buildings

Article
Effect of Elevated Temperatures on Mechanical Properties
of Spliced and Non-Spliced Steel Reinforcements:
Experimental Study
Chanachai Thongchom 1 , Suphanut Kongwat 2,3, * , Jongchai Jaitrong 1 , Suraparb Keawsawasvong 1 ,
Linh Van Hong Bui 4 , Boonchai Stitmannaithum 5 and Saeed Mousa 6

1 Research Unit in Structural and Foundation Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Thammasat
School of Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Thammasat University, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand;
[email protected] (C.T.); [email protected] (J.J.); [email protected] (S.K.)
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology
Thonburi, Bangkok 10140, Thailand
3 Future Automotive Structure Research Group (FASt), Mobility and Vehicle Technology Research Center,
King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok 10140, Thailand
4 Advanced Retrofit Technology International Center, Advanced Research Laboratories, Tokyo City University,
Tokyo 158-8557, Japan; [email protected]
5 Center of Excellence in Innovative Construction Materials, Department of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; [email protected]
6 Faculty of Engineering, Jazan University, Jazan 88082, Saudi Arabia; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +66-(2)-470-9123

Abstract: Steel reinforcement is an essential part of reinforced concrete, providing structural strength.
In case of fire, the steel reinforcement severely loses its mechanical properties, leading to structural
collapse in some elevated temperatures. Thus, this work mainly investigates the mechanical prop-
erties of spliced and non-spliced steel reinforcements after being exposed to 500 ◦ C, 700 ◦ C, and
Citation: Thongchom, C.; Kongwat, 900 ◦ C. The results show that the mechanical properties of steel reinforcements significantly change
S.; Jaitrong, J.; Keawsawasvong, S.; after exposure to temperatures exceeding 500 ◦ C, and the diameter of steel reinforcements does
Bui, L.V.H.; Stitmannaithum, B.; not considerably affect post-fire properties. The proposed equations from previous work were also
Mousa, S. Effect of Elevated compared to the testing results in terms of post-fire stress–strain curves and mechanical properties,
Temperatures on Mechanical resulting in overestimation at temperatures of 700 ◦ C and 900 ◦ C. The study finds that using a
Properties of Spliced and mechanical coupler has the potential to increase the residual yield strength at a temperature of 500 ◦ C,
Non-Spliced Steel Reinforcements:
but it lacks post-fire elongation at a temperature of 700 ◦ C due to observed failure behavior after
Experimental Study. Buildings 2023,
testing. Furthermore, the failure occurred at the mechanical couplers when the exposure temperature
13, 1419. https://doi.org/10.3390/
reached 700 ◦ C. The modulus of elasticity of non-splices was the most critical parameter, which was
buildings13061419
maximally different by 23.9% compared to non-spliced steel reinforcements.
Academic Editor: Binsheng
(Ben) Zhang Keywords: post-fire strength; threaded mechanical couplers; reinforcement splices; residual strength;
Received: 5 May 2023 exposed temperature; steel reinforcement
Revised: 28 May 2023
Accepted: 29 May 2023
Published: 30 May 2023
1. Introduction
Steel reinforcement is an essential component in reinforced concrete (RC) structures,
providing tensile strength to the concrete. However, the performance of steel reinforcement
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
in RC structures is significantly reduced in the event of a fire due to elevated tempera-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
tures [1–8]. High temperatures can cause a steel reinforcement to undergo severe loss of
This article is an open access article
its mechanical properties and may lead to structural collapse. Therefore, it is crucial to
distributed under the terms and
investigate the post-fire mechanical properties of materials, such as concrete, steel rein-
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
forcements, and the bonds between them, and the strength of steel connections to assess
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
the residual strength and safety of RC structures after a fire event. Concrete is a popular
4.0/). building material due to its excellent strength and durability. Mechanical characteristics

Buildings 2023, 13, 1419. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13061419 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 2 of 20

of concrete have been studied under various loading conditions to examine its strength
based on experimental and simulation procedures [9,10]. However, concrete’s mechanical
properties (i.e., modulus of elasticity, yield strength, tensile strength, and compressive
strength) can be significantly affected by high temperatures [11–13]. As the temperature
rises, the cement paste, which binds the aggregates in concrete, begins to dehydrate and
loses its strength [14–17]. The aggregate may also undergo thermal expansion and contrac-
tion, which can cause cracks in the concrete [18–21]. These cracks can reduce the concrete’s
overall strength and the bond between the concrete and its steel reinforcements. Moreover,
the heating and cooling cycles can cause the concrete to spall or flake, exposing the steel
reinforcements to further damage [22]. On the other hand, steel reinforcements loses their
strength when exposed to high temperatures. At temperatures greater than 500 ◦ C, the steel
starts to lose its structural integrity, and the mechanical properties, such as yield strength
and ultimate tensile strength, decrease drastically [23,24]. The effects of heating and cooling
methods, cold working and heat treatments, steel type, and preloading have been found to
impact the residual mechanical properties of steel reinforcements after fire exposure [24].
The loss of strength in steel can significantly affect the overall load-carrying capacity of the
structure [4,7]. Moreover, the bond between the steel reinforcements and the concrete is
also affected by high temperatures [25,26]. Heat can cause the steel to expand, reducing
the bond strength between the steel reinforcements and the surrounding concrete [27–29].
This situation can further reduce the overall strength of the structure and may lead to
structural failure.
In RC structures, a mechanical coupler is commonly used to connect the steel rein-
forcements because couplers can reduce the reinforcements’ lap length and improve the
structure’s constructability. Steel connections are also critical to the overall performance and
safety of a structure, providing the necessary support and load transfer between structural
members [30–32]. In the event of a fire, the strength and integrity of steel connections can
be significantly compromised due to high temperatures, leading to the failure of the entire
structure. Few studies have been conducted on the effects of elevated temperatures on the
strength and elongation characteristics of grouted sleeve couplers (GSCs). Zhang et al. [33]
indicated that, at temperatures greater than 400 ◦ C, the reinforced steel inside the grouted
sleeve might fail. This failure was attributed to the coupler’s larger size than the reinforce-
ment, resulting in a reduced concrete cover and affecting the temperature development
and spalling. Although data are available on the post-fire mechanical properties of steel,
concrete, and the bonds between them, there has been a lack of experimental assessments
of the strengths and ductility of reinforcements with mechanical couplers after fire expo-
sures. Bompa and Elghazouli [34] investigated the effects of elevated temperatures on the
mechanical properties of steel reinforcements spliced with two types of threaded couplers:
cold forged sleeves with parallel thread couplers and parallel threaded couplers. The
experiments tested reinforcements with 16-mm and 20-mm diameters under steady-state
and transient elevated temperature conditions. The study showed that the ductility prop-
erties of threaded splices at elevated temperatures are affected by the type and geometry
of the couplers, while the stiffness and strength properties are comparable to those of
non-spliced specimens.
Due to the lack of previous experiment studies of the post-fire mechanical properties
of parallel thread coupler (PTCs), this work aims to present an experimental investigation
into the mechanical properties of steel-reinforced bars of both non-spliced and spliced using
PTCs after being exposed to elevated temperatures. Steel reinforcements with diameters
of 16 mm, 20 mm, and 25 mm were exposed to 500 ◦ C, 700 ◦ C, and 900 ◦ C for two hours,
followed by natural cooling to ambient temperature before testing to acquire residual
stress–strain curves. The study also compares the results with analytical models in terms of
post-fire stress–strain curves and mechanical properties of non-spliced steel reinforcements
to examine the experimental results with empirical solutions. The post-fire mechanical
properties, i.e., yield strength, ultimate strength, elongation, modulus of elasticity, and
failure mode, of spliced steel reinforcements are also discussed and compared to their non-
 mechanical properties, i.e., yield strength, ultimate strength, elongation, modulus of e
ticity, and failure mode, of spliced steel reinforcements are also discussed and compa
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 3 of 20
to their non-spliced counterparts. The results of this study could be valuable for engine
and designers in selecting appropriate couplers and reinforcement bar sizes for spec
applications, thereby enhancing the understanding and design of reinforced concr
spliced counterparts. The results of this study could be valuable for engineers and designers
instructures for fire resistance.
selecting appropriate couplers and reinforcement bar sizes for specific applications,
thereby enhancing the understanding and design of reinforced concrete structures for
2. Experimental
fire resistance. Designs
In this work, a building on fire and cooled to normal temperature was imitated
2. Experimental Designs
investigate the mechanical properties of steel reinforcements at high temperatures. Hen
In this work, a building on fire and cooled to normal temperature was imitated to
the experiment was designed to reproduce the same situation and determine the mech
investigate the mechanical properties of steel reinforcements at high temperatures. Hence,
ical
the properties
experiment wasofdesigned
the reinforcing steelthe
to reproduce under
same various
situation elevated temperatures.
and determine Figure 1 ill
the mechanical
trates theofoverall
properties processsteel
the reinforcing of the experiment.
under To begin
various elevated the investigation,
temperatures. the specimen
Figure 1 illustrates
theoverall
the steel reinforcements of interest
process of the experiment. were the
To begin first prepared based
investigation, on the of
the specimens desired dimensio
the steel
reinforcements of interest were first prepared based on the desired dimensions.
The furnace was then used to elevate the temperature of all samples, which were sub The furnace
was then used
quently to elevate
cooled the temperature
to ambient of all samples,
temperatures. Finally,which weretest
a tensile subsequently cooled to inve
was performed
to ambient temperatures. Finally, a tensile test was performed to investigate the properties
gate the properties of the steel reinforcements and to evaluate their mechanical per
of the steel reinforcements and to evaluate their mechanical performance. This information
mance.
was This information
versatilely wasthe
used to calculate versatilely used toof
residual strength calculate the RC
the post-fire residual strength
members beforeof the p
fire RC members before
the strengthening process. the strengthening process.

