CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Definition of SIWES

SIWES, meaning Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme is the skills

training programme which forms part of the approved minimum academic

standard in the various degree programme for all Nigerian tertiary institutions

(N.U.C.1996)

1.2 History of SIWES

The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skills training

programme designed to expose and prepare students of Nigerian tertiary

institutions (i.e. Universities, Polytechnics. Colleges of Technologies, Colleges

of Educations, etc.) For the industrial work situation they are likely to encounter

after graduation. The scheme also affords students the opportunity to be familiar

and be exposed to the needed experience/technique in equipment and machinery

handling, which are usually not available in their institutions.

Prior to the establishment of the scheme, there was a growing concern among

the industrialist that graduates of the Nigerian institution on higher learning

lacked adequate practical background studies preparatory for employment in

industries. Thus, the employers were of the opinion that the theoretical

education given in higher institutions was not responsive to the need of the

employers of labour. It was against this background that the rationale for

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initiating and designing the scheme by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF)

during its formative years (1973/1974) was introduced to acquaint students of

the skills of handling employer’s equipment and machinery.

The scheme was solely funded by ITF during its formative years, but the

financial involvement became unbearable to the ITF, thus withdrew from the

scheme in 1978. The Federal Government handed over the scheme in 1979 to

both the National University Commission (NUC) and the National Board for

Technical Educational (NBTE). Later the Federal Government in November

1984 reverted that the management and implementation of the SIWES

programme to ITF and it was effectively taken over by the ITF in July 1985

with the funding being solely borne by the Federal Government.

1.3 Bodies involved in management of SIWES programme and their roles

Various bodies involved in the effective management of the scheme include:-

i. The Federal Government,

ii. The Industrialist Training Fund (ITF)

iii. The supervising agencies (i.e. NUC, NBTE, NCCE)

Employers of labour, the institution and the students also have their specific

roles assigned to them in the management of the SIWES programme.

The Federal Government

a. To provide adequate funds to the Industrial Training Fund through the

Federal Ministry of Industries for the scheme.

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 b. To make it mandatory for all ministries, companies and parastatals to offer

places for the attachment of students in accordance with the provision of

Decree No.47 of 1971 as amended in 1990.

The Industrial Training Fund (ITF).

Formulating policies and guidelines on SIWES for distribution to all the

participating bodies, institutions and companies involved in the scheme.

i. Regularly organizing orientation programmes for students prior to their

attachment.

ii. Receive and process Master and Placement list from the institution and

supervising agencies (i.e. NUC, NBTE, and NCCE).

iii. Supervise students on industrial attachment and access their log book on

regular bases

iv. Disbursement of students and supervisors allowances

v. Provide insurance cover for students on industrial attachment.

vi. Providing logistics and materials necessary for the effective

administration of the scheme.

vii. Ensure the visitation of ITF officers to the supervision agencies,

institutions, employers and students on attachment.

The Supervising Agencies (NUC, NBTE, NCCE)

i. Ensure the establishment and accreditation of SIWES units in institutions

under their jurisdiction.

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 ii. Direct the appointment of full time SIWES unit in all institutions

iii. Liaise with ITF, to ensure the implementation of Federal Government

policies on the scheme.

iv. Research into the development of SIWES in line with advances in

technological development.

v. Vet and approve master and placement lists of students from participating

institution and forward it to ITF.

vi. Regularly reviewing courses qualified for SIWES in collaboration with

other bodies.

1.4 Objectives

i. To create an avenue for students in the Nigerian Tertiary Institutions to

acquire industrial skills and experience in their course of study, which are

restricted to engineering and technology, including environmental

studies.

ii. To expose students to work methods and techniques in handling

equipment and machinery that may not be available in the institution.

iii. To prepare students for the work situation they are likely to meet after

graduation from their various institutions.

iv. To make transition from the institution to the labour market easier and

thus enhance students contacts for job placement later after graduation.

v. To enable the student to be exposed industrially and practically, in their

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 field of training in order to be mature, mentally and physically for future

life challenges.

vi. To bridge the gap between our practical deficiencies alone with

knowledge acquired theoretically in order to develop critical and realistic

approaches to problems and their possible solutions.

vii. To strengthen the managerial skill of the student and show them how the

affairs of the companies are being run in details.

viii. This gives room for ones mind and its physical being to be mature in

carrying out instruction practically in relation to his/her field of study.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Introduction to automobile

Automobile (or car) – wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor.

