Geography

Chapter 1
BIRTH RATE (N .
Of BABIES BORN E CH 2000 PEOPLE)

NATURAL INCREASE DECREASE Of POPULATION DEPENDS ON

=
BIRTH RATE-DEATH RATE DEATH RATE (N . OF PEOPLE WHO DIE EACH 1000 PEOPLE)

1700-1938 POPULATION GREW AS :

AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN NORTH AMERICA AND EUROPE

ADVANCES IN MEDICAL CARE , SUPPLY OF CLEAN WATER AND SANITATION

SINCE 1939 INNEDC POPULATION IS GROWING SLOWLY O NOT GROWING AT ALL BECAUSE :

WOMEN STARTED WORKING AND STUDYING MORE

COST OF LIVING WAS HIGH

THE POPULATION IS ALSO AFFECTED BY MIGRATIONS

IN LEDCSPOPULATION IS STILL GROWING BUT , AS THE COUNTRY IS DEVELOPING , IT'S GOING THROUGH THE SARE PATTERN AS MEDCS

N B .
. BIRTH RATE DEPENDS ONFERTILITY RATE AVERAGE NUMBER Of CHILDREN BORN PER WOMAN

REASONS FOR HIGH BIRTH RATES

CULTURAL AND SOCCAL ECONOMIC REASONS

REASONS

+ CHILDREN , + MARRY AT YOUNGAGE + BABIES ; WORKERS INFANT MORTALITY

PRESTIGE IN SOCIETY => + % BABIES [CHILDREN WHO DIE
IN THEIR FIRST YEARS

** to
POLYGAMOUS SOGETIES
niReception
CARRY ON THE FAMILY
NAME

+
CHILDREN , %THEY' Look
AFTER THE OLD PARENTS

RELIGIOUS REASONS DEMOGRAPHIC DEASONS

REGION ENCOURAGES HAVING ↑. FEMALE Of CHILDBEARING AGE

BABIES => ↑ % BABIES
 REASONS FOR FALLING DEATH RATES

ADVANCES In MEDICINE IMPROVEMENT IN ACCESS

of Food SUPPLIES

"sisten been Estuz

REASONS FOR HIGH DEATH RATES

WAR NATURAL DISASTER

MASS HEALTH PROBLEM

Leg . BESITY IN USAS

MIGRATION IS THE MOVEMENT OF PEOPLE FROM ONE PLACE (EMIGRANTS) TO ANOTHER (IMMIGMANTS)

NET MIGRATION
=

N OF IMMIGRANTS
.
-
N O
. EMIGRANTS (PER 1000 &r %6)

POPULATION GROWTH (ORFALL) =

NATURAL CHANGE+NETMIGRATION
=

(BIRTH RATE-DEATH MATE) + (N . OF IMMIGRANTS -

N OF
. EMIGRANTS

OVER-POPULATED COUNTRY IS A COUNTRY WHERE THERE ARE TRO MANY PEOPLE TO BE SUPPORTED TO A Goo STANDARD Of LIVING BY ITS RESOURCES .

UNDER-POPULATED COUNTRY IS A COUNTRY WHERE THERE ARE TOO FEw PEOPLE TO USE All ITS RESOURCES TO MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY .

THEY ENCOURAGE IMMIGRATION

N B
.
.
POPULATION IS GROWING THE MOST IN DEVELOPING/POORER COUNTRIES

PROBLEMS OF RAPID POPULATION GROWTH

eMuch pressure
an ITS
AGROWINGPOPULA

DIFFICULT TO FEED CAN'T AFFORD HEALTHCARE

EVERYONE

STARVATION ILL POPRATION

CAN'T AFFORD SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS

UNEDUCATION , UNEMPLOYMENT

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT POPULATION GROWTH RATE MUST NOT THREATEN THE SURVIVAL OF FUTURE GENERATIONS
 POLICIES TO REDUCE POPULATION GROWTH

FREE FAMILY PLANNING OTHER ANTI-NATALIST POLICIES

NOT SO SUCCESSFUL IN ASIA AND AFRICA As LIMIT FAMILY SIZE ADVERTISE THE NEED
TO LIMIT FAMILY SIZE
BY LAW 2CHINAS

PEOPLE UNAWARE O PATRARCHAL SOGETIES

FREE CONTRACEPTION

FINANCIAL AID FOR WITHDRAW TAX AUOWANCES

Small FAMILIES FROM LARGE FAMILIES

GOVERNMENT DOESN'T SPEND

MONEY ON IT

IMPROVEMENTS IN HEALTH AND EDUCATION

SUCCESSFUL IN KERALA EDUCATION IS THE KEY

Fo DEUEIPMENT

PoliceEsTO ENCOURAGE POPULATION GROWTH

FRANCE

+ CHILDREN , -TAXES
E e

W Best PAID LEAVE Fo aNE

warn
PARENT For 36 MONTIeS
AFTER HAVING A CHILD

MIGRATION

INTERNAL INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTARY INVOLUNTARY

PUSH FACTORS PULL FACTORS

FORCE PEOPLE TO LEAVE THEIR COUNTRY ATTRACT PEOPLE TO A New COUNTRY

UN EMPLOYMENT DROUGH EMPLOYMENT LOW CRIME LEVEL AND

AND FARINE SAFETY

LOW WAGES CUIL WAR AND HIGH WAGES FAMILY & FRIENDS Moves
LAWLESSNESS THERE

POOREDUCATION WAR WITH ANOTHER BETTER HEALT ARE BETTER STANDARD O LIVING
COUNTRY

POR HEALTHCARE BETTER EDUCATION

N B
. . MIGRATIONS CAN BE PERMANENT On TEMPORARY
 TYPES OF INTERNAL MIGRATION

RURAL-TO-URBAN URBAN-TO-RURAL TRANS MIGRATION

YOUNG RALES IN LEDCS TO LARGE UTIES RETIRED ELDERLY IN MEDCS TO INVOLUNTARY ECONOMIC MOVEMENT
COUNTRYSIDE OF 2 5 MILLION
. PEOPLE BY INDONE-
SIA'S GOVERNMENT 1979-2015
,