Prepare samples

Expose to high temperatures

Cool to ambient temperature

Perform tensile tests

Investigate the residual mechanical properties

Figure 1. Overall process of the experiment for determining the residual mechanical properties of
Figure 1. Overall process of the experiment for determining the residual mechanical properties
steel reinforcements.
steel reinforcements.
2.1. Specimens of Steel Reinforcement
2.1.InSpecimens of Steel Reinforcement
this experiment, the mechanical properties of two types of steel reinforcement
were examined:
In this experiment, threaded
those with mechanical
the mechanical couplers of
properties (splices) and those
two types without
of steel reinforcem
couplers
were examined: those with threaded mechanical couplers (splices) and those(Ø)
(non-splices). Furthermore, commercial steel reinforcements with diameters without c
of 16 mm, 20 mm, and 25 mm were subjected to elevate temperatures in this study. The
plers (non-splices). Furthermore, commercial steel reinforcements with diameters (Ø
steel reinforcements were hot-rolled deformed bars (grade SD40) with a nominal yield
16 mm,of20400
strength mm, and
MPa. The25length
mm were subjected
of specimens fortothose
elevate temperatures
without the couplerinisthis
1000study.
mm. The s
reinforcements
This length of the were hot-rolled
specimens deformed
is specified basedbars
on the(grade
size ofSD40) with aand
the furnace nominal
clampingyield stren
of 400 MPa.
distance in theThe lengthtesting
universal of specimens
machine, for those
which without
conforms theminimum
to the coupler isrequired
1000 mm. freeThis len
and gripspecimens
of the lengths of the
is standards
specified[35,36]. On the
based on the other
size ofhand,
the to construct
furnace a sample
and clampingof a steel
distance in
reinforcement
universal testingwith the coupler,which
machine, two pieces of steeltoreinforcements
conforms the minimum 500 mm in length
required were
free and grip leng
connected with PTCs. PTCs with hot-dipped galvanized couplers were used to connect the
of the standards [35,36]. On the other hand, to construct a sample of a steel reinforcem
steel reinforcements, with the PTCs complying with ASTM A123 [37] and ISO 1416 [38]
with the coupler, two pieces of steel reinforcements 500 mm in length were connec
standards. Furthermore, the PTC splice was provided with standard female threads on the
with PTCs.
coupler PTCs with
and matching malehot-dipped
threads on thegalvanized couplersFigures
steel reinforcements. were used
2 andto connect
3 display thethe steel
samples of steel reinforcements before performing the tests. Three duplicate pieces for each [38] sta
inforcements, with the PTCs complying with ASTM A123 [37] and ISO 1416
ards.
type Furthermore,
were tested underthe thePTC
samesplice was to
conditions provided with standard
ensure accurate results. female threads on the c
pler and matching male threads on the steel reinforcements. Figures 2 and 3 display
samples of steel reinforcements before performing the tests. Three duplicate pieces
each type were tested under the same conditions to ensure accurate results.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 22

Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 4 of 20

Ø = 16 mm
Ø = 16 mm

Ø = 20 mm
Ø = 20 mm

Ø = 25 mm
Ø = 25 mm

Figure 2. Samples of non-spliced steel reinforcements.

Figure 2. Samples
Figure 2. ofnon-spliced
Samples of non-splicedsteel
steelreinforcements.
reinforcements.

Threaded mechanical coupler

Steel reinforcement
Steel reinforcement

(a) Mechanism of the threaded mechanical coupler

(b) Samples for testing procedures

Figure 3. Spliced steel reinforcements.

2.2. Test Equipment

A furnace (Figure 4) was used as the heating device to generate high temperatures
with a heating rate of 20 °C/min. The maximum heating capacity of the furnace was 1000
°C. The outer and inner dimensions of the furnace were 530 mm × 530 mm × 300 mm and
Figure
Figure 3.3. Spliced
Spliced steel
steel reinforcements.
reinforcements.
200 mm × 200 mm × 200 mm, respectively, with a diameter of 50 mm for the top and bot-
tomTest
2.2. holes. The design temperature profile of the furnace for all elevated temperatures is
Equipment
2.2. Test Equipment
depicted in Figure 5. A thermocouple was also affixed in the furnace to instantaneously
A furnace
A furnace (Figure
(Figure 4)4)ofwas
was used
used as the
the heating
as during
heating device to
to generate
deviceprocess.
generate high temperatures
monitor the temperature ◦the samples the heating Since high temperatures
the thermal in-
with
with a heating rate of 20 C/min. The maximum heating capacity of
ertia◦of these samples is much smaller than that of the furnace, and they were placedwas
a heating rate of 20 °C/min. The maximum heating capacity of the the
furnacefurnace was
in a 1000
1000
°C.
wayThe C. The
thatouter outer and
andblock
did not inner
innerthe dimensions
dimensions of the furnace were
of the furnaceatmosphere
airflow, a homogeneous were 530 mm530 mm ×
was×created.530
530 mmAll mm ×
× 300 mm mm
300
samples and
and
200 200 mm × 200
mmreinforcements
of steel × 200 mm × 200mm × 200
mm,
were mm, respectively,
respectively,
subjected with a
with a diameter
to the desired diameter of 50 mm
of 50 mm forofthe
elevated temperatures for the
500top top bot-
°C,and
700 and
bottom
°C, and
tom holes.
holes.900TheThe
°C for design temperature
two temperature
design profile
hours. Subsequently, of the
thethe
profile of furnace
samples
furnace werefor all elevated
for naturally cooled
all elevated temperatures
to room is
temperatures is
depicted
temperature
depicted in Figure 5.
at the end
in Figure A thermocouple
5. Aofthermocouple was
the curing process also
was before affixed in
performing
also affixed the furnace
in thethe to
tensile to
furnace instantaneously
tests.
instantaneously
monitor the
monitor the temperature
temperatureof ofthe
thesamples
samplesduring
duringthe
the heating
heating process.
process. Since
Since thethe thermal
thermal in-
ertia of these samples is much smaller than that of the furnace, and they were placed in aa
inertia of these samples is much smaller than that of the furnace, and they were placed in
way
way that
that did
did not
not block
block the
the airflow,
airflow, aa homogeneous
homogeneous atmosphere
atmosphere was
was created.
created. All
All samples
samples
of steel reinforcements were subjected to the desired elevated temperatures of 500 ◦ C,
of steel reinforcements were subjected to the desired elevated temperatures of 500 °C, 700
700 ◦ C, and 900 ◦ C for two hours. Subsequently, the samples were naturally cooled to room
temperature at the end of the curing process before performing the tensile tests.
 Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419
Buildings x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of520of 21

Figure 4. Furnace for applying elevated temperatures onto the specimens.