Most definitions of the term specify that automobiles are designed to run

primarily on roads, to have seating for one to six people, typically have four

wheels and be constructed principally for the transport of people rather than

goods. As of 2002 there were 590 million passenger cars worldwide (roughly

one car for every eleven people), of which 140 million were in the U.S.

(roughly one car for every two people).

In order for a car to work, it must have a power source, where it gets the energy

it needs. The power from the engine goes to the wheels through a transmission,

which has a set of gears that makes the car go faster or slower.

Most automobiles use some kind of fuel to make the internal combustion engine

run. There are cars designed to run on more than one type of fuel (flex-fuel) and

these types are very rare.

2.1 Types of automobiles;

i. Car classification by size

ii. By body style Convertible

2.2 Brief history

The earliest automobiles recorded were actually steam engines attached to

wagons in the late 18th century. The steam engines were heavy and therefore

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the wagon was slow and hard to control. Better and faster steam cars were

common in the late 19th century

Some cars in the early 20th century were powered by electricity. They were

slow and heavy and went out of use until the idea came back later in the same

century.

2.3 Basic Parts of Automobile and Functionality

vehicles have become a great deal more complex and have many more

electronic parts than the muscle cars of the past. Although there are

many complex parts included in modern automobiles, some of the parts are a

mainstay — common and essential for every vehicle. Some of the important

components include:

2.3.1 Engine

One of the most important components of a vehicle includes the engine. This is

the most important component of an automobile. Different types of fuels are

used by engines like diesel, ethanol, gasoline, and now even electricity.

The performance of a vehicle depends on its engine and it is the heart of every

car.

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 Fig. 1: Complete Assembled engine
2.3.2 Gear Box (Transmission)

This is also known as transmission which has a number of gears in it. These

gears transfer the engine’s power to the wheels of the vehicle. There are many

types of gearbox parts in different cars. A transmission is available in two types:

the manual and the automatic models. As the speed of the vehicle varies, the

gears can be switched from one ratio to another. The power of the engine is

transferred to the wheels of the vehicle with the help of the gears. Nowadays,

most of the vehicles have automatic gears or transmissions. The gear box is one

of the most difficult parts of the vehicle to work on.

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 Fig. 2: Gearbox (Transmission) Diagram

There are quite a variety of gearbox parts included in the transmission. Most of

these parts can be purchased from the online stores for replacement but that’s

less than half the battle, you’ll need technical expertise to fix a transmission.

Some of the parts include the gearbox cover, the shifter fork, the shifter rod,

gearbox fork, and synchronizer rings or hubs.

2.3.3 Brakes

Another extremely important component of a vehicle is the brakes which help

reduce and halt the speed of the vehicle. When the brakes are applied, a

hydraulic fluid is transmitted through the steel pipes to the wheels of the

vehicles. Obviously, the failure of this system may lead to some serious

accidents. Though previously the entire system used to work upon human

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intervention, nowadays sensors are being installed in cars so that the car itself

can sense the necessity of braking and take action. Whether you have a manual

or sensor braking system, it is very important to maintain the break parts such as

brake pads.

2.3.4 Drive Axle

Another important component includes the drive axle which helps propels the

vehicle. Think of it as a large bar connecting the two wheels. The drive axle

allows the vehicle’s operator to turn the wheels and control the vehicle. This is

one of the largest auto parts in every car.

2.3.5 Chassis

The automotive chassis is the frame of the vehicle which supports the various

parts such as engine, brakes, steering, axle, tires and so forth. If the engine is the

heart of the vehicle, the chassis is the skeleton. It is the most important structure

of the vehicle. Automotive chassis are usually made of light steel material or

other sturdy materials like aluminium. The chassis keeps the vehicle stiff and

tensile. It ensures low vibration and noise in the entire vehicle. There are

various types of chassis used in vehicles which include the backbone chassis,

ladder chassis and the monochrome chassis. These days most of the vehicles

use steel plated chassis as it ensures strength and durability.