POPULATION STRUCTURE IS THE COMPOSITION Of A COUNTRY'S POPUATION

REPRESENTED BY THE AGE-SEX PYRAMID

YOUNG DEPENDENTS (215 YEARS &D

DIVIDED INTO 3 BROAD BANDS ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE (15 = = 64 YEARS &D)

ELDERLY DEPENDENTS (365 YEARS OD)

DEPENDENCY RATIO IS THE MEASURE Of THE NUMBER Of WORKING PEOPLE , COMPARED WITH THE NUMBER Of PEOPLE DEPENDENT UPON THER .

YOUNG DEPEPENDENTS + ELDERLY DEPENDENTS

x Da
-

ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION Model IS A SIMPLIFIED EXPLAINATION Of How THE POPULATION PATTERNS OF COUNTRIES ALTER OVER TIME AS THEY MOVE FROM

BEING RURAL TO DEVELOPED .

INDICATORS Of STANDARDS OF LIVING :

GDP PER PERSON PPD (PURCHASING POWER PARTY HIGHER IN MEDCS

LITERACY LEVELS

ENERGY CONSUMPTION LOWER IN LEDCS

CALORE INTAKE

POPULATION DENSITY IS CALCULATED BY TOTAL POPULATION DIVIDED BY THE COUNTRY'S AREA .

Population DISTRIBUTION IS HOW THE POPULATION IS SPREAD OVER AN AREA

FACTORS AFFECTING THE DENSITY AND DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATIONS

SOCAL FACTORS POLITICAL FACTORS

TMBES AND FAMILIES LIVE GOVERNMENT BUILDS A NEW CAPITAL TO

WEARBY STIMULATE GROWTH

PHYSICAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS

 Chapter 3
PLATE IS A SECTION OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE

IT INCLUDES THE CRUST AND THE UPPER PART OF THE MANTLE

IT'S COLD AND RIGID

THE ROCKS UNDERNEATH REACH TEMPERATURES > 1300 , THEY BEHAVE PLASTICALLY THIS ALLOWS THE PLATES TO MOVE RELATIVE TO EACH OTHER

WHY DO PLATES MOVE ? HOTTER AREAS PLASTIC MANTLE ROCKS

BECOME LIGHTER AND RSE

DEEPWITHIN THE EARTH RADIOACTIVITY HEATISPRODUCED IT'S NOTEVENLY DISTRIBUTED

COLDER AREAS CONNECTION CURRENTS

PLATE BOUNDARIES

HOST PLATES ABOVE MOVE

VOLCANOES FOD MOUNTAINS

ACTIUE ExTINCE FORM DUE TO THE COMPRESSION

& TWO TECTONIC PLATES
THAT SQUEEZES THE ROCK LAYERS
DORMANT EARTHQUAKES

UPFOLDS DONFODS
(RDGES) CVALLEYS)
 TYPES OF PLATE MARGINS

CONSTRUCTIVE CONSERVATIVE
CDIVERGENT)

STRESS TENSION
:
STRESS SHEARING
:

NEWOCEANIC PLATE IS CREATED PLATES SLIDE PAST

EACH OTHER SIDEWAYS

I
GREAT OCEAN MDGE SYSTEMS ONLY EARTHAKES OCCUR

MAGE DESTRUCTIVE
CCONVERGENT

1T SOLIDIFIES And Forms New STRESS COMPRESSION

:

OCEANIC CRUST

OCEANIC CRUST DIVERGES GENTLY SLOPING AREAS OCEANIC PATE IS DESTROYA

DUE T& ARE FORMED

NEWLY FamED CONUECTION ANOCEANICPATE AND A

CreST CURRENTS CONTINENTAL PLATE

TWO OCEANIC PLATES OCEANIC PLATE IS DENSER TWO CONTINENTAL PLATES

THE FORCED BELOW THE

LONG is IT IS
CONTINENTAL PATE
EARTHQUAKES
CSUBDUCTIONS

I
&LEAN TRENCHES COMPRESSION OF PLATES
ARE FORMED

EARTQUAKES ISLAND ARC

VOCANOES FRICTION BETWEEN OCEANIC PATE MELTS FOlD MOUNTAINS

THE PATES PARTIALLY
CMAGMAS

EARTHqUAKES STRATOVOCANOES
VOLCANO IS A HOLE OR CRACK IN THE GROUND THROUGH WHICH GASES LAVA AND PUROCLASTIC MATERIAL ARE ERUPTED
,

WHAT COMES Out of A VOLCANO ?

