University of Basrah

College of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (ME337), 3rd Year (2019-2020)
Lecturer: Dr. Rafid Jabbar Mohammed

Theory of Chip Formation in Conventional Machining:

The Orthogonal Cutting Model:

- The geometry of most practical CM operations is somewhat complex.
- By assuming that the cutting action is continuous we can develop a continuous
model is called “orthogonal cutting model”.
- By definition, orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped cutting tool in which the
cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of cutting speed.
- As the cutting tool is forced onto w.p., the chip is formed by shear deformation
along a plane called “the shear plane”, which is oriented at an angle “ϕ”.
- Along the shear plane, where the bulk of mechanical energy is consumed in
machining, the w.p. is plastically deformed.
- The cutting tool in orthogonal cutting has only two elements of geometry:
(1) rake angle, (2) clearance or flank or relief angle.
- Figure (4-28) shows orthogonal cutting.

Figure (4-28) orthogonal cutting: (a) 3D process, (b) 2D process

Where:

ϕ: shear angle,

θ: relief angle (clearance angle),

Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

to: undeformed chip thickness,

tc: deformed chip thickness,

w: width of chip,

α: rake angle,

ls: length of shear plane,

Engineering Analysis of Orthogonal Cutting Model:

1. Chip Thickness Ratio (rc):

𝒕𝒐
𝒓𝒄 =
𝒕𝒄

rc: always < 1, because tc > to always.

2. Shear Angle Relationship:

α
ϕ
C Cutting tool
α
ϕ- α tc
to
ls α D
ϕ
B A

From triangle ABC: 𝑡𝑜 = 𝑙𝑠 sin ∅

From triangle ACD: 𝑡𝑐 = 𝑙𝑠 cos(∅ − 𝛼)

𝒕𝒐 𝑙𝑠 sin ∅ sin ∅
𝒓𝒄 = = =
𝒕𝒄 𝑙𝑠 cos(∅ − 𝛼) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶
𝑟𝑐 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶)
=1
sin ∅
𝑟𝑐 cos ∅ cos 𝛼 𝑟𝑐 sin ∅ sin 𝛼
+ =1
sin ∅ sin ∅
𝑟𝑐 cos 𝛼
+ 𝑟𝑐 sin 𝛼 = 1
tan ∅

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

𝒓𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
∴ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅ =
𝟏 − 𝒓𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶
𝒕𝒐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
𝒐𝒓 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅ =
𝒕𝒄 − 𝒕𝒐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶

3. Shear Strain (γ):

- Shear strain that happens along the shear plane can be determined by checking
the following figure (4-29):

Figure (4-29) Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted as a
series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of plates isolated to
explain the definition of shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle
α

A B
ϕ ϕ

ϕ ϕ- α α

D
ϕ
C

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

- From figure (4-29), each plate experiences a shear strain as in figure 4-29(b).
From definition of shear strain and aiding of figure 4-29(c):
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐷𝐶 𝐴𝐷 𝐷𝐶
𝛾= = = +
𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝐷
From above figure:
𝐵𝐷
tan ∅ =
𝐴𝐷
𝐴𝐷 1
∴ = = cot ∅ , and
𝐵𝐷 tan ∅

𝐷𝐶
tan(∅ − 𝛼) =
𝐵𝐷
∴ 𝜸 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 ∅ + 𝐭𝐚𝐧(∅ − 𝜶)

Where:

AC: deflection of sheared metal.

BD: orthogonal distance over which deflection occurs.

Example (5):
In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal cutting, the cutting tool has
a rake angle = 10⁰. The chip thickness before the cut to = 0.5 mm and the chip
thickness after the cut tc = 1.125 mm. Calculate the shear plane angle and the shear
strain in the operation.

Solution:
𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 𝟎.𝟓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟏𝟎
𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅ = 𝒐 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟒
𝒕𝒄 −𝒕𝒐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 𝟏.𝟏𝟐𝟓−𝟎.𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟎

∴ ∅ = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟒° Answer

𝜸 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 ∅ + 𝐭𝐚𝐧(∅ − 𝜶) = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐𝟓. 𝟒 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝟐𝟓. 𝟒 − 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟖𝟏 Answer

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

4. Velocities:
- From the velocity diagram below:
[90-(ϕ-α)] = (90+α-ϕ)

α
ϕ
α
[180-(90-α+ϕ)] = (90+α-ϕ)
ϕ- α
α Cutting tool
Vf Vs α
(90- α) ϕ
V

Where:

V: cutting velocity,

Vf: frictional velocity or chip velocity,

Vs: shearing velocity at which shearing happens along the shear plane.