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 CHAPTER THREE
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINE

3.1 How an Engine Works

Since the same process occurs in each cylinder, we will take a look at one

cylinder to see how the four stroke process works. The four strokes are Intake,

Compression, Power and Exhaust. The piston travels down on the Intake stroke,

up on the Compression stroke, down on the Power stroke and up on the Exhaust

stroke.

3.1.1 Intake

As the piston starts down on the Intake stroke, the intake valve opens and the

fuel-air mixture is drawn into the cylinder (similar to drawing back the plunger

on a hypodermic needle to allow fluid to be drawn into the chamber.)

When the piston reaches the bottom of the intake stroke, the intake valve closes,

trapping the air-fuel mixture in the cylinder.

3.1.2 Compression

The piston moves up and compresses the trapped air fuel mixture that was

brought in by the intake stroke. The amount that the mixture is compressed is

determined by the compression ratio of the engine. The compression ratio on

the average engine is in the range of 8:1 to 10:1. This means that when the

piston reaches the top of the cylinder, the air-fuel mixture is squeezed to about

one tenth of its original volume.

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3.1.3 Power

The spark plug fires, igniting the compressed air-fuel mixture which produces a

powerful expansion of the vapour. The combustion process pushes the piston

down the cylinder with great force turning the crankshaft to provide the power

to propel the vehicle. Each piston fires at a different time, determined by the

engine firing order. By the time the crankshaft completes two revolutions, each

cylinder in the engine will have gone through one power stroke.

3.1.4 Exhaust

With the piston at the bottom of the cylinder, the exhaust valve opens to allow

the burned exhaust gas to be expelled to the exhaust system. Since the cylinder

contains so much pressure, when the valve opens, the gas is expelled with a

violent force (that is why a vehicle without a muffler sounds so loud.) The

piston travels up to the top of the cylinder pushing all the exhaust out before

closing the exhaust valve in preparation for starting the four stroke process over

again.

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3.2 PARTS OF AN ENGINE

Fig. 3: Diagram Showing Various Parts of an Engine

Filters are essential in removing dust and abrasive particles from the engine oil.

Such particles can harm the engine and prevent proper functioning. Oil filters

are mainly used to segregate the engine oil from unwanted debris and dust

particles. Most of the oil filters are classified as high efficiency filters as it

segregates abrasive materials from the engine oil.

3.2.2 Engine Blocks

Most engine blocks are made of cast iron or cast alumina. There are several

engine types which are identified by the number of cylinders and the way the

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cylinders are laid out. Motor vehicles will have from 3 to 12 cylinders which

are arranged in the engine block in several configurations. The most popular of

them are shown on the left. In-line engines have their cylinders arranged in a

row. 3, 4, 5 and 6 cylinder engines commonly use this arrangement.

3.2.3 Crankshaft

The crankshaft is located below the cylinders on an in-line engine, at the base

of the V on a V-type engine and between the cylinder banks on a flat engine.

As the pistons move up and down, they turn the crankshaft just like your legs

pump up and down to turn the crank that is connected to the pedals of a

bicycle.

Fig. 4: Crankshaft

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 CHAPTER FOUR

VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF AN AUTOMOBILE

An automobile is the result of combined work of a number of systems. Each

system, though primarily independent, is influenced by the effect of other

systems interacting with it. Before discussing the interaction of various systems,

let us first enumerate the various systems that are present in an automobile.

 Power plant

 Drive train

 Steering system

 Braking system

 Suspension

 Electrical

 Ignition

 others..

4.1 Power plant

A vehicle which comes under the class- Automobile must produce its own

power sufficient enough to initiate and maintain a propulsion. The power is

produced from within the automobile, usually from a compact engine placed

either in the front or rear. In most of the cases the engine is an Internal

combustion type that converts chemical energy of fuel into mechanical energy.