Figure 4. Furnace for applying elevated temperatures onto the specimens.
Figure4.4.Furnace
Figure Furnacefor
forapplying
applyingelevated temperatures
elevated onto
temperatures thethe
onto specimens.
specimens.
1000
1000
900
1000
900 900 °C (2 hours)
800
900
900 °C (2 hours)
800
900 °C (2 hours)
(°C)

700
800
(°C)(°C)

700 700 °C (2 hours)

600 700 °C (2 hours)
Temperature

700
600
Temperature

500
600
700 °C (2 hours)
Temperature

500 500 °C (2 hours)

400
500
400
500 °C (2 hours)
300
400
500 °C (2 hours)
300
200
300
200
100
200
100
0
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
00 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time (min)
20 40 60 Time100
0
80 (min)120 140 160 180 200
Figure 5. Design temperatureTime (min)
profiles.
Figure 5. Design
Design temperature
temperatureprofiles.
profiles.
Figure 5. Design temperature profiles.
The tensiletests
The tests wereperformed
performed using a servo-hydraulic universal testing machine
The tensile
tensile testswerewere performedusing usinga aservo-hydraulic
servo-hydraulic universal
universal testing machine
testing machine
(Figure
(Figure
The 6)
6) after
after all
all specimens
specimens were
were cooled
cooled to
to room
room temperature.
temperature. A
A high-temperature
high-temperature ex-
(Figure 6)tensile tests
after all were performed
specimens were cooled using
to aroom
servo-hydraulic
temperature.universal testing machine
A high-temperature ex-
tensometer
extensometer with
(Figure 6) after with a a gauge
gauge length of
of 25
25 mm
mm was
was utilized
utilized toto collect
collect the
the strain
strain results.
results. The The
tensometer withall specimens
a gauge length were cooled
of 25 mm towas room temperature.
utilized to collectAthehigh-temperature
strain results. Theex-
tensile
tensiletesting
testing
tensometer procedure
procedure
with a was
gauge was assigned
assigned
length of byby
25 controlling
mm controlling
was forfor
a displacement
utilized atodisplacement
collect therate of 4 of
rate
strain mm/min
4 mm/min
results. The
tensile testing procedure was assigned by controlling for a displacement rate of 4 mm/min
until
untilthe
thesamples
tensile samples yielded
yieldedtotofailure.
failure.
until thetesting
samples procedure
yielded was assigned by controlling for a displacement rate of 4 mm/min
to failure.
until the samples yielded to failure.

Figure6.6.Servo-hydraulic
Servo-hydraulic universal testing machine.
Figure
Figure 6. Servo-hydraulicuniversal
universaltesting
testingmachine.
machine.
Figure 6. Servo-hydraulic universal testing machine.
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 6 of 20

3. Proposed Post-Fire Stress–Strain Curve Model for Steel Reinforcement

The proposed equations in this section, which were presented by Tao et al. [14], are
typically employed to predict the post-fire mechanical properties of a steel reinforcement
under various elevated temperatures. These equations were obtained based on the re-
gression model from some experimental results and were used to predict the post-fire
mechanical properties of steel reinforcements, instead of experiments. To calculate the
stress (fsT ) of steel reinforcements, the model employs an empirical formulation, which can
be expressed as follows:

 EsT ε s
 for 0 ≤ ε s < ε yT

 f yT for ε yT ≤ ε s < ε pT

f sT = 
ε uT −ε s
p (1)


 f uT − ( f uT − f yT ) × ε uT −ε pT for ε pT ≤ ε s < ε uT

f uT for ε s ≥ ε uT


where ε s is the certain strain of the steel reinforcement. The residual yield strength (fyt )
and ultimate strength (fuT ) are respectively calculated using Equations (2) and (3) as the
functions of temperatures, while fy and fu are the yield strength and ultimate strength
at ambient temperature, respectively. To accomplish the stress–strain curve of the steel
reinforcement after being exposed to high temperatures, the strain hardening exponent (p)
is also obtained, based on the function of the modulus of elasticity at the onset of strain
hardening (EpT ), as presented in Equation (4).
(
fy for T ≤ 500 ◦ C
f yT = (2)
1 − 5.82 × 10−4 ( T − 500) f y for T > 500 ◦ C
 

(
fu for T ≤ 500 ◦ C
f uT = (3)
1 − 4.85 × 10 ( T − 500) f u for T > 500 ◦ C
− 4
 

ε uT − ε pT
 
p = E pT × (4)
f uT − f yT
Equations (5) and (6) are used to calculate the elastic modulus (EsT ) and EpT to capture
the post-fire behavior regarding elasticity, respectively, where Es is the elastic modulus at
ambient temperature.
(
Es for T ≤ 500 ◦ C
EsT =  (5)
1 − 1.30 × 10−4 ( T − 500) Es for T > 500 ◦ C


E pT = 0.03EsT (6)
Last, the strain at the yield point (ε yT ), strain at the onset of strain hardening (ε pT ),
and ultimate strain corresponding to the ultimate tensile stress (ε uT ) are mathematically
computed using Equations (7)–(9).
f yt
ε yT = (7)
Est
(
15ε yT for f y ≤ 300 MPa
ε pT =   (8)
15 − 0.018( f y − 300) ε yT for 300 MPa > f y ≤ 800 MPa
(
100ε yT for f y ≤ 300 MPa
ε uT =   (9)
100 − 0.15( f y − 300) ε yT for 300 MPa > f y ≤ 800 MPa
  15 − 0.018( f y − 300)  ε yT for 300 MPa > f ≤ 800 MPa (8)
 15 − 0.018( f y − 300)  ε yT for 300 MPa > f y y≤ 800 MPa
pT

 100 ε yT for f ≤ 300 M P a

100 ε yT
ε uT = for f y y ≤ 300 M P a (9)
ε uT =   100 − 0.15( f y − 300)  ε yT for 300 M P a > f ≤ 800 M P a (9)
 
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419  100 − 0.15( f y − 300)  ε yT

for 300 M P a > f y y ≤ 800 M P a7 of 20

4. Results of Post-Fire Mechanical Properties of Non-Spliced Steel Reinforcements

4. Results of Post-Fire Mechanical Properties of Non-Spliced Steel Reinforcements
4. Results of Post-Fire
The samples Mechanicalsteel
of non-spliced Properties of Non-Spliced
reinforcement Steel to
are referred Reinforcements
as DB-16, DB-20, and
The samples of non-spliced steel reinforcement are referred to as DB-16, DB-20, and
DB-25, respectively, based on their diameters of 16 mm, 20
The samples of non-spliced steel reinforcement are referred to as DB-16, mm, and 25 mm. The textures
DB-20, and
DB-25, respectively, based on their diameters of 16 mm, 20 mm, and 25 mm. The textures
of all specimens, after being heated to the desired temperatures
DB-25, respectively, based on their diameters of 16 mm, 20 mm, and 25 mm. The textures and then naturally cooled
of all specimens, after being heated to the desired temperatures and then naturally cooled
toall
of ambient temperature,
specimens, after beingand the failure
heated behaviors
to the desired after the tensile
temperatures and thentests are illustrated
naturally cooled in
to ambient temperature, and the failure behaviors after the tensile tests are illustrated in
Figures
to ambient 7–9. The failureand
temperature, paBern similarly
the failure occurred
behaviors forthe
after each diameter
tensile compared
tests are with
illustrated in the
Figures
Figures 7–9. The failure
failurepattern
paBernsimilarly
similarlyoccurred
occurredfor foreach
each diameter compared with
thethe
results 7–9.
fromThethe ambient temperature. On the other hand, diameter
in the casecompared
of DB-25 with
at the ele-
results
results fromthe
from theambient
ambient temperature.
temperature. On On
the the
otherother
hand, hand,
in theincase
theofcase of DB-25
DB-25 at the at the ele-
elevated
vated temperatures of 500 °C and 900 °C, the failure resulted in a significant difference
vated temperatures
temperatures of 500 ◦ ofand
500 °C ◦and 900 °C, the failure resulted in adifference
significant difference
compared with the C others,900
whichC, the
wasfailure resulted
assumed to beinaffected
a significant
by the post-fire compared
mechanical
compared
with with the others, which was assumed to be affected by the
the others, which was assumed to be affected by the post-fire mechanical properties. post-fire mechanical
properties.
properties.

(a) before testing (b) failure

(a) before testing (b) failure
Figure7.7.Samples
Samples ofDB-16
DB-16 for performing the tensile tests.
Figure
Figure 7. Samplesofof DB-16for
forperforming
performingthe
thetensile tests.
tensile tests.