- Using the sine rule:

𝑉𝑠 𝑉
=
sin(90 − 𝛼) sin(90 + 𝛼 − ∅)
𝑉 sin(90 − 𝛼)
𝑉𝑠 =
sin(90 + 𝛼 − ∅)
𝑽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
∴ 𝑽𝒔 =
𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅ − 𝜶)
Also
𝑉𝑓 𝑉
=
sin ∅ sin(90 + 𝛼 − ∅)
𝑽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
∴ 𝑽𝒇 =
𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅ − 𝜶)
Where:

sin(90 − 𝛼) = sin 90 cos 𝛼 − cos 90 sin 𝛼 = cos 𝛼

sin(90 + 𝛼 − ∅) = sin[90 − (∅ − 𝛼)] = sin 90 cos(∅ − 𝛼) − cos 90 sin(∅ − 𝛼)

= cos(∅ − 𝛼)

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

5. Forces Relationships Metal Cutting:

- The forces acting on the chip during orthogonal cutting can be shown in figure
(4-30):

Figure (4-30) Forces in metal cutting: (a) forces acting on the chip in orthogonal
cutting, (b) forces acting on the cutting tool that can be measured

a. The Forces Applied Against the Chip by the Cutting Tool:

There are two perpendicular components:

- Friction Force (F): is the frictional force resisting the flow of the chip along
the rake face of cutting tool.
- Normal Force to Friction (N): is perpendicular to the friction force.

Coefficient of Friction between Cutting Tool and Chip:

𝑭
𝝁=
𝑵
Friction Angle (β):

- From figure (4-30a), the resultant (R) of F and N forces is oriented at angle (β)
called friction angle.
- The friction angle is related to coefficient of friction as:

𝝁 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

b. The Forces Applied by the w.p. on the Chip:

- Shear Force (Fs): is the force that causes shear deformation to occur in the
shear plane.
- Normal Force to Shear (Fn): is perpendicular to the shear force.
- Based on Fs, the shear stress that acts along the shear plane between w.p. and
chip can be written as:
𝑭𝒔
𝝉=
𝑨𝒔

Where:

τ: the level of stress required to perform the machining operation. Therefore, this
stress is equal to the shear strength of the w.p. (τ = S) under the conditions at which
cutting occurs.

As: area of shear plane,

As
Ac
ϕ

𝑨𝒄
𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ =
𝑨𝒔

𝑨𝒄 = 𝒕𝒐 𝒘
𝒕𝒐 𝒘
∴ 𝑨𝒔 =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
Where:

Ac: cross-sectional area of uncut chip.

- The normal stress on the chip can be written as:

𝑭𝒏
𝝈= 𝑨𝒔

- From figure (4-30a), in order for the forces acting on the chip to be in balance,
the resultant (𝑅′ ) of Fs and Fn, must be equal in magnitude, opposite in direction,
and collinear (lye on the same line or on parallel lines) with resultant R.

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

Note:

None of the four forces F, N, Fs, and Fn can be directly measured in a machining
operation, because the directions in which they are applied vary with different
cutting tool geometries and cutting conditions.

c. The Forces Acting Against the Cutting Tool:

- The Cutting Force (Fc): is in the direction of cutting, the same direction as the
cutting speed
- The Thrust Force (Ft): is perpendicular to the cutting force and is associated
with the chip thickness before the cut to.

- The Fc and Ft are shown in figure (4-30b) with their resultant (𝑅′′ ).
- It is possible for the cutting tool to be instrumented using a force measuring
device called dynamometer.
- The respective directions of Fc and Ft are known, so the force transducers in the
dynamometer can be aligned accordingly.
- Figure (4-31) shows the force diagram for the forces F, N, Fs, Fn, Fc and Ft.

Figure (4-31) force diagram of F, N, Fs, Fn, Fc and Ft forces.