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This conversion is done inside a piston cylinder arrangement where controlled

explosion of fuel-air mixture is done which produces a very high pressure

inside. This high pressure drives the piston out from the cylinder. The linear

displacement of the piston is converted to rotary motion with the help of a

reciprocating motion mechanism. The output from the engine is available

through a shaft.

Power plant of a vehicle can be of the following types:

 Internal combustion engines

o 2S Petrol engine

o 2S Diesel engine

o 4S Petrol engine

o 4S Diesel engine

 Others

o Fuel cell

o Hybrid

o Electric

4.2 Drive Train

Power is produced by the engine and transferred to the wheels to propel the

vehicle. Drive train helps to transfer power produced from the engine to the

wheels with the help of intermediate linkages. The set of linkages in between

the engine and the wheels constitute the drive train. It includes the clutch, the

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gearbox, the universal joints and the drive shaft and the differential

arrangement.

Drive Train

The function of the clutch is to provide gradually increasing amount of power to

the shaft, while the engine output remains fixed. Let us understand it this way.

Vehicle requires more power when it just starts to roll (it needs to overcome

inertia). But at this point of time the speed is very low. As the engine is

connected to the wheels rigidly through gears, the engine also moves slowly. A

slow revolving engine produces little power which is not sufficient to

accelerate. Engine can produce more power if it runs at high RPMs. In order to

couple an engine running at high speed and a gear system running at low speed,

we introduce a clutch which connects the engine and the gear non-rigidly.

Usually the clutch has two stacked plates which slide against each other if

pressed. The amount of slip depends on the amount of pressure applied. If slip is

more, then the power transmitted is less.

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The gearbox helps to multiply or divide the available torque at several fixed

ratios. This is essential because the vehicle needs more torque while

accelerating and less during constant speed cruising. When the vehicle begins to

roll from rest, highest amount of torque is required which can be obtained with

the help of a set of reduction gear.

4.3 Steering System

To control a moving vehicle we need a steering system. It manipulates the

direction of wheel rolling so as to drive the vehicle in that direction. Generally

in most vehicles the front wheels (or the front axle) are steered and the rear

wheels follow it. Steering is done with the help of a tie rod attached to both the

wheels as shown in the figure below:

Steering System

The steering wheel is the only control that a driver of an automobile operates to

manoeuvre the vehicle. The underlying operations may be different in how the

steering is achieved for a particular vehicle and it is not needed for a driver to

understand the full details. Different types of steering systems are:

 Recirculating ball screw type

4.4 The Braking system

To slow down or to completely stop a vehicle one needs the braking system.

Brakes absorb the kinetic energy and dissipate or store it in some other form

(usually heat or electricity).

Types of brakes:

 Mechanical

o Drum and internal shoe brake

o Disc brake

Drum brake assembly

 Electrical

o Eddy current

o Regenerative

4.5 The Suspension system

It provides the vehicle a smooth ride even when the wheels traverse uneven

terrain. This is achieved by damping of the vibrations that get transmitted to the
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chassis through the wheels. Thus a suspension system is employed between the

wheel (axle) and the chassis. All types of suspension systems absorb the energy

when a jerk/impact tries to set the suspension in motion. The absorbed energy

may be dissipated or converted to other form. By providing a smoother working

condition, the suspension enhances the life of all components which are

mounted on the chassis, viz. the drive train, the engine and all bolting.

A suspension system also helps to improve the fuel efficiency by maintaining a

continuous contact of the wheels with the road and thereby preventing rolling

slip.

There are various types of suspension systems in wide use in the automobile

industry. They are:

 Telescopic fluid filled suspension

 Leaf spring suspension

 Torsion spring suspension

 Hydroelastic suspension

 Electro actuated suspension

All the above mentioned suspension types differ only by construction. Their

working principle is same, i.e. to absorb/dampen the incoming vibration.

4.6 The Electrical system

All modern vehicles rely heavily on electrical systems: be it running the engine,

stability or cruise control or for lighting or air conditioning. Certain vehicles

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even completely convert the engine output to electricity and then use that

electricity to drive a motor for propulsion (Diesel train engines).