SOLIDS GASES
COUROCLASTIC MATERIAL

ASH (24mm S1zE)

IN
HEAVIERMATEMAL
FOUND NEAR THE
Nitrogen
de Ye
VENT
FINE PARTICLES HELD
IN SUSPENSION IN AIR

LIQUIDS HYDROGEN HYDROGEN

SUIFIDE

Be

TYPES OF VOLCANO

SHIELD VOCANO GENTLE UPPER SLOPES STRATOVOLCANO

(39

FORM AT CONSTRUCTIVE
PLATEMARGINS (OCEANS)

STEEP LOWER SLOPES ALTERN ATIN G

(10%
↳Er
RISE FROM DEEP OCEAN LITTLE PUROCLASTIC MATERIAL
Fla Diese he See
GRCULAR SHAPE OVER WIDE ARE MADE BY THIN LAVA FLOWS STEEP SLOPES
AROUND A CENTRAL NARRWBASESAND
WENT

MADE BY RUNNY AVA (DARK , LoW HIGH VISCOSITY

SILICA CONTENT WITH LOW VISCOSITY LAUA (PALE HIGH SILIC
;
CONTENTS

TRAUELS LONG DISTANCES LAVA DOESN'T EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS

Flow FAR FROM WITH LONG DORMANT
THE UENT PERIODS
IT COOLS-DLESS RUNNY

LOWER SLOPES BECOME ERUPTIONS HAVE 2 PHASES

S1 EEPER

EXPLOSIVE PHASE CAPHASE

VENT UNBLOCKED & LAVA

P4O CASTIC MATERIAL
ER PTED
 FEATURES OF VOCANOES

CRATERS LAVA DOMES

URCULAR DEPRESSIONS e 1 km GROW ON STRATOUOCANOES'

↳ IAMETER FORMED BY EXPLOSIVE
.
SIDES THEY FORM FROM VISCOUS
.

EJECTION Of MATERIAL FROM CEN= LAVA

TRAL VENT

CALDERAS PARASITIC CONES

BIG CRATER FORMED WHEN A SMALL CONES THAT

VOLCANK CONE COMAPSES FORR ON THE SIDES
Onto A Parely Empty AGMA of BIG
VaCDNOES
CHAMBER AFTER A Powerful
.

THEY FORM WHEN THE

EMPTION MAIN VENT BECOMES

BOCKEDAre

THE DANGERS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS WHAT CAN BE DONE TO REDUCE THE RISK ?

LAVA Flo HAZARD RAPPING

DIVERSION AND PLANNING

ASH FALLS LAVA FLOWS

PYROCLASTIC FLOWS TSUNAMIS MUDFLOW BARRIERS REMOTE SENSING

LATERAL BLASTS DOST-ERUPTION FAMINE

AND DISEASE

MUDFLOWS ACD RAIN BUILDING DESIGN VOLCANO MONITORING

(LAHARS]

VOLCANIC GASES

ADVANTAGES BROUGHT BY VOLCANDES

GEOTHERMAL POWER SUPPY GASES TO ATHOSPHERE

IN PAST

FERTILE SOILS MINERALS AND

MINING

CREATION O NEW TOURISM

LANDMASS

Ha VOLANOES Far
Es *
NIER MAGMA

DISSOLVED GASES (WATER

-EEP WITHIN THE EARTH
''s AS MAGMARISES BUBBLES ARE FORMED
MAGRA IS PRODUCED PRESSURE DECREASES UAPOR) TRU TO EsCAPE
SURROUNDINGS FROM MAGMA
GASE ESCAPE
EXPOSIVELY IN
VISCOUS MAGMA

ERUPTED LAUA PEROCASTIC MATERIAL

SOLIDIFIES IS FORMED Are Fees
Of THIS MATERIAL
EARTHAUAKE IS CAUSED BY A PLATE MOVEMENT

"STUc" IN ONE POSITION

PLATES ARE
Ener
STRESS AND PRESSURE
BUILD UP Enses we
Focus PolNt WITHIN THE EARTH WHERE THE EARTHQUAKE ORIGINATES .

EPICENTRE POINT ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE DIRECTLY ABOVE THE FOCUS

ASSESSING EARTHQUAKES

DAMAGE DEPENDS
&

MERCALLI SCALE RICHTER SCALE

ENERGY RELEASED Sala Or NOT S&lD

BEDROCK

quakes
12 POINTS SCALE 9 POINTS SCALE BUILDING BULLY O
LENERGY RELEASED) NOT TO WITHSTAND
LEFFECTS ON HUMANITYS
AREMORE DANGEROUSI THE EARTHAKE

Payin
AREA

TSUNAMI IS A GIANt OCEAN WAVE COR SERIES Or Waves) THAT IS GENERATED BY AN EARTHARAKE WHEN THERE IS DISPLACEMENT OF THE SEABED

WHEN IT GETS CLOSER TO THE COAST IT BECOMES SLOWER AND HIGHER

WHAT CAN BE DONE TO REDUCE THE MSK Of TSUNAMIS

MONITORING TO PREDICT BUILDING DESIGN

EARTHRAKES

TSUNARI WARNING HAZARD MAPPING

SYSTERS

EVACATION O EARTHAKE
PEOPLE DRILLS
 Chapter 4
RIVER PROCESSES

2ReSION
-
DEPOSITION

CORRASION CABRASIONS HYDRAULIC ACTION

SAND AND DEBBLES ARE WATER IS FORCED INTO LARGEST AND HEAVIEST LIGHTEST MATERIAL
DRAGGED ALONG THE RIVER CRACKS , BREAKING UP MATERIAL IS DEPOSITED IS DEPOSITED AT
BED WHEARING IT AWAY
, THE BANK OVER TIME FIRST LAST