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

- Using figure (4-31) and trigonometric relationships, it can relate the four forces
F, N, Fs, Fn, that cannot be measured to the two forces Fc, Ft that can be
measured as follows:

𝑭 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 + 𝑭𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶

𝑵 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 − 𝑭𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶

𝑭𝒔 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ − 𝑭𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅

𝑭𝒏 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ + 𝑭𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅

(Show that above equations)

- Total Resultant:

𝑹 = 𝑹′ = 𝑹′′ = √𝑭𝟐𝒄 + 𝑭𝟐𝒕 = √𝑭𝟐𝒔 + 𝑭𝟐𝒏 = √𝑭𝟐 + 𝑵𝟐

- We can write (μ - Coefficient of Friction) as:

𝑭 𝑭𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶+𝑭𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
𝝁= =
𝑵 𝑭𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶−𝑭𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶

- By dividing the Numerator and Denominator on 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 :

𝑭 𝑭𝒕 + 𝑭𝒄 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶
∴𝝁= =
𝑵 𝑭𝒄 −𝑭𝒕 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶

Example (6):

In a machining operation, the cutting force and thrust force are measured during an
orthogonal cutting operation: Fc = 1559 N and Ft = 1271 N. The width of the
orthogonal cutting operation w = 3.0 mm. Based on these data, determine the shear
strength of the work material. Take: the rake angle = 10⁰, the shear plane angle =
25.4⁰ and the chip thickness before the cut to = 0.5 mm.

Solution:
𝐹𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑤
𝜏= , 𝐴𝑠 = , 𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 cos ∅ − 𝐹𝑡 sin ∅
𝐴𝑠 sin ∅

𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 cos ∅ − 𝐹𝑡 sin ∅ = 1559 𝑐𝑜𝑠25.4 − 1271𝑠𝑖𝑛25.4 = 863.1 𝑁

𝑡𝑜 𝑤 0.5(3.0)
𝐴𝑠 = = = 3.497 𝑚𝑚2
sin ∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛25.4
𝐹𝑠 863.1
𝜏= = = 246.8 𝑀𝑝𝑎 Answer
𝐴𝑠 3.497

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

d. The Cutting and Thrust Forces in Term of Shear Force:

- Recalling figure (4.31)

𝐹𝑐 = 𝑅 cos(𝛽 − 𝛼) ……………... (1)

𝐹𝑡 = 𝑅 sin(𝛽 − 𝛼) or 𝐹𝑡 = 𝐹𝑐 tan(𝛽 − 𝛼) ……………... (2)

𝐹𝑠 = 𝑅 cos(∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛼) ……….... (3)

(1) 180 − 90 − 𝛽 = 90 − 𝛽

(2) 90 − 𝛼 − (90 − 𝛽) = 𝛽 − 𝛼

From equations (1) and (3):

𝒔 𝑭 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜷−𝜶)
𝑭𝒄 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (∅+𝜷−𝜶)
and

𝑭𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜷 − 𝜶) 𝑭𝒔 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜷 − 𝜶)
𝑭𝒕 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝜷 − 𝜶) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝜷 − 𝜶) =
𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅ + 𝜷 − 𝜶) 𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅ + 𝜷 − 𝜶)

- These relations permit to estimate Fc and Ft in an orthogonal cutting operation

if material shear strength is known.

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

The Merchant Equation:

- This equation is based one orthogonal cutting, but can extend to 3D machining
operations.
- From the shear stress equation:
𝐹𝑠 𝐹𝑐 cos ∅ − 𝐹𝑡 sin ∅
𝜏= =
𝐴𝑠 (𝑡𝑜 𝑤 ⁄sin ∅)

By taking the derivative of the shear stress equation above with respect to ϕ and
setting the derivative to zero. Solving for ϕ, the relationship named after Merchant
is:

𝛼 𝛽
∅ = 45 + − Merchant Eq. (Show that)
2 2

- Among the assumptions in the Merchant equation is:

Shear strength of w.p. is a constant, unaffected by strain rate, temperature and
other factors.
- This assumption is violated in practical machining operations, therefore
Merchant Eq. must be considered an approximate relationship rather than an
accurate mathematical equation.
- Merchant equation defines relationship between rake angle (α), friction angle
(β) and shear angle (ϕ).
- Shear angle (ϕ) is increased by (1) increasing α by proper tool design (2)
decreasing β and μ by using a lubricant cutting fluid. Effect of shear angle is
stated in Fig. (4-32).

Figure (4-32) Effect of shear angle (a) higher ϕ resulting in lower shear plane area
(b) smaller ϕ resulting in larger shear plane area

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

- Since shear strength is applied across shear plane area, Fs required to form the
chip will be decreased and a greater ϕ results in lower cutting energy, lower
power and lower cutting temperature.