The electrical system on a modern automobile is tightly integrated with the

engine, steering and suspension system. It draws power from an alternator(AC)

or dynamo(DC) which is coupled with the engine. The power thus produced is

either directly utilized for various activities or is stored in a suitable battery

pack for future use.

In spark ignition engines, this system also takes care of maintaining the spark

and its timing. A high voltage sub-circuit is used for operating the spark plug.

This system also powers and maintains the Electronic Stability Programme

(ESP) which combines the suspension, braking and engine control.

4.7 The Starting System

the Battery. The key is inserted into the Ignition Switch and then turned to the

start position. A small amount of current then passes through the Neutral Safety

Switch to a Starter Relay or Starter Solenoid which allows high current to flow

through the Battery Cables to the Starter Motor. The starter motor then cranks

the engine so that the piston, moving downward, can create a suction that will

draw a Fuel/Air mixture into the cylinder, where a spark created by the Ignition

System will ignite this mixture. If the Compression in the engine is high enough

and all this happens at the right Time, the engine will start.

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 The Starting System
4.7.1 Battery

The automotive battery, also known as a lead-acid storage battery, is an

electrochemical device that produces voltage and delivers current. In an

automotive battery we can reverse the electrochemical action, thereby

recharging the battery, which will then give us many years of service. The

purpose of the battery is to supply current to the starter motor, provide current

to the ignition system while cranking, to supply additional current when the

demand is higher than the alternator can supply and to act as an electrical

reservoir.

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 Battery
4.7.2 Ignition Switch

The ignition switch allows the driver to distribute electrical current to where it

is needed. There are generally 5 key switch positions that are used:

1. Lock- All circuits are open (no current supplied) and the steering wheel is

in the lock position. In some cars, the transmission lever cannot be moved

in this position.

2. Off- All circuits are open, but the steering wheel can be turned and the

key cannot be extracted.

3. Run- All circuits, except the starter circuit, are closed (current is allowed

to pass through). Current is supplied to all but the starter circuit.

4. Start- Power is supplied to the ignition circuit and the starter motor only.

That is why the radio stops playing in the start position.

5. Accessory- Power is supplied to all but the ignition and starter circuit.

This allows you to play the radio, work the power windows, etc. while the

engine is not running.

The modern charging system hasn't changed much in over 40 years. It consists

of the alternator, regulator (which is usually mounted inside the alternator) and

the interconnecting wiring.

Alternator

The purpose of the charging system is to maintain the charge in the vehicle's

battery, and to provide the main source of electrical energy while the engine is

running. If the charging system stopped working, the battery's charge would

soon be depleted, leaving the car with a "dead battery." If the battery is weak

and the alternator is not working, the engine may not have enough electrical

current to fire the spark plugs, so the engine will stop running. If the battery is

"dead", it does not necessarily mean that there is anything wrong with it. It is

just depleted of its charge. It can be brought back to life by recharging it with

a battery charger, or by running the engine so that the alternator can charge it.

4.8 Cooling System

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A typical 4 cylinder vehicle cruising along the highway at around 50 miles per

hour, will produce 4000 controlled explosions per minute inside the engine as

the spark plugs ignite the fuel in each cylinder to propel the vehicle down the

road. Obviously, these explosions produce an enormous amount of heat and, if

not controlled, will destroy an engine in a matter of minutes. Controlling these

high temperatures is the job of the cooling system.

4.8.1 How Does a Cooling System Works

Actually, there are two types of cooling systems found on motor vehicles:

Liquid cooled and Air cooled. Air cooled engines are found on a few older

cars, like the original Volkswagen Beetle, the Chevrolet Corvair and a few

others. Many modern motorcycles still use air cooling, but for the most part,

automobiles and trucks use liquid cooled systems and that is what this article

will concentrate on. The cooling system is made up of the passages inside the

engine block and heads, a water pump to circulate the coolant, a thermostat to

control the temperature of the coolant, a radiator to cool the coolant, a radiator

cap to control the pressure in the system, and some plumbing consisting of

interconnecting hoses to transfer the coolant from the engine to radiator and also

to the car's heater system where hot coolant is used to warm up the vehicle's

interior on a cold day.