ATTRITION SOLUTION

ROCKS AND STONES SOME ROCKS

HITEACH OTHER AND
I inter
Become see ene TRASPORTATION

SALTATION TRACTION

N B
. . TYPES Of SEDIMENTS SMALL STONES/PEBBLES LARGE STONES ARE
ARE PICKED AND DROPPED DRAGGCD ALONG
-
THE RIVER BED

BOULDERS MUD

PEBBLES SILT SUSPENSION SOLUTION

SAND TINU PARTICLES DISSOLVED CHEMICALS

ARE ARE GARRIED IN

SOLUTION

N . B BEDLAD IS THE HEAVIER MATERAL CARMED ALONG THE BOTTOM

. (DURING TRANSPORTATIONS

FACTORS AFFECTING THE Work CARRIED OUT BY A RIVER

UELOCITY of BEDROCK

,we
Of THE LOAD
VOLUME Of HARD ROCKS SOFTROCKS
RUNNING WATER
& VOLUME O
&AD
DIFFICUL IO EASILY ERODIBLE
ERODE

SOLUBLE ROCKS

WHY DEPOSITION HAPPENS DISSOLVED INTO

RIVER WATER

DECREASE IN RIVER FLOWS

INSIDE
GRADIENT
MoSbw
ENDS

DECREASE IN RIVER MEETING

DISCHARGE AS WATER SEA/LARE (DELTAS
DRAINS AFTER A HEAVY
RAIN

DISCHARGE IS THE VOLUME Of WATER FLOWING DOWN THE RIVER AT Any One TIME IT'S MEASURED In CUBICMETERS PER SECOND
.
("CUMECS")
 TUPES OF RIVER CHANNEL

STRAIGHT BRAIDED

MEANDERING

THE UPPER COURSE OF A RIVER

VERTICAL EROSION SIDEWAUS (LATERAL EROSION)

SOURCE INTERLOCKING SPURS

PLACE WHERE A WHERE THE UAUEY IS NARROW ,

RIVER STARTS THE RIVER FLOWS AROUND SPURS
Of LAND On EITHER SIDE OF THE
VALLEY

~-SHADED VALLEY RAPIDS

NARRow Valley Floor AN IRREGULAR SECTION

WITH STEEP SIDES OF THE RIVER WHERE RIVER
IS WHITE

BAND(S)

THE RIVER IS FORCED TO FORM WHERE WATER IS SHAUOw CausED

AND RIVER BED IS ROCKY AND BY
IRREGULAR

WATERFALL POTHOLES HARD

ROCK

IS WHERE THE RIVER ROUNDED HOLLOWS IN

Flows OVER A VERTICAL A ROCKY RIVER BED
Drop In ITS LONG PROFILE
(30am ACROSS)

FORMED BY STONES TRAPPED

IN HOLLOWS & THE RIVER BED

IT FORMS WHERE A HORIZONTAL ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Erin
TOURISM , HEP NAVIGATION WATER CURRENT ROTATE THE
STONES AROUND ED CORRASION

Soft Rock iS ERODED MORE QUICKLY

PLUNGE POOL IS FORMED

THE HARD ROCK CAN NO LONGER

BE SUPPORTED BY Soft ROCK

THE HARD ROCK LAYER COLLAPSES

AS THIS HAPPENS MANG TIMES ,

THE
WATE

A GORGE (A Dee, STEER-SIDED VAUEY)

IS FORMED WHERE THE WATERFALL ONCE
ST0
 THE MIDDLE AND LOWER COURSES OF A RIVER

LATERAL EROSION> VERTICAL EROSION

MEANDERS DELTA

THEY'RE SWEEPING BENDS IT'S An Area of Low-LYING,

IN A RIVER FORMED By FLAT , MARSHY LAND WHERE
EROSION AND DEPOSITION THE RIVER MEETS THE SEA &R
LAKE

WATER FLOWS IN CORKSCREW THEY FORM WHEN RIVER MEETS

PATTERN CHELICAL FLOW) STILL WATER AND LOSES ENERGY

FLOODPLAIN LEUEES THE DEPOSITION Of LOAD FORMS

DELTA

SO THE WATER CUTS A BANK IT'S THE LAND NEXT TO THEY'RE RAISED BANKS AS DEPOSITION CONTINUES
Of THE RIVER TO FORM A RIVER & RIVER WHICH IS LIABLE ON EITHER SIDES OF A DISTRIBUTARES ARE
CLIFF TO FLOOD RIVER FLOWING ACROSS A FORMED
FLOPLAIN
(BRMISED
-1 DRAINAGE PATTERN)

THE HELICAL FLOW TRANSPORTS IT'S FORMED BY 3 TYPES THEY'RE FamED WHEN
PREVIOUS & DEPOSITION THERE'S A FLOD
SEDIMENTS FROM THE
BANK TO THE INNER BANK
[SLIP-OFF SLOPE) RIVER WATER LOSES
ENERGY

SLOWER-MOVING WATER DEPOSITION

DEPOSITS SEDIMENTS TO
FORM A POINT BAR
&F GRAVEL &
RIVER BED Post onere ziensze
NEAR THE CHANNEL
FODS

WHEN THERE'S A NARROW DEPOSITION Of BANKS BECOME HIGHER ALSO THE BED BECOMES
NECK BETWEEN 2 MEANDERS
,
THE NECK IS CUT BY RIVER WATER
In s
HIGHER WHEN RIVER
DEPOSITS MATEMAL FROM
ITS LAD On THE RIVER
TO STRENGHTEN NATURAL
end re
B
LEVEES ,