(a) before testing (b) failure

(a) before testing (b) failure
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21
Figure 8. Samples of DB-20 for performing the tensile tests.
Figure 8. Samples of DB-20 for performing the tensile tests.
Figure 8. Samples of DB-20 for performing the tensile tests.

(a) before testing (b) failure

Figure 9. Samples of DB-25 for performing the tensile tests.
Figure 9. Samples of DB-25 for performing the tensile tests.

The post-fire mechanical properties of the non-spliced steel reinforcements, includ-

ing the residual yield strength, ultimate strength, elongation, and modulus of elasticity,
were examined at ambient temperatures, as well as at elevated temperatures of 500 °C, 700
°C, and 900 °C. Additionally, the results of the residual yield strength, residual ultimate
 (a) before testing (b) failure
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 Figure 9. Samples of DB-25 for performing the tensile tests. 8 of 20

The post-fire mechanical properties of the non-spliced steel reinforcements, includ-

Theresidual
ing the post-fire yield
mechanical properties
strength, ultimate of strength,
the non-spliced steel reinforcements,
elongation, and modulus including
of elasticity,
the
wereresidual
examinedyieldatstrength,
ambientultimate strength,
temperatures, elongation,
as well and modulus
as at elevated of elasticity,
temperatures of 500were
°C, 700
examined at ambient temperatures, as wellofasthe
at elevated ◦ C, 700 ◦ C,
°C, and 900 °C. Additionally, the results residualtemperatures of 500
yield strength, residual ultimate
and 900 ◦and
strength, C. Additionally, the results
residual modulus of the were
of elasticity residual
alsoyield strength,
compared withresidual ultimate
the predicted resid-
strength,
ual stress–strain curves of the post-fire mechanical properties based on theresidual
and residual modulus of elasticity were also compared with the predicted proposed
stress–strain
equations fromcurves of the post-fire
previous work. mechanical properties based on the proposed equations
from previous work.
4.1. Post-Fire Stress–Strain Curves of Non-Spliced Steel Reinforcements
4.1. Post-Fire Stress–Strain Curves of Non-Spliced Steel Reinforcements
The non-spliced
The non-spliced steelsteel reinforcements
reinforcements were were subjected
subjected toto the
the tensile
tensile tests
testsafter
afterexposure
expo-
to the desired temperature. The post-fire stress–strain curves for
sure to the desired temperature. The post-fire stress–strain curves for all specimensall specimens areare
com-
pared andand
compared illustrated in Figure
illustrated 10.10.
in Figure It clearly shows
It clearly that
shows thethe
that mechanical
mechanicalproperties
propertiesatatam-
bient temperature
ambient temperature andand500500
°C◦were
C were similar. In In
similar. addition,
addition,thethe
residual
residualyield strengths
yield strengths sub-
dropped as the exposed temperatures increased to 700 ◦
substantially dropped as the exposed temperatures increased to 700 C and 900 C, while the
stantially °C and 900 ◦
°C, while
residual
the ultimate
residual ultimate strengths
strengthswere
werecomparable,
comparable, as expected
expectedfor forDB-16.
DB-16.Therefore,
Therefore, it can
it can be be
concludedthat
concluded thatthe
themechanical
mechanicalproperties
properties ofof non-spliced
non-spliced steel
steel reinforcement
reinforcement were
were affected
affected
by temperatures
by temperatureshigherhigherthan 500◦ C.
than500 °C.

800 800
700 700
600 600
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)

500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
Buildings 2023,
0.00 0.03 PEER
13, x FOR 0.06 0.09
REVIEW 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.00 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.15 0.18 9 of 21
Strain Strain
(a) DB-16 (b) DB-20
800
700
600
Stress (MPa)

500
400
300
200
100
0
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20
Strain
(c) DB-25
Figure10.
Figure 10.Post-fire
Post-firestress–strain
stress–strain curves
curves of of
thethe non-spliced
non-spliced steel
steel reinforcements.
reinforcements.

Additionally,
Additionally, the
the equation
equation proposed
proposed by by
TaoTao et al.
et al. [14][14] (referred
(referred to astothe
as the “Tao
“Tao model”)
model”)
was used to compare the results of post-fire stress–strain curves with various diameters at at
was used to compare the results of post-fire stress–strain curves with various diameters
certaintemperatures,
certain temperatures,asasplotted
ploBed inin Figure
Figure 11.11.
TheThe testing
testing results
results andand proposed
proposed equation
equation
were ◦ C, with the DB-25 results being slightly lower
werecomparable
comparableatat the
thetemperature
temperature of of
500500 °C, with the DB-25 results being slightly lower
than ◦ C and 900 ◦ C, the
thanthe
theprediction.
prediction. However,
However, at at the elevated temperatures of 700 °C and 900 °C, the pre-
predicted stress–strain curves from the proposed equation seemed to overestimate
dicted stress–strain curves from the proposed equation seemed to overestimate compared com-
pared to the testing results. Hence, these points should be cautiously used
to the testing results. Hence, these points should be cautiously used for the proposedfor the proposed
equation to predict the residual stress–strain curves at high temperatures. However, the
diameter of steel reinforcements did not significantly affect the mechanical properties.

800 800
 Additionally, the equation proposed by Tao et al. [14] (referred to as the “Tao model”)
was used to compare the results of post-fire stress–strain curves with various diameters at
certain temperatures, as ploBed in Figure 11. The testing results and proposed equation
were comparable at the temperature of 500 °C, with the DB-25 results being slightly lower
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 than the prediction. However, at the elevated temperatures of 700 °C and 900 °C,9 the of 20pre-
dicted stress–strain curves from the proposed equation seemed to overestimate compared
to the testing results. Hence, these points should be cautiously used for the proposed
equationtotopredict
equation predictthetheresidual
residual stress–strain
stress–strain curves
curves at high
at high temperatures.
temperatures. However,
However, the the
diameterofofsteel
diameter steelreinforcements
reinforcements diddid
notnot significantly
significantly affect
affect thethe mechanical
mechanical properties.
properties.

800 800
700 700
600 600
Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20
Strain Strain
(a) at 500 °C (b) at 700 °C
800
700
600
Stress (MPa)

500
400
300
200
100
0
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20
Strain
(c) at 900 °C
Figure11.
Figure 11. Comparison
Comparisonon
on the
the post-fire
post-fire stress–strain
stress–straincurves
curves between
between the
the testing
testing results
results and
and pro-
pro-
posed equations.
posed equations.

4.2. Post-Fire Yield Strength and Ultimate Strength of Non-Spliced Steel Reinforcements
The results of the residual yield strength (fyT ) and residual ultimate strength (fuT ) for
individual temperatures are shown in Table 1. Both fyT and fuT followed similar trends,
with temperature effects becoming apparent after the exposure temperature of 500 ◦ C. The
effects of temperature on fyT and fuT can be quantified by comparing the yield stress ratio
(fy,RT ) and ultimate stress (fu,RT ) at ambient temperatures (subscripted by RT), as shown in
Figure 12. This information is commonly used to plan strengthening procedures. It clearly
showed that fyT decreased significantly after the exposure temperature reached 500 ◦ C. The
results were different when performing the test at an elevated temperature because being
cooled to ambient temperature affected the steel reinforcements and could cause recovery
of their properties, the same as in the previous work [4,23,24]. At the exposed temperatures
of 700 ◦ C and 900 ◦ C, the ratios of fyT and fy,RT were mostly 0.8 and 0.6, respectively,
with the effect being more pronounced at the latter temperature. On the other hand, fuT
slightly decreased by 20% and 25% at the temperatures of 700 ◦ C and 900 ◦ C, respectively,
compared with fu,RT . Nonetheless, the equation proposed by Tao et al. [14] inaccurately
predicted the fyT value at the temperature of 900 ◦ C while slightly overestimating fuT at
high temperatures. However, the diameter of steel reinforcements had no significant effects
on fyT and fuT .
 predicted the fyT value at the temperature of 900 °C while slightly overestimating fuT at
high temperatures. However, the diameter of steel reinforcements had no significant ef-
fects on fyT and fuT.