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Cooling System

26
 CHAPTER FIVE
MAINTENANCE OF AUTOMOBILES

5.1 Preventive Maintenance

Certain maintenance tasks must be performed regularly to keep an engine

working properly. These tasks come under the heading of preventive

maintenance, because they help prevent premature engine wear and other

engine problems. They include:

5.1.1 Engine Cleaning

Cleaning a small air-cooled engine periodically can help prevent overheating.

For proper cooling action, air must pass across the extended metal surfaces

(cooling fi ns) of the cylinder block and cylinder head. If the cooling fi ns are

insulated by dirt, leaves, and/or grass clippings, engine parts will retain most of

the combustion heat. Parts will expand, probably distort, and possibly seize.

Therefore, all finned surfaces should be cleaned regularly.

5.1.2 Checking Oil Level and Condition

Crankcase oil in four-cycle engines should be checked periodically. Preferably,

it should be checked each time fuel is added. The engine manufacturer provides

a means of visually inspecting the level and condition of the oil. Use the type

and viscosity grade of oil recommended by the manufacturer and maintain

it at the proper operating level.

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To check the oil level in engines equipped with a dipstick, withdraw the dipstick

and wipe it dry. Reinsert the dipstick as far as it will go. Withdraw it a second

time and observe the oil level on the dipstick.

The markings on dipsticks may vary, but all will have a Low (Add) mark and a

Full mark. Add oil if the level is at or below the Low mark. Do not run the

engine with oil showing above the Full mark on the dipstick. If the crankcase

Oil Level Is High, Drain Some Oil.

5.1.3 Changing Oil

Changing engine oil is not difficult. Begin by running the engine until it is

thoroughly warmed up. Warm oil will drain more completely, and more

contaminants will be removed if the oil is agitated.

Turn off the engine and disconnect the spark plug. The oil drain plug is located

at a low point on the crankcase, usually along the outside edge of the base.

Clean the dirt from the drain plug area and then remove the plug with a proper

wrench. Allow the oil to drain for approximately five minutes to remove as

much contaminated oil as possible.

If the drain hole is located on the side or top of the engine, tilt the engine toward

the drain hole if possible. When draining is complete, replace the drain plug.

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5.1.4 Spark Plug Service

The spark plug should periodically be removed for inspection and cleaned or

replaced. Begin by using compressed air to blow dirt away from the base of the

spark plug. Remove the spark plug wire only.

Install a deep spark plug socket on the plug and carefully turn the ratchet handle

counter clockwise. Unscrew the spark plug and remove it from the cylinder

head. Carefully examine the electrode end of the plug. The electrodes and

ceramic insulator should be dry. An insulator or electrodes that are wet with fuel

or oil may be a sign of serious engine problems.

A dry insulator that has a beige or gray/tan color indicates that the engine is in

good condition. Next, examine the electrodes for any erosion, burning, or

carbon fouling. If the spark plug insulator and electrodes appear to be good (no

evidence of fouling or wear), the plug can be reinstalled. If not, install a new

plug of the correct type. Refer to the manufacturer’s technical service manuals

for the proper replacement spark plug. Check the electrode gap with a wire-type

feeler gauge.

The engine service manual will specify the proper gap setting. If the gap is too

large, carefully bend the outer electrode toward the center electrode until the

gap is correct. Use the gap setting tool.

Before installing the spark plug, clean the external ceramic insulator by wiping

it with a clean cloth. Condensation can cause flashover (sparking externally)

29
and erratic running if the insulator has a coating of dirt on it. If the metal base is

rusty.

5.1.5 Air Cleaner Service

The air cleaner should be cleaned before each season of operation and at regular

intervals thereafter. Under severe dust conditions, air filters should be cleaned

more often. A plugged air filter can cause hard starting, loss of power, and spark

plug fouling. Three types of air cleaners widely used in small gasoline engines

are the oil-wetted (plastic foam element) type, the dry type (pleated paper

element), and the dual-element type. Each has a different method of cleaning

and servicing. Begin by removing the screw, wing nut, or other fastening device

to uncover the air cleaner element.