THE OLD MEANDER BECOMES

AN exBa LAKE

E ERBANKMENTS
ARE BUILT

THE LONG PROFILE OF A RIVER

 FLOODPLAINS AND DELTAS HAVE

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

FLAT LAND HEP

NATURAL ROUTE WAUS WATER SUPPLY DISEASES (INTROPICSS EROSION &N

OUTER BANKS DESTROYS
BUILDINGS , FARMS

MINERAL RICH AND FERTILE NAVIGATION SLEEPING RALARA

SOlL SICKNESS

LIABLE T&
FLOODING

FLOODING OCCURS WHEN THE DISCHARGE CAN NO LONGER BE CONTAINED WITHIN THE CHANNEL

FROM RAIN TO RIVER

FACTORS AFFECTING DISCHARGE

RAINFALL WEATHERCNDIONS

RELIEF Rock AND SokTupe

LAND USE
HYDROGRAPH IS A GRAPH THAT SHOWS HOW A RIVER RESPONDS TO A PARTICULAR STORM

IT SHOWS RAINFALL AND DISCHARGE

IT HAS RISING FALLING LIMB TO SHOW +-DISCHARGE

LAG TIME=GAP BETWEEN DEAR RAINFAU AND DEAR DISCHANGE

 MANAGING RIVER FLOODING AND ITS IMPACTS

PLANTING UEGETATION WASH LANDS AND

BUILDING PLANNING

Resenvolns BRIDGE DESIGN

STRAIGHTENING ARTIFICAL
THE CHANNEL LEVEES

DREDGING
THE CHANNEL

CAUSES OF RIVER EROSION

INCREASED DISCHARGE CHANNEL SHAPE

AND SIZE

SOFT ROCKS

PREVENTION OF EROSION

REINFORUNG SMALL DAMS

RIVER BANKS ON TRIBUTARIES

PLANTING UEGETATION
 Chapter 5
COASt IS A ZONE WHERE THE LAND MEETS THE SEA

COASTLINE IS THE OUTLINE OF THE EDGE OF THE LAND ON A MAP

IT FOLLOWS HIGH WATER MARK (LOWLAND COASTS) THE Foot

,
Of CLIFES (STEEPLY SLOPING COASTS)

TIDE IS A GENERAL (TO DIFFERCATE IT FROM THE WAVE) RISE AND FAU IN THE SEA SURFACE

HIGH TIDE HIGH WATER MARK

CWTIDE LOW WATER MARK

TIDAL RANGE= DIFFERENCE IN HEIGHT BETWEEN BETWEEN THE LOW-AND HIGH-TIDE LEVELS

IT CONTROLS HOW HIGH LOW WAVES CAN Work

SHORE IS THE AREA BETWEEN LOWEST TIDE LEVEL AND HIGHEST POINT REACHED BY STORM WAVES

WAVE IS THE RESULT OF THE FRICTION BETWEEN THE WIND AND THE SURFACE OF THE SEA

Wave SIZE DEPENDS an

WIND SPEED LENGHT OF TIME

FOR WHI CH WIND
B
se Sane
FETCH
CLEr GHT
UN Re
O

a waves
e

How Do WAVES Fan

WHEN WIND BLOWS OVER

n Yves an use
PARTICLES MOVE In A SWASH
SEA IT MOVES WATER PARTICLES VERTICAL GRCLE TO
,
form A WAU E THE Faware movemen
GRLLR MANNER of A Wavel

WAVE CREST WAVE TOUGH BACKWASH

CHIGHEST PART Of CLOWEST PART Of CTHE WATER IN A WAUE THAT
A WAUED A WAVE)
FlowS BACK TOWARDS THE SEA
AFTER THE SWASH HAS REACHED
ITS HEIGUEST POSITION

WAVE LENGHT IS THE DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO CONSECUTIVE WAVE CRESTS

WAVE HEIGHT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE HEIGHT Of A Wave CREST AND THE ADJACENT WAVE TROUGH

TYPES OF WAVES

CONSTRUCTIVE WAVES DESTRUCTIVE WAVES

CSPILLING WAVES) CPLUNGING WAVES)

BUILD UP 6-8 WAVES MIN REMOVE MATERIAL 10-15 WAVES

THE BEACH From BEACH MIN

SWASH> STRONG ↳W , FAR SWASH e STRONG BACKWASH STEEP , HIGH ,

BACKWASH FROM EACH CLOSE TO EACH
OTHER OTHER
 MARINE EROSION PROCESSES

CORRASION HYDRAULIC ACTION

SEDIENTS HIT THE WATER IS FORCED InTO

CLIFF WEARIN G It ROCK CRACKS
AWAY
ATTRITION CORROSION AIR IS COMPRESSED INSIDE

SEDIMENTS HIT SEAWATERDISSOLVES WHEN WAVE RETREATS , AIR

EACH OTHER BECOMING MATERIAL FROM ROCK BLASTS OUTDROCK BREAKS
Smaller And BOUNDED

TYPES Of SEDIMENT

BOULDER SAND

SHIGGLE

MARINE TRANSPORTATION PROCESSES

SALTATION TRACTION

LARGE DEBBLES ARE

e ROLED ALONG THE
SEABED

SUSPENSION SOLUTION

FINE SEDIMENT IS
CARRIED IN SUSPENSION MATsoven
WATER'S MLDDY MURKY
e
LONGSHORE DRIFT

IT'S THE MOVEMENT OF MATEMAL

THE MATERIAL IS MOVED FURTHER

Down THE COAST DEPLETING ITS ORIGINAL
BEACH , IF THERE'S NO REPLACEMENT

DISADVANTAGES

BEACH IS LESS CLIFFS LOSE PROTECTION

ATTRACTIVE FROM EROSION

NO TORISM

TO PREVENT LONGSHORE

DRI A
MARINE DEPOSITION

CONSTRUCTIVE WAVE'S MATERIAL IS DEPOSITED

SWASH

LIGHTEST HEAVIER
MATERIAL IS NEAR MATERIAL IS FURTHER
THE COAST Awa , Al THE UPPER LIMI
REACHED BY THE SWASH

SAND SHINGLE LARGESHINGLE BOULDERS

LANFORMS FORMED BY MARINE EROSION

CLIFF A LINE O WEARNESS

IN THE ROCK IS SUBJECT
TO HYDRAULIC ACTION AND
CORRASION
A UERTICAL Or NEARLY
VERTICAL ROCKUSLOPE

IT HAS AN ITS SLOPE ANGLE

INDENTATION DEPENDS ON ' z
(WAVE-CUT NOTCH) F THE HEAD LAND
&
AT HIGH TIDE LEVEL
NATURE AMOUNT AND
of Ro CK FEROCTY &
WAUE ATTACK