Table 1. Post-fire yield strength and ultimate strength of the non-spliced steel reinforcements.
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 10 of 20
Specimens Temperature (°C) Average fyT (MPa) ± SD Average fuT (MPa) ± SD
Ambient 563 ± 7.3 655 ± 3.8
Table 1. Post-fire yield strength and ultimate strength of the non-spliced steel reinforcements.
500 564 ± 4.8 652 ± 6.6
DB-16
Specimens 700 Temperature (◦ C) 501 ±fyT52.7
Average (MPa) ± SD Average fuT543 ± 2.7
(MPa) ± SD
900Ambient 316563
± 27.7
± 7.3 655452 ± 21.3
± 3.8
500 564 ± 4.8 652 ± 6.6
DB-16 Ambient 515 ± 11.9 674 ± 7.5
700 501 ± 52.7 543 ± 2.7
500 900 533316
± 10.6
± 27.7 452 673 ± 4.1
± 21.3
DB-20
700Ambient 421515
± 16.3
± 11.9 674525 ± 26.1
± 7.5
500 ± 10.6 673 ± 4.1
DB-20 900 322533
± 51.2 495 ± 46.6
700 421 ± 16.3 525 ± 26.1
Ambient 900 483322
± 10.6
± 51.2 495 616 ± 9.9
± 46.6
500 Ambient 485 ±±
483 7.910.6 616611 ± 6.6
± 9.9
DB-25 500 ± 7.9 611 ± 6.6
DB-25 700 410485
± 6.2 518 ± 3.4
700 410 ± 6.2 518 ± 3.4
900 900 301301
± 10.4
± 10.4 487487 ± 4.1
± 4.1

1.20 1.20
1.00 1.00
0.80 0.80
fyT/ fy,RT

fuT/ fu,RT

0.60 DB-16 0.60 DB-16

0.40 DB-20 DB-20
0.40
DB-25 DB-25
0.20 0.20
Tao Model Tao Model
0.00 0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (T, °C) Temperature (T, °C)
(a) Post-fire yield strength (b) Post-fire ultimate strength
Figure 12. Temperature effects on the residual mechanical properties of the non-spliced steel rein-
Figure 12. Temperature effects on the residual mechanical properties of the non-spliced steel rein-
forcements.
forcements.

4.3. Post-Fire Modulus of Elasticity of the Non-Spliced Steel Reinforcements

Table 2 presents the findings on the post-fire modulus of elasticity (EsT ) under specified
conditions and compares these results with those obtained at the ambient temperature
(Es,RT ) using the ratio of EsT to Es,RT , as shown in Figure 13. This ratio is essential for
assessing the post-fire mechanical properties of the steel reinforcements, in which the
value is lower than one at which we might critically consider the material to be at a
crucial point in structural repair due to its properties being weaker than at the ambient
temperature. The tests revealed that the value of EsT remained consistently constant as the
temperature increased, except for DB-16. This outcome suggests that DB-16 is an essential
factor to consider when addressing elevated temperatures greater than 500 ◦ C during the
strengthening process since it lacks elasticity under such conditions. Nevertheless, the
proposed equation showed underestimation of the Es,T value under the temperatures of
700 ◦ C and 900 ◦ C.

4.4. Post-Fire Elongation of the Non-Spliced Steel Reinforcements

The ductility of steel reinforcement can be directly evaluated based on the elonga-
tion performance, which measures the deformation of the material both elastically and
plastically until it eventually breaks. The results of elongation tests performed at the am-
bient temperature (ELRT ), and various elevated temperatures (ELT ) are listed in Table 3.
The effects of temperature on the ratio of ELT to ELRT are also presented in Figure 14. It
obviously shows that the steel reinforcements exhibited greater elongations at higher tem-
peratures than that at room temperature. However, DB-16 lacked elongated performance
 point in structural repair due to its properties being weaker than at the ambient tempera-
ture. The tests revealed that the value of EsT remained consistently constant as the temper-
ature increased, except for DB-16. This outcome suggests that DB-16 is an essential factor
to consider when addressing elevated temperatures greater than 500 °C during the
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 strengthening process since it lacks elasticity under such conditions. Nevertheless,
11 of 20 the
proposed equation showed underestimation of the Es,T value under the temperatures of
700 °C and 900 °C.
at the exposure temperature of 700 ◦ C, which could be a crucial factor to consider when
Table 2. Post-firestructures.
strengthening modulus of elasticity of the non-spliced steel reinforcements.

Specimens
Table 2. Post-fire modulus Temperature
of elasticity of the(°C) Average Es,T (GPa)
non-spliced steel reinforcements. ± SD
Ambient 207 ± 11.6
Specimens ◦ Average Es,T (GPa) ± SD
500 Temperature ( C) 187 ± 2.3
DB-16 Ambient 207±±2.5
11.6
700 187
500 187 ± 2.3
DB-16 900 700 178187
± 16.2
± 2.5
Ambient 900 201 ± ±1.07
178 16.2
500 Ambient 201
201± ±
6.89
1.07
DB-20 500 201 ± 6.89
DB-20 700 196 ± 1.32
700 196 ± 1.32
900 900 192
192± ±
1.36
1.36
Ambient Ambient 203 ± 1.49
203 ± 1.49
500 500 199
199± ±
2.39
2.39
DB-25 DB-25 700 197 ± 2.03
700 197 ± 2.03
900 195 ± 1.13
900 195 ± 1.13

1.20

1.00

0.80
EsT/ Es,RT

0.60

0.40 DB-16
DB-20
0.20 DB-25
Tao Model
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (T, °C)

Figure
Figure13.
13.Temperature effect
Temperature effect onon
thethe residual
residual modulus
modulus of elasticity
of elasticity of the non-spliced
of the non-spliced steel rein-
steel reinforcements.
forcements.
Table 3. Post-fire elongation of the non-spliced steel reinforcements.
4.4. Post-Fire Elongation of the Non-Spliced Steel Reinforcements
◦
Specimens Temperature ( C) Average ELT (%) ± SD
The ductility of steel reinforcement can be directly evaluated based on the elongation
Ambient 20.72 ± 0.45
performance, which measures the deformation 500 of the material both
24.48elastically
± 0.62 and plas-
tically until itDB-16
eventually breaks. The results
700 of elongation tests performed
21.86 ± 0.87at the ambient
temperature (ELRT), and various elevated 900 listed±in
temperatures (ELT) are 25.33 1.06
Table 3. The ef-
fects of temperature on the ratio of ELT to ELRT are also presented in
Ambient Figure
21.58 14. It obviously
± 0.76
500 19.98 ± 0.70
DB-20
700 24.52 ± 1.15
900 27.25 ± 0.62
Ambient 20.78 ± 1.36
500 24.82 ± 0.81
DB-25
700 25.45 ± 1.30
900 26.82 ± 1.13
 700 24.52 ± 1.15
900 27.25 ± 0.62
Ambient 20.78 ± 1.36
500 24.82 ± 0.81
DB-25
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419
700 25.45 ± 1.30 12 of 20
900 26.82 ± 1.13

1.40

1.20

1.00

ELT/ELRT
0.80

0.60

0.40 DB-16
DB-20
0.20
DB-25
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (T, °C)

Figure
Figure14.
14.Temperature
Temperature effect onthe
effect on theresidual
residualelongation
elongation of the
of the non-spliced
non-spliced steelsteel reinforcements.
reinforcements.

