several advantages as com-
substantially less in isochoric freezing than in the case of pared to the conventional freezing processes. Nevertheless,
isobaric vitrification at 1 atm and a hyperbaric process at there are several research and commercialization aspects that
1000 atm. Therefore, isochoric techniques promote vitrifica- require a better focus. For example, there are instances when
tion more effectively than hyperbaric systems [36]. the high pressures used in isochoric systems have shown
Super-cooling in isochoric conditions improves the sta- detrimental effects. The viability of organs was found to be
bility of the system when exposed to various mechanical affected when elevated pressures were used for the preser-
stimuli such as drop impact, vibration, ultrasonication, and vation of rat’s heart [24]. This also emphasizes the need for
thermal fluctuations. This effect is achieved by combined optimized protocols for temperature and pressure combina-
thermodynamic and kinetic factors that reduce the micro- tion for food freezing applications. Further, detailed mech-
scopic density fluctuation, eliminate the air–water interface, anisms behind the delayed on-set of enzymatic browning
and provide resistance to cavitation [37]. Another combined and loss in ascorbic acid content in minimally processed
technique is the modification of the existing isochoric system vegetables [29] should be examined further. Similarly, the
in which multiple aqueous phases are employed, separated underlying principles that are responsible for the bactericidal
by a membrane impermeable to mass transfer but transmit effects of isochoric freezing are not well documented [28]. In
heat and pressure. This multiphase isochoric freezing model terms of equipment designs and process control, theoretical
can be used for the complete removal of hypertonicity and and experimental studies must be conducted to explain the
ice crystal formation in cryopreservation protocols [38]. super-cooling stability of isochoric systems by considering
varying chamber rigidity ranges [37]. Such aspects must be
further explored before the technology is explained as one
Energy and Cost Comparisons that is viable for industrial applications.

Slow freezing processes employed in industries for freezing

of food items involve the use of deep cryogenic temperatures
to reduce the size of ice crystals and then storing foods under Conclusion
freezing temperature, accounting to be an energy-intensive
process. The consumption of energy in an isochoric system Food freezing is a significant method of food preservation.
is significantly lesser than an isobaric system of equal mass. While conventional methods may result in several detri-
This is because of the reduction in total frozen mass and mental effects on foods, the focus of this work was to high-
the temperature dependence of the latent heat of fusion of light the emerging applications of isochoric freezing as a
water. In an isochoric system, only a portion of the mass is food preservation technique. With promising applications
frozen at a given sub-freezing temperature higher than the in handling biological organs, optimized isochoric freezing
triple point, decreasing the total energy for ice fusion. How- processes can prove to be extremely beneficial for agricul-
ever, in an isobaric system, phase transition takes place at tural and food products. With better process economics and
the atmospheric freezing point and the latent heat of fusion simpler engineering designs, research must now focus on
decreases with temperature, consequently requiring more developing processes for large-scale applications.
energy to freeze. Thermodynamic analyses showed that
fish or meat when stored in an isochoric system at −5 °C
consume 70% less energy than the conventional freezing Declarations
process. Further, more energy savings can be achieved when Conflict of Interest The authors declare no competing interests.
foods like fruits and berries with high sugar contents are
preserved. Isochoric storage can reduce energy expenditure
at an industrial level as no ice formation takes place inside
the food [4]. Such systems aim to increase efficiency and can References
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