WAVEsecut IN DISCORDANT COASTS ASEROSION CONTINUES ,THE

CAVE IS COMPLETELY ERODED
THROUGH THE HEADLAND TO
FORM AN ARCH
C COLAPSES HARD ROCKS SOFT ROCKS
AND RETREATS

A WAVE-CUTPLATFORM HEAD LAND BA4 THE ROOF Of Arch IS T00

IS FORMED HEAVE CapSES
To form And
STACK
IT EXTENDS BETWEEN An AREA Of COASTLINE AN APPROXIMATEL SEMI-
LOW-WATER MARK AND
ar ENTATION
WHICH EXTENDS OUTWARDS In
THE CLIFFBASE AT HIGH
Hea
-

WATER MARK Two

PROJECTS ITS SIDES FORM A STACK TURNS INTO A
OUT INTO THE CLIFFS STUMD AS TIME PASSES
SEA

IT STOPES TOWARDS LENGTH > BREADTH IT HAS A WIDE , IT HAS THE CAND
THE SEA OPEN ENTRANCE B EHIND IT LOWER
FROM THE SEA THAN THE HEADLANDS
&N EITHER SIDE
N . B STUMPS ARE Onc VISIBLE AT Low TIDE
.

MANAGING THE IMPACT Of COSTAL EROSION

SOFT ENGINEERING HARD ENGINEERING

BEACH CLIFF DRAINAGE SEM WALLS GROYNES

NOURISMENT

PIPES REMOVE WATER GABIONS REUETMENT

On CLIFFS TO REDUCE
WEIGHT
RIP -
RAP BARRIERS I

TO BEACH

META LBASKETS SLOPING WAUS THAT ABSORB THE

FILLED WITH STONES ENERGY OF WAVES THEY'RE // T &
.

SEA

LARGE BOULDERS PLACED

Al BASE Of CLIFFS TO BREAK
WAVE ENERGY
 LANDFORMS Of COSTAL DEPOSITION

THE WATER BEHIND A BEACH SAND DUNES

SOIT IS Low-ENERGY ENVIRONMENT
INWHICH SMAUMUD PARTI GES
AN SETTLE IT'S A DEPOSIT Of SAND Or SHINGLE ARE RIDGES Of SAND WHICH
BETWEEN THE HIGHEST LEVEL REACHED FO AT THE BACK OF BEACHES
BY STORM WAVES And Low-WATER MARK AND ON SPITS .

SALT MARSHES MANGROVE

SWAMDS

SAND SHINGLE ONSHORE WIND MEET AN

&STACE

32'-38 WIDE TIDAL AREA GENTLE SLOPE ON STEEP SLOPE ON

LOWER PARIS HIGHER PARTS

wires seers
PROTECTION NO STRONG WAVES/ IT HAS SEDIMENTS TRANSPORTED
FROM HAZARDS TIDAL CURRENTS BY LONGSHORE DREET

-Y's
WHEN COAST CHANGES
DIRECTION

⑧
AERAL ROOTS HABITAT FOR WHEN DUNES ARE HIGHER
LATERAL SPREADING Crocodiles , Fro
Bless, O FURTHER
·
AWAY From SEA

Dogs
S SNAKES Fish
, .

MONKE es
·
-

SEDIMENTS ARE DEPOSITED

AND THIS BUILDS UP THE BEACH
Across A River Moti On BAY
THEY'RE COVERED WITH MARRAM
GRASS

·
-20 A SpIT IS Formed
· A COOLEST AND
WARMEST SEASON
=
5 IT'S A LONG, NARROW RIDGE Of IT HELS TO PROTECT THE DUNE
·
SEA SURFACE = 16 From EROSION THANKS TO
SANDISHINGLE EXTENDING Alt
BEND On A COASTLINE , POSSIBLY
PARTLY ACROSSABAY

IF IT DEVELOPS ACROSS IT BECOMES CURVED WHEN LONGROOTS LEAVES AND

A BAY It CAN REACH RIGHT ONSHORE WIND DIRECTION E STEMS
,
ACROSS THE OTHER SIDE PREUAILING WIND
THAT ANCHOR scow bown
THE SAND THE WIND

A LAGOON IS FarmED A BAR IS FORME If THE WIND BLOWS AGAIN WHEN MARRAM GRASS
IN ITS ORIGINAL DIRECTION THE DIES DUE TO TRAMPLING
,
SPIT HAS A HookED FORM

AREA of WATE ENCLOSED BY A BAR IT'S A RIDGE OF SAND O

SHINGLE THAT EXTENDS RIGHT
ACROSSA BAY

IF DEPOSITION BY RIVER CONTINUES A BLOWN-OUT IS LEET

iT BECOMES A MARSH BETWEEN THE DUNE

RIDGES

IT'S AN AREA OF WATER- IT'S A DEPRESSION ACROSS A

LOWIN GPLANTS WHICH IS DUNE WHERE SAND HAS BEEN
SWAMPB REMOVED BY WIND , LEAVING A
HOLLOW
SLACKS DEVELOP

THEY'RE DEPRESSIONS BETWEEN

SAND DUNES THAT S ELDOR CONTAIN
WATER

N B
. . COAST Offer MATEmAl For CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY COCRETE NANUFACTURE ROAD AGGREGATE
, ,
 CORAL REEFS