5. Results on Post-Fire Mechanical Properties of the Spliced Steel Reinforcements

5. Results on Post-Fire Mechanical Properties of the Spliced Steel Reinforcements
The names PTC-16, PTC-20, and PTC-25 refer to the samples of steel reinforcements
The names PTC-16, PTC-20, and PTC-25 refer to the samples of steel reinforcements
with diameters of 16 mm, 20 mm, and 25 mm, respectively, which were joined using
with diameters
parallel thread of 16 mm, 20
mechanical mm, and
splicing. 25 mm,
Figures respectively,
15–17 which were
show the samples joined
of PTC-16, using par-
PTC-20,
allel
and PTC-25, respectively, after being heated to specific temperatures, cooled to normal and
thread mechanical splicing. Figures 15–17 show the samples of PTC-16, PTC-20,
PTC-25, respectively,
temperatures, after
and then being heated
subjected to specific
to tensile temperatures,
testing until failure. Thecooled to normal
reinforced steel tem-
peratures,
exhibited and then
a slight subjected
change to after
in color tensile testing
heating, until
while failure.surface
a darker The reinforced
was observed steelforexhibited
the
mechanical
a slight changecoupler when
in color exposed
after heating,to awhile
temperature
a darker 500 ◦ C (Figure
of surface 15). However,
was observed for thewhenmechan-
thecoupler
ical temperature
when increased
exposed 700a◦ C,
to to a darker surface
temperature of 500was°Cobserved
(Figurefor theHowever,
15). reinforced when
steel, the
while the mechanical
temperature increasedcoupler
to 700exhibited
°C, a darkeran umber color
surface embedded
was observed in its
forsurface, as shownsteel,
the reinforced
in Figure 16. Finally, at the temperature of 900 ◦ C, both the reinforced steel and mechanical
while the mechanical coupler exhibited an umber color embedded in its surface, as shown
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
coupler were burnt and exhibited white flaky peeling, as seen in Figure 17. The tensile 13 of
in Figure 16. Finally, at the temperature of 900 °C, both the reinforced steel and mechanical
test revealed that failure occurred in the steel reinforcements when they were exposed to
coupler were burnt and exhibited white flaky peeling, as seen in Figure 17. The tensile test
the temperatures of 500 ◦ C and 900 ◦ C. Interestingly, the mechanical couplers failed for all
revealed
diameters that failure
of the steeloccurred
reinforcementin the steelexposed
when reinforcements when of
to a temperature they
700were exposed
◦ C. This findingto the
ing could
temperatures be the first
of 500 consideration
°C and 900 of the strengthening
°C. strengthening
Interestingly,process process
the mechanical when the mechanical
couplers failed for all cou
could be the first consideration of the when the mechanical coupler
pler is
diameters connected
is connectedof the with
withsteel steel reinforcements
steelreinforcement
reinforcements afterwhenfires after
exposed fires at this exposure
to a temperature
at this exposure of 700
temperature. temperature.
°C.results
These This find- The
results demonstrate
demonstrate the impactthe impact of high-temperature
of high-temperature exposure on theexposure
mechanical onproperties
the mechanical
of steel prope
ties of steel reinforcements.
reinforcements.

(a) before testing (b) failure

Figure 15. PTC-16
Figure 15. PTC-16samples
samplesforfor performing
performing the tensile
the tensile tests. tests.
 (a) before
(a)
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 before testing
testing (b) failure
(b) failure 13 of 20

Figure 15.
Figure 15. PTC-16
PTC-16 samples
samples for
for performing
performing the
the tensile
tensile tests.
tests.

(a) before
(a) before testing
testing (b) failure
(b) failure
Figure
Figure 16.
Figure16. PTC-20 samplesfor
PTC-20 samples
16.PTC-20 samples forperforming
for performing
performing the
thethe tensile
tensile tests.
tests.tests.
tensile

(a) before
(a) before testing
testing (b) failure
(b) failure
Figure 17.
Figure 17. PTC-25 samples
samples for
for performing
performing the tensile
tensile tests.
Figure 17.PTC-25
PTC-25 samples for performing thethe
tensile tests.tests.

5.1.
5.1.
5.1. Post-Fire Yield
Post-FireYield
Post-Fire Strengthand
Yield Strength
Strength and
and Ultimate
Ultimate
Ultimate Strength
Strength
Strength ofSpliced
of theof the Spliced
the Spliced Steel Reinforcements
Reinforcements
Steel Reinforcements
Steel
Table44 demonstrates
Table demonstrates the the fyTfyT
andandfuT fvalues
uT values for the
for spliced
the splicedsteel reinforcements
spliced after
steel reinforcements
reinforcements afte
Table 4 demonstrates the fyT and fuT values for the steel after
being
being exposed
exposed to
to the
the desired
desired temperatures
temperatures and subjected
and subjectedto tensile
to tests.
tensile Additionally,
tests. the
Additionally, the
being
ratioexposed to thewas
of these results desired temperatures
quantitatively evaluatedandand subjected
is presented to tensile tests.
in Figure 18, Additionally,
compared the
ratio of
ratio of these results
results was was quantitatively
quantitatively evaluated evaluated and and is is presented in Figure
Figure 18,
18, compared
compared
to fy,RTthese
and fu,RT , respectively. fyT significantly increased up topresented
500 ◦ C, with in the maximum
to f y,RT and fu,RT, respectively. fyT significantly increased up◦ to 500 °C,
toratio and fu,RT
fy,RT being 1.25,, respectively.
but then it dropped fyT significantly increased
at the temperatures of 700up C toand500900 with
°C,◦ C.
with the maximum
the the
Hence, maximum
ratio being
mechanical
ratio 1.25,
being 1.25,couplerbut then it
but potentially dropped
then it dropped increased at the temperatures
fyT when
at the exposed to
temperatures of 700
of a700 °C and
temperature
°C and 900900 °C.
of 500 Hence,
◦ C.
°C. Hence, the
the
mechanical coupler potentially increased yT when exposed to aa of ◦
temperature of 500
500 °C
°C
Meanwhile,coupler
mechanical fuT remained constant
potentially increased ffyT
for all specimens when at exposed
a temperature to 500 C but de-
temperature of
creased drastically
Meanwhile, f at higher
uT remained temperatures.
constant for all Notably,
specimens fuT ofatPTC-16
a showed a of
temperature maximum
500 °C but de
Meanwhile, fuT remained constant for◦ all specimens at a temperature of 500 °C but de
decreasedrastically
creased of 31% at a at temperature of 900 C. Therefore,
higher temperatures.
temperatures. Notably,the steel
uT ofreinforcement
PTC-16 showed of 16 mm
showed in
creased drastically at higher Notably, ffuT of PTC-16 aa maximum
maximum
diameter
decrease of was
of 31% also
31% at a critical factor
at aa temperature
temperature of for further
of 900
900 °C.strengthening
°C. Therefore,
Therefore, the processes.
the steel
steel reinforcement
reinforcement of of 16
16 mm
mm
decrease
inTable
in diameter
diameter wasyield
was
4. Post-fire
alsostrength
also aa critical
critical factor
andfactor
ultimate
for
for further
further
strength
strengthening
strengthening
of the
processes.
processes.
spliced steel reinforcements.

Specimens Temperature (◦ C) Average fyT (MPa) ± SD Average fuT (MPa) ± SD

Ambient 528 ± 51.3 624 ± 33.6
500 575 ± 23.1 648 ± 5.8
PTC-16
700 381 ± 2.2 549 ± 2.2
900 297 ± 11.3 462 ± 4.5
Ambient 515 ± 4.2 647 ± 2.3
500 562 ± 29.8 637 ± 31.5
PTC-20
700 378 ± 5.3 548 ± 4.9
900 371 ± 7.1 537 ± 12.4
Ambient 473 ± 23.9 601 ± 12.5
500 592 ± 24.9 607 ± 18.6
PTC-25
700 356 ± 10.5 527 ± 9.4
900 306 ± 17.5 513 ± 18.6
 900 371 ± 7.1 537 ± 12.4
Ambient 528 ± 51.3 624 ± 33.6
Ambient 473 ± 23.9 601 ± 12.5
500 575 ± 23.1 648 ± 5.8
PTC-16 500 592 ± 24.9 607 ± 18.6
PTC-25 700 381 ± 2.2 549 ± 2.2
700 356 ± 10.5 527 ± 9.4
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 900 14 of 20
900 306297 ± 11.3
± 17.5 462 ± 4.5
513 ± 18.6
Ambient 515 ± 4.2 647 ± 2.3
1.40 500 562 ± 1.40
29.8 637 ± 31.5
PTC-20
1.20 700 378 ±1.20
5.3 548 ± 4.9
1.00
900 371 ±1.00
7.1 537 ± 12.4
fyT/fy,RT

fuT/fu,RT
0.80 0.80
Ambient 473 ± 23.9 601 ± 12.5
0.60 0.60
0.40 PTC-16 500 592 ± 24.9
0.40 PTC-16
607 ± 18.6
PTC-25
PTC-20 700 356 ± 0.20
10.5 PTC-20 527 ± 9.4
0.20
PTC-25 PTC-25
0.00 900 306 ± 0.00
17.5 513 ± 18.6
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (T, °C ) Temperature (T, °C )
1.40 1.40
(a) Post-fire yield strength (b) Post-fire ultimate strength
1.20 Figure 18. Temperature effects on the mechanical properties of the spliced steel reinforcements.
1.20
Figure 18. Temperature effects on the mechanical properties of the spliced steel reinforcements.
1.00 5.2. Post-Fire Modulus of Elasticity of the Spliced
1.00Steel Reinforcements
The trends of EsToffor the spliced steel reinforcement were similar to those for the
fyT/fy,RT