Approximation of Turning by Orthogonal Cutting:

- The orthogonal model can be used to approximate turning and certain other
single-point machining operations so long as the feed in these operations is
small relative to depth of cut.
- Thus, most of the cutting will take place in the direction of the feed, and cutting
on the point of the tool will be negligible.
- Figure (4-33) indicates orthogonal model compared to turning model.

Figure (4-33) Approximation of turning by the orthogonal model: (a) turning; and
(b) the corresponding orthogonal cutting

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

- Table below summarizes the conversions key between turning and orthogonal
cutting.

Power and Energy Relationships in Machining:

- There are some reasons necessitate us calculate the power consumed in
machining operations:
1. How fast we can cut,
2. How large the motor on a machine must be.

- There are three types of power consumed to perform the cutting process:
a. Shearing Power,
b. Friction Power,
c. Cutting Power or Total Power

a. Shearing Power

It is required for shearing along the shear plane:

𝑭 𝒔 𝑽𝒔
𝑷𝒔 = (𝒉𝒑𝒔 ) 𝑭𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝑰𝒃𝒇 , 𝑽𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒕/𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝟑𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
Or
𝑭 𝒔 𝑽𝒔
𝑷𝒔 = (𝒌𝑾) 𝑭𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝑵 , 𝑽𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒎/𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Or

𝑷𝒔 = 𝑭𝒔 𝑽𝒔 (𝑾) 𝑭𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝑵 , 𝑽𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒎/𝒔
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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

- It is often useful to convert power into power per unit volume rate of metal cut.
This is called the unit power in shear, Pus (or unit horsepower in shear, HPus),
defined:

𝑷𝒔 𝒉𝒑𝒔 𝒎𝒎𝟑 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟑

𝑷𝒖𝒔 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑯𝑷𝒖𝒔 = , 𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝒊𝒏 ( , , )
𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒏

- Unit power in shear is also known as the specific energy in shear Us as follows:

𝑷𝒔 𝑭 𝒔 𝑽𝒔 𝑵. 𝒎 𝒊𝒏. 𝑰𝒃 𝒇𝒕. 𝑰𝒃
𝑼𝒔 = = ( , , )
𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝒎𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝒇𝒕𝟑

In turning operation (orthogonal cutting):

𝑹𝑴𝑹 = 𝑽𝒇𝒅 = 𝒘𝒕𝒐 𝑽 = 𝒘𝒕𝒄 𝑽𝒇

RMR: material removal rate (metal flow rate)

to: feed in other cases

w: depth of cut in other cases

wto: projected area of cut

In other machining operations like drilling and milling, RMR will be taken as stated
there.

b. Friction Power

It is required to overcome friction at the tool-chip interface:

𝑭 𝑽𝒇
𝑷𝒇 = (𝒉𝒑𝒇 ) 𝑭 𝒊𝒏 𝑰𝒃𝒇 , 𝑽𝒇 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒕/𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝟑𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
Or
𝑭 𝑽𝒇
𝑷𝒇 = (𝒌𝑾) 𝑭 𝒊𝒏 𝑵 , 𝑽𝒇 𝒊𝒏 𝒎/𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Or

𝑷𝒇 = 𝑭 𝑽𝒇 (𝑾) 𝑭 𝒊𝒏 𝑵 , 𝑽𝒇 𝒊𝒏 𝒎/𝒔

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

- Then, unit power in friction, Puf (or unit horsepower in friction, HPuf):

𝑷𝒇 𝒉𝒑𝒇 𝒎𝒎𝟑 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟑

𝑷𝒖𝒇 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑯𝑷𝒖𝒇 = , 𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝒊𝒏 ( , , )
𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒏

- Specific energy in friction Uf is as follows:

𝑷𝒇 𝑭 𝑽𝒇 𝑵. 𝒎 𝒊𝒏. 𝑰𝒃 𝒇𝒕. 𝑰𝒃
𝑼𝒇 = = ( , , )
𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝒎𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝒇𝒕𝟑

c. Total Cutting Power

It is required to perform the cutting process (machining operation):

𝑭𝒄 𝑽
𝑷𝒄 = (𝒉𝒑𝒄 ) 𝑭𝒄 𝒊𝒏 𝑰𝒃𝒇 , 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒕/𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝟑𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
Or
𝑭𝒄 𝑽
𝑷𝒄 = (𝒌𝑾) 𝑭𝒄 𝒊𝒏 𝑵 , 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝒎/𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Or