When servicing an oil-wetted filter element, the element can be pulled from the

receptacle after the cover is removed. Be careful not to drop any dirt into the

carburetor throat during this procedure. To clean the element, wash it in liquid

detergent and water. Then rinse the element in clear water. After washing the

element, wrap it in dry cloth and squeeze it dry. Absorbent towelling works well

for this procedure.

The plastic foam should be saturated with clean engine oil. After saturating the

element, squeeze excess oil out of the foam.

Finally, reassemble the air filter unit. Follow any special instructions found in

the owner’s manual for the specific engine and filter. Most dry-type air filter

30
elements (pleated paper) are designed to be thrown away when they become

dirty. Nevertheless, you can clean a pleated paper filter element by tapping it on

a flat surface to dislodge light accumulations of dirt. However, if the element

will not tap clean, it must be replaced.

5.1.6 Muffler Service

An engine takes in large quantities of air mixed with fuel, and then burns the

mixture. Unless the engine readily rids itself of the by-products of combustion,

its efficiency will be greatly reduced.

5.1.7 Battery Service

The battery in a small engine–powered implement may be either a maintenance-

free battery or a conventional lead-acid battery. Check the manufacturer’s

service information to determine which type is being used. The maintenance-

free battery should not be replaced with a conventional lead-acid battery. The

electrical system is designed exclusively for a maintenance-free battery and the

electrical system will not work properly with a conventional lead acid battery.

Conventional lead-acid batteries need occasional additions of distilled water to

keep the electrolyte level above the plates. Fill to the level shown on the case of

the battery. Use a bulb syringe to add water and do not overfill. Maintenance-

free batteries do not need to have fluid added and should not have the sealed

caps removed.

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Removing, servicing, charging, or installing a battery must be done carefully to

avoid spilling any electrolyte. Batteries produce hydrogen gas, which is very

explosive. Keep batteries away from sparks, flame, etc.

Charging and using a battery should be done in a well-ventilated space.

Batteries electrolyte contains sulphuric acid, which can cause serious burns to

the skin, eyes, or clothing if contact is made. Always wear eye protection when

working with batteries. Batteries are secured in a battery box, tray, or similar

device and securely fastened to the implement.

The battery is held in position to resist being thrown about during operation. A

loose battery would quickly result in a cracked case. This could cause serious

damage to the implement and possible injury to the user. When servicing the

battery, make sure the battery hold-down is tight and in good condition.

Corrosion at the battery terminals and cable connectors is not uncommon.

The corrosion should be cleaned from the terminals. To clean the terminals

proceed as follows:

i. Remove the battery cable from the terminal.

ii. Use a solution of baking soda and water to wash the cable connectors

and battery terminals. (One teaspoon of baking soda to one cup of

water).

iii. Use a stiff brush to remove the corrosion from the cable connectors and

battery terminals,

32
 iv. Rinse the battery and connectors with clear water and dry the battery

case and terminals with absorbent cloths.

v. Coat the terminals with a waterproof dielectric grease to prevent further

corrosion.

vi. Reinstall the battery cables on the battery terminals. In negative-ground

systems, the positive cable should be connected before the negative

cable. Charge a battery only when it needs it. Normally, the alternator

driven by the engine keeps the battery charged. If the battery is old and

does not crank the engine, it should be tested and possibly replaced with

a new one.

5.2 Maintaining Outboard Cooling Systems

Outboard engine cooling systems can be clogged with dirt, sand, or other debris.

Flushing the internal cooling system of an outboard engine is extremely

important. Flushing is done by attaching a freshwater hose to the water scoop or

by operating the engine in a barrel of freshwater for several minutes.

5.3 Storing an Engine

Several precautions should be taken when storing an air-cooled engine for an

extended period, such as when storing an implement for the winter season.

Proper storage procedures will help ensure long engine life and easy starting the

following season.