fuT/fu,RT
0.80 5.2. Post-Fire Modulus Elasticity of the Spliced
0.80 Steel Reinforcements
non-spliced, in which it remained constant up to 500 ◦ C and then slightly dropped at high
0.60 The trends of EsT for the spliced steel0.60
reinforcement were similar to those for the non-
temperatures (Table 5 and Figure 19). Moreover, the ratio of EsT to Es,RT indicated that the
0.40 PTC-16 spliced, in which
PTC-20 and PTC-25itspecimens
remainedperformed
constant worse
up
0.40to than
500 PTC-16,
°C PTC-16
and with
thenaslightly
ratio lessdropped at high
than 0.8, in
PTC-20 temperatures (Table 5 and Figure 19). Moreover,
contrast to the non-spliced steel bars. Therefore, the ratio
PTC-20of E to E indicated that the
0.20 the mechanical coupler clearly reduced
sT s,RT
0.20
PTC-25 PTC-20 and PTC-25 specimens
the elasticity properties. performed worse thanPTC-25
PTC-16, with a ratio less than 0.8,
0.00 0.00
in contrast to the non-spliced steel bars. Therefore, the mechanical coupler clearly reduced
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Table
the 5. Post-fire
elasticity modulus of elasticity of the spliced steel
properties. reinforcements.
Temperature (T, °C ) Temperature (T, °C )
Specimens Temperature (◦ C) Average E
s,T (GPa) ± SD
(a) Post-fire yield1.20
strength (b) Post-fire ultimate strength
Ambient 200 ± 1.10
Figure
1.00 18. Temperature effects on the mechanical
500 properties of the200
spliced
± 4.86steel reinforcemen
PTC-16
700 185 ± 2.27
0.80 900 167 ± 12.24
5.2. Post-Fire Modulus of Elasticity of the Spliced Steel Reinforcements
EsT/Es,RT

0.60 Ambient 203 ± 5.74

The trends of EsT for the spliced steel
500 reinforcement were192similar
± 1.59 to those for the
0.40 PTC-20
spliced, in which it remained constant up to 500 °C and then± slightly
PTC-16 700 164 9.74 dropped a
PTC-20 900 155 ± 5.07
temperatures
0.20 (Table 5 and Figure 19). Moreover, the ratio of EsT to Es,RT indicated th
PTC-25 Ambient 200 ± 4.36
PTC-20
0.00 and PTC-25 specimens performed 500 worse than PTC-16,
186 ±with
8.47 a ratio less tha
PTC-25
in contrast
0 to the
200 non-spliced
400 steel bars.
600 700Therefore,
800 1000 the mechanical coupler clearly red
152 ± 1.96
Temperature (T, °C) 900 138 ± 9.47
the elasticity properties.
Figure 19. Temperature effects on the residual modulus of elasticity of the spliced steel reinforce-
ments.
1.20

1.00

0.80
EsT/Es,RT

0.60

0.40 PTC-16
PTC-20
0.20
PTC-25
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (T, °C)

Figure 19.Temperature
Figure 19. Temperature effects
effects on theon the residual
residual modulus
modulus of ofthe
elasticity of elasticity of the
spliced steel spliced steel reinfo
reinforcements.
ments.
 Table 5. Post-fire modulus of elasticity of the spliced steel reinforcements.
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419
Specimens Temperature (°C) Average Es,T (GPa)15±ofSD 20

Ambient 200 ± 1.10

500 200 ± 4.86
5.3. PTC-16
Post-Fire Elongation of the Spliced Steel Reinforcements
700 185 ± 2.27
The trends in ELT of the spliced steel reinforcement varied, as shown in Table 6 and
Figure 20, due to the different failure900 behaviors of the samples during 167 ± 12.24tests. At
the tensile
the exposure temperatures of Ambient ◦ ◦
500 C and 900 C, PTC-16 and PTC-20 specimens203 ± 5.74showed
greater elongations compared to EL RT , while PTC-25 specimens did not sufficiently
500 192 ± 1.59elongate
PTC-20
at high temperatures. However, all steel reinforcements lacked the potential
700 164 ±to9.74
elongate at
a temperature of 700 ◦ C due to mechanical coupler failure. Thus, the mechanical coupler is
900 155 ± 5.07
a crucial factor to consider in the strengthening process if the fire temperature is expected
to reach 700 ◦ C. Ambient 200 ± 4.36
500 186 ± 8.47
TablePTC-25
6. Post-fire elongation of the spliced steel reinforcements.
700 152 ± 1.96
Specimens 900Temperature (◦ C) Average138
ELT±(%)
9.47
± SD
Ambient 19.30 ± 1.08
5.3. Post-Fire 500Reinforcements
Elongation of the Spliced Steel 19.40 ± 0.87
PTC-16
700 13.55 ± 1.33
The trends in ELT of the spliced steel900 reinforcement varied, as±shown
26.31 in Table 6 an
1.72
Figure 20, due to the different failureAmbient
behaviors of the samples18.16
during
± 0.71the tensile tests. A
the exposure temperatures
PTC-20
of 500 °C and
500 900 °C, PTC-16 and 22.80
PTC-20 specimens
± 0.85 showe
700 6.68 ± 1.06
greater elongations compared to ELRT, while PTC-25 specimens did not sufficiently elon
900 23.38 ± 1.09
gate at high temperatures. However, all steel reinforcements lacked the potential to elon
Ambient 25.50 ± 0.84
gate at a temperature of 700 °C due to 500mechanical coupler failure.
20.14 ±Thus,
0.46 the mechanic
PTC-25
coupler is a crucial factor to consider in700
the strengthening process
8.09 ±if1.61
the fire temperatur
is expected to reach 700°C. 900 18.99 ± 1.75

1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
ELT/ELRT

0.80
0.60
PTC-16
0.40
PTC-20
0.20 PTC-25
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (T, °C )

20. Temperature
Figure 20.
Figure Temperature effects
effectson on
the the
residual elongation
residual of the spliced
elongation steel reinforcements.
of the spliced steel reinforcements.
6. Discussion of the Results
Table 6. Post-fire elongation of the spliced steel reinforcements.
The post-fire mechanical properties of both non-spliced and spliced steel reinforce-
ments of 16 mm in diameter
Specimens are compared
Temperature (°C)in Figure 21. The trends for fyT
Average EL, TfuT , and
(%) EsT
± SD
were similar in that the non-splices and splices were obtained equally
Ambient from± 1.08
19.30 the tests at
the ambient and elevated temperatures.
500 However, the non-splices had more potential
19.40 ± 0.87 for
PTC-16
elongation than the mechanical coupler samples. The minimum elongation occurred at the
700 13.55 ± 1.33
temperature of 700 ◦ C because the failure mechanism during the tensile tests was different
900 26.31 ± 1.72
from the other cases. When using a reinforcing bar with a diameter of 16 mm, it is worth
Ambient 18.16 ± 0.71are not
noting that the post-fire mechanical properties of the spliced steel reinforcements
greater 500 reinforcements and, at some elevated
than those the non-spliced steel 22.80 temperatures,
± 0.85
PTC-20
lead to much poorer results. 700 6.68 ± 1.06
900 23.38 ± 1.09
Ambient 25.50 ± 0.84
500 20.14 ± 0.46
PTC-25
700 8.09 ± 1.61
900 18.99 ± 1.75
 gation than the mechanical coupler samples. The minimum elongation occurred at the
temperature of 700 °C because the failure mechanism during the tensile tests was different
from the other cases. When using a reinforcing bar with a diameter of 16 mm, it is worth
noting that the post-fire mechanical properties of the spliced steel reinforcements are not
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 greater than those the non-spliced steel reinforcements and, at some elevated tempera- 16 of 20
tures, lead to much poorer results.

Non-Splices Non-Splices

Splices Splices

(a) Post-fire yield strength (b) Post-fire ultimate strength

Non-Splices Non-Splices
Splices Splices

(c) Post-fire modulus of elasticity (d) Post-fire elongation

Figure Figure
21. Comparisons of the results of the steel reinforcements of 16 mm in diameter.
21. Comparisons of the results of the steel reinforcements of 16 mm in diameter.