𝑷𝒄 = 𝑭𝒄 𝑽 (𝑾) 𝑭𝒄 𝒊𝒏 𝑵 , 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝒎/𝒔

- Then, unit power in cutting, Puc (or unit horsepower in cutting, HPuc):

𝑷𝒄 𝒉𝒑𝒄 𝒎𝒎𝟑 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟑

𝑷𝒖𝒄 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑯𝑷𝒖𝒄 = , 𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝒊𝒏 ( , , )
𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒏

- Specific energy in cutting Uc is as follows:

𝑷𝒄 𝑭𝒄 𝑽 𝑵. 𝒎 𝒊𝒏. 𝑰𝒃 𝒇𝒕. 𝑰𝒃
𝑼𝒄 = = ( , , )
𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝑹𝑴𝑹 𝒎𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝒇𝒕𝟑

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

𝑷𝒄 = 𝑷𝒔 + 𝑷𝒇

And

𝑼𝒄 = 𝑼𝒔 + 𝑼𝒇

In General:
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒅
𝑷𝒓𝒔𝒄 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅

𝑷𝒄 𝑭𝒄 𝑽 𝑭𝒄
𝑷𝒓𝒔𝒄 = = =
𝒘𝒕𝒐 𝑽 𝒘𝒕𝒐 𝑽 𝒘𝒕𝒐

𝑷𝒓𝒔𝒄 : Specific cutting pressure.

Gross Cutting Power (Pgc)

- Pgc required to operate the machine tool is greater than the power delivered to
the cutting process because of mechanical losses in the powertrain which
includes the losses in machine motor and drivetrain (group of components of
machine motor that deliver power to the cutting elements).

Then,
𝑷𝒄 𝒉𝒑𝒄
𝑷𝒈𝒄 = 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝑯𝑷𝒈𝒄 =
𝑬 𝑬

HPgc: gross cutting horsepower

E: mechanical efficiency of machine tool. Typical values of E for machine tools

are around 90%.

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

Example (6):

In an orthogonal cutting process, take the following data:

α= 15⁰ , w= 0.25” , V=250ft/min , Fc=375 Ibf , Ft=125 Ibf , Feed=to=0.0125” ,

tc=0.0375”. Where: α: rake angle, w: width of chip. Find: ϕ, F, N, Fs , Vf , μ , RMR

Solution:
𝒓𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
1. 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅ =
𝟏−𝒓𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶
𝒕𝒐 𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝒓𝒄 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝒕𝒄 𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟓
𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟏𝟓
∴∅= = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟒° Answer
𝟏−𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟓

2. 𝑭 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 + 𝑭𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 = 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟓 + 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟓 = 𝟐𝟏𝟖 𝑰𝒃𝒇 Answer

3. 𝑵 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 − 𝑭𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 = 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟓 − 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟓 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎 𝑰𝒃𝒇 Answer

4. 𝑭𝒔 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ − 𝑭𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ = 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟗. 𝟒 − 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟗. 𝟒 = 𝟑𝟏𝟐. 𝟐 𝑰𝒃𝒇

Answer

𝑽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟗.𝟒

5. 𝑽𝒇 = = = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑 𝒇𝒕/𝒎𝒊𝒏 Answer
𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅−𝜶) 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟏𝟗.𝟒−𝟏𝟓)

𝑭 𝟐𝟏𝟖
6. 𝝁 = = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟏 Answer
𝑵 𝟑𝟑𝟎

𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒇𝒕𝟑

7. 𝑹𝑴𝑹 = 𝒘𝒕𝒐 𝑽 = (
𝟏𝟐
)( 𝟏𝟐
) (𝟐𝟓𝟎) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟒𝟑 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝟏𝟐𝟑
𝟑
𝑹𝑴𝑹 = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟖 𝒊𝒏 /𝒎𝒊𝒏 Answer

Example (7):

Tube having a 1.5’’ outside diameter turned in lathe. The following data were
recorded:

α= 35⁰ , V=3fpm , Fc=433 Ibf , Ft=166 Ibf , Feed=to=0.005”. If the length of

continuous chip for one revolution of w.p. is Lc=2.5’’ (1)(rev/min)= 2.5in/min.
Find: Vf and Vs.