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5.4 Common faults of automobile engines

5.4.1 Poor lubrication

Your car needs oil between its moving parts. Not only will this reduce friction,

but it will also remove heat. As such, getting a regular oil change is critical to

the functioning of your vehicle. Failing to ensure proper lubrication can cause

the car to overheat and its parts to seize, so keep the oil at an appropriate level.

Low levels could indicate leakage or burning.

5.4.2 Oil pumps failure

A failing oil pump can cause what’s called oil starvation, which is almost

always fatal to any engine. Overhead cam engines are especially at risk, because

the cam and valve train are farther from the pump than they are in pushrod

engines. Oil should be of a proper viscosity, which means it needs to be light

enough to move quickly.

5.4.3 Dirty oil

Oil can also build up and leave deposits on spark plugs, intake valves, and in

combustion chambers. It can also ruin a car’s bearings by leaving debris, which

becomes embedded in the surface. If your oil filter is clogged or missing, this

could be the cause of the problem.

5.4.4 Spark knock

Detonation, or spark knock, is a type of combustion caused by the build-up of

too much heat and pressure in the engine’s combustion chamber. When this

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happens, you should be able to hear a metallic knocking or pinging noise. A

small amount of detonation usually won’t cause major damage, but heavy

knocks or prolonged detonation can cause serious damage to your parts. It can

punch holes in your pistons, crush rod bearings, blow head gaskets, crack rings,

and pound out piston ring grooves. Prolonged pinging noises are a definite

cause for concern.

5.4.5 Broken or faulty oxygen sensor

The sensor measures how much oxygen has not been burned in the exhaust. It

then tells the car’s data system how much fuel is in the gas tank. A problem

with the oxygen sensor means the car receives incorrect information. Often, this

results in lower gas mileage.

5.4.6 Poor compression

If air and fuel are not properly compressed, the engine can’t carry out its

combustion process. If your valves are not sealing properly, your cylinder has a

hole, or the piston rings are worn, an air leak can occur, causing a lack of

compression.

5.4.7 Coolant loss

Generally, coolant loss is the most common cause of overheating. If your engine

overheats repeatedly, the high temperature could result in irreparable damage

that can be a pain to repair. Prevention is the best medicine, so avoid this kind

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of damage by making sure the coolant is clean and the cooling system is in good

operating condition.

5.4.8 Clogged radiator

Dirty coolant can cause multiple problems. If the radiator becomes filled with

sediment from dirty coolant, it will likely cause your engine to overheat. The

radiator could also become corroded if hard water is used.

5.4.9 Worn spark plug

Small but critical, a spark plug makes the car move. Its function is to ignite the

compressed fuel in the engine. A worn spark plug will cause a weak spark. It

may even prevent ignition entirely, or cause ignition at the wrong time. A

misfire will affect engine power and fuel economy and cause massive amounts

of potential damage.

5.4.10 Loose or missing gas cap

Tightening or replacing the gas cap is one of the easiest and cheapest fixes your

car will need over the course of its lifetime. However, it’s also an important

one. A loose or missing gas cap will cause gas to evaporate from the car,

decreasing its gas mileage and costing you potentially hundreds of dollars.

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 CHAPTER SIX

6.1 General appraisal of the program

The SIWES program is a very effective program that exposes student to modern

equipment, people from different behavioural background, best of knowledge in

various field of study and most importantly build student’s ability to relate in

office and field work situation. The knowledge gained can never be lost.

6.2 Ways of improving the program

There are various ways in which ITF can assist in improving SIWES Program.

These improvements could be done through:

a. Finding I.T Placement for students; students find it difficult to find I.T

Placement in industries today and also finding industries that are related

to their field of study.

b. The I.T.F/Institution Management should try and pay regular visits to the

firm their student is attached to, for effective participation.

c. There should be proper running of the school academic calendar in order

to meet up with I.T Space available at various industries.

6.3 Conclusion

The SIWES Program has exposed me to real life health practice. It has also

helped me gain practical knowledge and made me aware of what the labour

market holds in stock form me.

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