A Low , STONY MASS MADE Up of

THE CALCAREOUS SKELETONS
OF MILLIONS Of TINY POLYPS

30°N-30S WORMAL SALINITY

·
SEA TEMPERATURE IF SELAGE AND PROSPhaMaus
- 18° FROM FERTILISERS ENTER THEIR
·
MEAN TEMPERATURE AREA
O WATER AT SURFACE
22 -
25°C

THERE'S AN EXPLOSION O
CHROLN Of THORNS (STARFISH

· An'ere
VE
& ->

·
230mDEPTH
GROW THE BEST = 1Om
No En
BREAKING WAVES IT EATS CORALS
DEPTH

I/TO COAST BRT

Wor CONTINUOUS
AS THE NEED CLEAN
WATER .

CAN'T SURUIUE Al
RIVER MOCTHS

WATER HAS SEDIENTS

SEDIMENIS IN CAUSE CORRASION
SUSPENSION DURING STORMS
IF
SEDIRESSETTLES
LESS SUNLIGHT REEFS BREAK
DENETRATES &P
DOWN THE WATER

THEY CAN'T FEED

THEMSELVES

PLANKTON DIE

POLYPS DIE

CORALS-ALGAE "SUMBIOTIC" RELATIONSHIP

POLYPS

SUNLIGHT WASTE PRODUCTS

ALGAE

FOOD OXYGEN
 TYPES Of CORAL MEES

FRINGING REEE

IT GROWS UPLARDS
AND OUTWARDS

BARRIER REA

IF SEA LEVEL IF ISLAND BASE

RISES SINKS

ens
ATOLL

THE EFFECTS OF TROPICAL STORMS ON LOW SANDY COASTS

THEIR HEIGHN AFTER THE WATERS

RETREAT

ISLANDS AAN BE CUT

In SMALL PARIS BUY
SEAWATER
THEY MOVE IF WAVEEXEEDS
INLAND SAND DUNE

e SAND DUNE
SetWAR FE
·

DESTROKED
CARVED Ol
·
SAND DUNE HEIGHT SAND BURIES
INLAND AREAS
WEATHER IS THE STATE OF THE ATMOSPHERE AT A
Chapter 6
PARTICULAR TIME

ATMOSPHERE IS A MIXTURE O GASES THAT ENCIRCLES THE EARTH

TROPOSPHERE IS THE LWEST PART OF THE ATMOSPHERE (VERTICAL EXTENT :

8Km(POLES) 26km (EQUATOR) THIS IS THE ZONE OF WEATHER

TROPOPAUSE IS THE TB OF THE TROPOSPHERE

STRATOSPHERE IS THE LYER OF THE ATMOSPHERE ABOVE THE TROPOSPHERE

WEATHER

ELEMENTS EVENTS

MEASURED BY MEASURED BY SUCH AS

EYE INSTRUMENT

CORD COUD PRECIPITATION SUNSHINE DROUGHTS THUNDERSTORMS

TYPE ARONT

VISIBILITY , F0G , TEMPERATURE WIND DIRECTION TROPICAL

MiSt STOMS

HUMIDITY WIND SPEED

PRESSURE

PREGPITATION

TYPES INSTRUMENT

RAIN SLEET RAIN GAUGE

DRIZZLE HAIL SITE REQUIREMENTS HOW TO COUECT DATA

swaw READ Al SAME

TIE EVERYDAY
(9am)

sweetenes

pou WATER Fron

COLLECTING JAR TO THE
TAPERED MEASUMING
CYLINDER

PACE IT ON FAT
SURFACE

OPEN SPACE
CDISTANCE NEAREST OBJECT
-X 2 HEIGHT)
A TOO SMALL AMOUNT TAKE READING AT EYE

T LEVEL CLOWEST
PART Of MENIS(us)
AS TRACE
 CAIR) TEMPERATURE

IS THE DEGREE Of WARMTH In DEPENDS &N

THE AIR ATITUDE

INSTRUMENT

MINIMUM-MAXIMUM THERMOMETER

SITE REQUIREMENTS & COMBINED SEPARATE

OTHER INFO .
CSIX'S THERMOMETERI

REAT AT SARE PROTECT FROM

TIRE EVERY DIRECT SUNLGHT
DAY & OTHE HEAT SOURCES
Ceg . BUILDINGS THAT
GLASS TUBE WITH
RADIATE HEAT) ↑ ERCURY & Alona

READ AT EYE LEVEL BULBS MUST BE

FROM THE LOWER END 1 25m FROM
.

& EACK INDEX GROUND

TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE

ALCOHOL IN LEFT ARM ALCOHOL IN RIGHT ALCOHOL IN LEFTARM SOME ALLONel IN THE
EXPANDS ARM EVAPORATES CONTRACTS BULB TURNS BACK
IN SPACE BULB
UqUID