Solution:
𝑽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒓𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
1. 𝑽𝒇 = , 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅ =
𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅−𝜶) 𝟏−𝒓𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

𝒕𝒐 𝑳𝒄
𝒓𝒄 = =
𝒕𝒄 𝑳𝒐

Lo: length of chip before cutting.

Lc: length of chip removed.

N: rpm = 1 rpm as given.

Lo = πDN (m/min, in/min, ft/min)

𝑳𝒄 𝟐.𝟓
∴ 𝒓𝒄 = = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑𝟏
𝑳𝒐 𝝅(𝟏.𝟓)(𝟏)
−𝟏 𝒓𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
∴ ∅ = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝟏−𝒓 ) = 𝟑𝟐°
𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶

𝑽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
∴ 𝑽𝒇 = = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟔 𝒇𝒑𝒎 Answer
𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅−𝜶)

𝑽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
2. 𝑽𝒔 = = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟕𝟏 𝒇𝒑𝒎 Answer
𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅−𝜶)

Example (8):

In an orthogonal cutting process, the following data were recorded:

to= 0.005’’ , V=400fpm , α= 10⁰ , w=0.25’’ , t c=0.009’’ , Fc=125Ib ,

Ft=50Ib.
𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Calculate: %
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

Solution:
𝑃𝑓 𝐹 𝑉𝑓
=
𝑃𝑐 𝐹𝑐 𝑉

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼 = 70.95 𝐼𝑏

𝑉 sin ∅ 𝑟𝑐 cos 𝛼 𝑡𝑜
𝑉𝑓 = , ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) , 𝑟𝑐 = = 0.556
cos(∅−𝛼) 1−𝑟𝑐 sin 𝛼 𝑡𝑐
∴ ∅ = 31.22°

∴ 𝑉𝑓 = 222.4 𝑓𝑝𝑚
𝑃𝑓 (70.95)(222.4)
∴ = = 31.6% Answer
𝑃𝑐 (125)(400)

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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

Example (9):

Determine the time required to turn a brass component 50mm in diameter and
100mm long at V=36m/min, feed=0.4mm/rev and only one cut taken.

Solution:

In turning operation: feed=to

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑝
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝑇𝑅) =
(𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑)(𝑁)

N=V/πD
100𝜋(50)
∴ 𝑇𝑅 = = 65 𝑠𝑒𝑐 Answer
(0.4)(36000/60)

Chip Formation:
A. Discontinuous Chip:
When relatively brittle materials (e.g. cast irons) are machined at low cutting
speeds, the chips often form into separate segments (sometimes the segments
are loosely attached). This tends to impart an irregular texture to the machined
surface. High tool-chip friction and large feed and depth of cut promote the
formation of this chip type.

B. Continuous Chip:
When ductile work materials are cut at high speeds and relatively small feeds
and depths, long continuous chips are formed. A good surface finish typically
results when this chip type is formed. A sharp cutting edge on the tool and low
tool-chip friction encourage the formation of continuous chips. Long
continuous chips (as in turning) can cause problems with regard to chip disposal
and/or tangling about the tool.

C. Continuous Chip with Built-up Edge:

When machining ductile materials at low-to-medium cutting speeds, friction
between tool and chip tends to cause portions of the work material to adhere to
the rake face of the tool near the cutting edge. This formation is called a built-
up edge (BUE). The formation of a BUE is cyclical; it forms and grows, then
becomes unstable and breaks off. Much of the detached BUE is carried away
with the chip, sometimes taking portions of the tool rake face with it, which
reduces the life of the cutting tool. Portions of the detached BUE that are not
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Chapter Four Material Removal Processes

carried off with the chip become imbedded in the newly created work surface,
causing the surface to become rough.

D. Serrated Chips:
The term shear-localized is also used for this fourth chip type. These chips are
semi-continuous in the sense that they possess a saw-tooth appearance that is
produced by a cyclical chip formation of alternating high shear strain followed
by low shear strain. This fourth type of chip is most closely associated with
certain difficult-to-machine metals such as titanium alloys, nickel-base
superalloys, and austenitic stainless steels when they are machined at higher
cutting speeds. However, the phenomenon is also found with more common
metals (e.g., steels) when they are cut at high speeds.

Figure (4-34) shows the types of chip formation.

Figure (4-34) Four types of chip formation in metal cutting: (a) discontinuous, (b)
continuous, (c) continuous with built-up edge, (d) serrated

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