The results for steel

The results forreinforcements
steel reinforcementswith with
a diameter of 20ofmm
a diameter also also
20 mm followed the same
followed the same
trendstrends
as those
as for thefor
those 16the
mm-diameter
16 mm-diameter steel.steel.
Figure 22 shows
Figure that the
22 shows thatsteel reinforcements
the steel reinforcements
with mechanical couplers
with mechanical exhibited
couplers slightly
exhibited higher
slightly mechanical
higher mechanicalproperties thanthan
properties the non-
the non-
◦ C and f
splicedspliced counterparts
counterparts in termsin terms at fyT
of fyT of theatelevated
the elevated temperature
temperature of 500
of 500 °C and at the
fuT atuTthe
temperatures
temperatures of 700 of°C700and◦ C900and
°C.900 ◦ C. However, E
However, of the spliced
EsT of thesT spliced steel reinforcements
steel reinforcements de-
creaseddecreased significantly
significantly compared compared to the non-spliced
to the non-spliced ones, ones,
and Eand EsT maximally
sT was was maximally different
different
by 23.9% at the temperature of 900 ◦ C. Additionally, the EL results for both samples
by 23.9% at the temperature of 900 °C. Additionally, the ELT results T for both samples in-
creasedincreased
with thewith the increasing
increasing exposure exposure temperatures,
temperatures, except except
for theformechanical
the mechanical couplers
couplers at at
the temperature of 700 ◦ C due to the different failure mechanisms.
the temperature of 700 °C due to the different failure mechanisms.
The diameter of 25 mm of steel reinforcements, which is the largest, also exhibited
results the same as those for the 16-mm and 20-mm diameters, as displayed in Figure 23.
Notably, the fyT values of the splices were higher than those of the non-spliced steel
reinforcement at a temperature of 500 ◦ C, while fyT and fuT showed similar trends at other
temperatures. EsT of the spliced steel reinforcement also dropped drastically, as observed for
the 20 mm-diameter reinforcements, compared to the non-spliced steel reinforcements. The
contrasting trends in ELT demonstrated that ELT of the non-splices slightly increased at high
temperatures, and ELT of the splices dropped significantly, especially at the temperature
of 700 ◦ C.
The current results based on the post-fire mechanical properties after exposure to the
desired temperatures were independently discussed with different diameters and their
properties. However, establishing relationships among the studied parameters should
be a further consideration in future work, which might provide valuable information for
designing RC structures for fire resistance. However, the current results can be employed
as information for structural repair during the strengthening process after fire events.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 21
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 17 of 20

Non-Splices
Non-Splices
Splices
Splices

(a) Post-fire yield strength (b) Post-fire ultimate strength

Non-Splices Non-Splices
Splices Splices

(c) Post-fire
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW modulus of elasticity (d) Post-fire elongation 18 of 21

Figure 22. Comparisons of the results of the steel reinforcements of 20 mm in diameter.

Figure 22. Comparisons of the results of the steel reinforcements of 20 mm in diameter.

The diameter of 25 mm of steel reinforcements, which is the largest, also exhibited

results the same as those for the 16-mm and 20-mm diameters, as displayed in Figure 23.
Non-Splices
Notably, the fyT values
Splices the splices were higher than those of the non-spliced steel rein-
of
forcement at a temperature of 500 °C, while fyT and fuT showed similar trends at other tem-
peratures. EsT of the spliced steel reinforcement also dropped drastically, as observed for
the 20 mm-diameter reinforcements, compared to the non-spliced steel reinforcements.
Non-Splices
The contrasting trends in ELT demonstrated that ELT of the non-splices slightly increased
Splices
at high temperatures, and ELT of the splices dropped significantly, especially at the tem-
perature of 700 °C.
The current results based on the post-fire mechanical properties after exposure to the
desired temperatures were independently discussed with different diameters and their
properties.
(a) Post-fire yieldHowever,
strength establishing relationships(b)
among the studied
Post-fire ultimateparameters
strength should be
a further consideration in future work, which might provide valuable information for de-
signing RC structures for fire resistance. However, the current results can be employed as
information for structural repair during the strengthening process after fire events.

Non-Splices
Non-Splices
Splices
Splices

(c) Post-fire modulus of elasticity (d) Post-fire elongation

Figure 23. Comparisons of the results for the steel reinforcements of 25 mm in diameter.
Figure 23. Comparisons of the results for the steel reinforcements of 25 mm in diameter.

7. Conclusions
This study investigated the post-fire mechanical properties of non-spliced and
spliced steel reinforcements at the elevated temperatures of 500 °C, 700 °C, and 900 °C.
Commercial steel reinforcements with diameters of 16 mm, 20 mm, and 25 mm were sub-
jected to the desired temperatures for two hours and naturally cooled to ambient temper-
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 18 of 20

7. Conclusions
This study investigated the post-fire mechanical properties of non-spliced and spliced
steel reinforcements at the elevated temperatures of 500 ◦ C, 700 ◦ C, and 900 ◦ C. Commercial
steel reinforcements with diameters of 16 mm, 20 mm, and 25 mm were subjected to the
desired temperatures for two hours and naturally cooled to ambient temperatures before
being tested for the residual stress–strain curves. The proposed equations from previous
work used to predict post-fire stress–strain curves were also compared to the testing results.
Based on the testing procedure, the findings of this work can be concluded as follows:
• The mechanical properties of the steel reinforcements showed a significant change
after being exposed to temperatures exceeding 500 ◦ C, and the steel reinforcements’
diameters did not significantly affect the post-fire properties;
• The proposed equations overestimated the results at the temperatures of 700 ◦ C and
900 ◦ C. Therefore, they should be used cautiously when predicting the residual stress–
strain curves at high temperatures;
• The non-spliced steel reinforcement with a diameter of 16 mm was a critical sample
when exposed to elevated temperatures greater than 500 ◦ C, as its post-fire mechanical
properties exhibited significant drops compared to the other cases;
• The mechanical coupler showed potential in increasing the residual yield strength
at a temperature of 500 ◦ C. However, it lacked in post-fire elongation ability at a
temperature of 700 ◦ C due to the failure patterns observed after the tests;
• The use of a mechanical coupler significantly decreased the post-fire modulus of
elasticity compared to the non-spliced steel reinforcement, which is a crucial factor to
consider in the strengthening process;
• Statistical methods should be employed to analyze post-fire mechanical properties,
and the results with increasing numbers of non-splices and splices are further recom-
mended for future work.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.T., J.J. and S.K. (Suraparb Keawsawasvong); methodol-
ogy, C.T., J.J. and L.V.H.B.; formal analysis, C.T. and J.J.; investigation, C.T., S.K. (Suphanut Kongwat)
and S.K. (Suraparb Keawsawasvong); data curation, C.T. and J.J.; writing—original draft preparation,
C.T. and S.K. (Suphanut Kongwat); writing—review and editing, C.T. and S.K. (Suphanut Kongwat);
visualization, C.T. and S.K. (Suphanut Kongwat); supervision, B.S. and S.M.; project administra-
tion, C.T.; funding acquisition, C.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received funding from the Faculty of Engineering, Thammasat University,
and the Thailand Science Research and Innovation Fundamental Fund: Fiscal year 2023.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: The financial support from the Faculty of Engineering, Thammasat University,
and the Thailand Science Research and Innovation Fundamental Fund: Fiscal year 2023 are gratefully
acknowledged. Finally, the authors would like to express their gratitude for the material support
provided by Dextra Group Thailand.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

ELRT Elongation at ambient temperature for the experimental procedure

ELT Post-fire elongation of steel reinforcement
EpT Modulus of elasticity at onset of strain hardening
Es Modulus of elasticity at ambient temperature for the analytical solution
Buildings 2023, 13, 1419 19 of 20

Es,RT Modulus of elasticity at ambient temperature for the experimental procedure

EsT Modulus of elasticity of steel reinforcement
fsT Stress of steel reinforcement
fu Ultimate strength at ambient temperature for the analytical solution
fu,RT Ultimate strength at ambient temperature for the experimental procedure
fuT Post-fire ultimate strength
fy Yield strength at ambient temperature for the analytical solution
fy,RT Yield strength at ambient temperature for the experimental procedure
fyT Post-fire yield strength
P Strain hardening exponent
ε pT Strain at onset of strain hardening
εs Certain strain of steel reinforcement
ε uT Ultimate strain corresponding to ultimate tensile stress
ε yT Strain at yield point
Ø Diameter of steel reinforcement

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