MERCURY IS PUSHED MERCURY MOVES UP

UP THE RIGHT ARM THE LEFT ARM

INDEX IS PUSHED TO
THE MAX TEMPERATURE
.
pussnerture -

SUNSHINE

INSTRUMENT

CAMPBEL-STOKES
SUNSHINE RECODER

REQUIREMENTS & GLASS SPHERE

EricSing
SITE Of
OTHER INFORMATION IOcm DIAMETER

OPEN SPACE WEAR SUNSHINE

WITH NO SHADE ISN'T RECORDED

IT CONCENTRATES A RECORDING CARD IS

THE SUN'S RAYS ON A PANT PLACED ON HOLDER

NORTHEN
S SOUTHERN INSERT AARD AND
& MISPHERE EMISPHERE LEAVE IT Fo A
CERTAIN TIME
FACES SOUTH FACES NORTH CARD BURNS

TROPICS
& CALCULATE THE HOURS

Ens
ONE FACES NORTH ONE FACEs Saute
 HUMIDITY

AMOUNT Of WATER UAPOUR

IN A GIVEN VOLUME OF AIR

IT DEPENDS ON TEMPERATURE WET- AND DRY-BULB

THERMOMETERS
CHYGROMETERS)
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE N

WET-BULB THERMOMETER DRY-BULB THERMOMETER

WATER EVAPORATES AIR CAN HOLD LESS

WATER VAPOUR

THE BULB IS IF AIR IS NOT ORDINARY THERMOMETER

WRAPP ED BY A SATURATED WHICH GIVES DIR TEMPERA=
FINE MUS LI N
TURE
CLOTH
HUMIDITY AIR REACIES ITS
DEW POINT
CSTATE OF SATURATIONS
A WICK LINKS WATER EUAPORATES
THE CLOTH TO THE FROM MUSLIN
CONTAINER OF WATER
DEWPOINT IS THE MAXIMUM IF TEMPERATURE DROPS
Amount of WATER VAPOUR MORE
THAT CAN BE HELD AT THAT
TEMPERATURE SO THE BULB IS BULB CONS
CONSTANTLY MOST

CONDENSATION

MERCURY CONTRACTS

AMOUNT Of WATER UAPOUR

RELATIVE HUMIDITY =

x 100
MAX AMOUNT O WATER
.

THAT CAN BE HELD

ST THAT TEMPERATURE
A LOWER TEMPERATURE
iS nEGSTERED

WET-BULB DEPRESSION =
WET-BULB TEMPERATURE-DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE

N B DEN
.
. POINT TEMPERATURE IS KNOWN

N B .
.
IF AIR IS SATURATED , BOTH THE THERMOMETERS SHOW THE SAME READINGS

N .
B .
RELATIVE HUMIDITT CAN BE FOUND USING A TABLE .

PRESSURE

THE WEIGHT OF THE

ATMOSPHERE AT ANY
PLACE

MEASURED IN ALTITUDE ANEROID BAROGRAPH

MILLIBARS BAROMETER

AVERAGE PRESSURE PRESSURE d INSIDE THERE'S

An SEALEVEL 1013mb A CORRUGATED
Bex

iF Pressure d
Box'S VOLUME
TYPES Of INDUSTRY

MANUFACTURING

PRODUCTION Of New
Case studies
Case studi es
The eldfell volcano, Iceland
ICELAND LIES ON MID-ALTANTIC RIDGE (CONSTRUCTIVE PATE MARGIN)

22102/1973 , 10PM WEAR EARTUQUAKES

23/01/1973 ,
29m VANIC ACTIVITY STARTED NEAR KIRKJUBAER, EASTERN AGE OF THE TOWN .
ELDFELL VOLCANO WAS
BEING FORMED

1600m LONG FISSURE

23/01/1973 ,
2 : 30 am FIRST FISHING BOAT LEFT FOR MAINLAND

22-23/02/1973 NIGHT 5000I WERE EVACUATED

BUILDINGS COLAPSE UNDER ASH & LAVA - 4 m THICK

LAVA SPEED 40m/h

25/03/1973, 221 HOUSES WERE BURED/BURNED

26/03/1973 ,
LAVA COOLING WAS SUCCESSFUL

03/07/1973 .
ERUPTION WAS OVER

·
EFFECTS

10 % ASH , PUMICE

MATERIALS ERUPTED 90 % LAVA

ElDFEL VICANO REACHED 225m Of HEIGHT

LAND AREA Of HEIMAEY +2 .

5km2(12km2 14 . Skm2)

113 HOUSES DESTROYE 1/3 HOUSES DAMAGED

;

BY 1975 ASH CLEANED Up - USED FOR CONSTRUCTION

3500 of 5300 ISLANDERS AME BACK

3000 LIVE THERE Now

The Haiti earthquake of 2010

HAITI WAS 245th of 169 COUNTMES ON UNI HDI

86% LIVE IN SLUMS

21 01 2010, 7 0 MAGNITUDE
. EARTHAUAKE OCCURRED 2SKm FROM PORT-AU-PRINCE (I3Km FOCUS DEPTH)

HAITi IS A PART OF AN ISLAND ARC (DESTRUCTIVE PLATE MARGIN WITH TWO OCEANIC PLATES)

·
EFFECTS

22000 I KILLED

300000 INJURED
 BUILDINGS DESTROYED

1 3 MILLION
.
HOMELESS

PORT DESTROYED AND ROADS BLOCKED

LOTING

2 MILLIONS WITH NO FOOD AND WATER .

THERE WAS NO ELECTMUTY

CHOLERA SPREADED At TEMPORARY CAMPS AFFECTING =200008 ,

of which 30008 DIED

·
RESPONSES

DIFFICULTIES IN AIDING THE COUNTRY

- USA SENT 10000 TROOPS AND POLICE

1 5
.
MILLIONS IN TEMPORARY CAMPS, 200008 MOVE TO LESS DAMAGED CITIES

BOTTLED WATER AND PURICATION KITS WERE PROVIDED

FIELD HOSPITALS WEE SET uP

5 YEARS After STILLI LIVE In TEMPORARY ACCOMODATION

HAITI RELIES ON OVERSEAS AID TO RECOVER