Handouts - History of Sufism in India and Pakistan

Handouts on History of Sufism in India and Pakistan
By Dr. Muhammad Naveed Akhtar
Handouts on
History Sufism in India and Pakistan
Prepared by
Dr. Muhammad Naveed Akhtar
Department of History and Political Science

Ghazi University, Dera Ghazi Khan
Sources
1. Ernst, Carl W. (2016). Sufism: An Introduction to the Mystical Tradition of Islam.
Shambhala Publications.
2. Schimmel, Annemarie. (1975). Mystical Dimensions of Islam. University of North
Carolina Press.
3. Ahmed, Shahab. (2006). Before Orthodoxy: The Satanic Verses in Early Islam. Harvard
University Press.
4. Rizvi, Saiyid Athar Abbas. (2008). A History of Sufism in India. Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers.
5. Kugle, Scott Alan. (2012). Sufis and Saints’ Bodies: Mysticism, Corporeality, and Sacred
Power in Islam. University of North Carolina Press.
6. “South Asian Sufis: Devotion, Deviation, and Destiny” (Special Issue, "Islamic Studies"
journal, 2012).
7. “Sufism in South Asia: Impact on Communities and Cultures” (Special Issue, "South Asian
Studies" journal, 2016).
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Contents
1. Mysticism and Mystical Experiences in Different Religions .............................................. 3
2. Sufism .................................................................................................................................. 5
3. Origin and History of Sufism ............................................................................................... 5
4. Philosophy, Traditions and Practice of Sufism .................................................................... 7
5. Mystical Stages in the Spiritual Journey of Sufis ................................................................ 8
6. Islamic Criticism on Sufism................................................................................................. 9
7. Islamic Justifications of Sufism ......................................................................................... 10
8. Early Sufis of Islam ........................................................................................................... 12
9. Sufi Tradition in South Asia .............................................................................................. 13
10. Orthodox and Liberal Sufi Traditions in South Asia ......................................................... 14
11. Sufis Relations with State and Society .............................................................................. 15
12. Philosophy of Wahdat ul Wajud and Wahdat us Shahud .................................................. 16
13. Major and Minor Sufi Orders in India and Pakistan .......................................................... 17
14. Philosophies of Major Sufi Orders in South Asia .............................................................. 19
15. History and Philosophy of Chishtiya Sufi Order in South Asia ........................................ 20
16. History and Philosophy of Suhrawardiya Sufi Order in India ........................................... 21
17. History and Philosophy of Naqshbandiya Sufi Order in India .......................................... 22
18. History and Philosophy of Qadariya Sufi Order in South Asia ......................................... 23
19. Modern Sufi Trends in Pakistan ........................................................................................ 24
20. Sufi Literature in South Asia ............................................................................................. 25
21. Sufi Poetry ......................................................................................................................... 28
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1. Mysticism and Mystical Experiences in Different Religions

Mysticism and mystical experiences are integral aspects of various religions and spiritual traditions
around the world. While the nature and practices associated with mysticism may differ from one
religion to another, they share common themes of seeking direct communion with the divine, a
deep inner journey, and a transformative spiritual experience. Here's a brief overview of mysticism
and mystical experiences in different religions:
1. Christian Mysticism:
 Christian mysticism emphasizes a personal and direct relationship with God
through prayer, meditation, and contemplation.
 Prominent Christian mystics include Teresa of Ávila, John of the Cross, and Julian
of Norwich, known for their writings on divine encounters and spiritual growth.
 The "Dark Night of the Soul" is a concept within Christian mysticism, describing a
period of spiritual desolation and purification before achieving union with God.
2. Jewish Mysticism (Kabbalah):
 Kabbalah is a form of Jewish mysticism that seeks to understand the hidden,
esoteric aspects of the Torah and the divine nature.
 Kabbalistic practices include meditation on the divine names, the Tree of Life, and
the study of Jewish mystical texts like the Zohar.
 The goal of Kabbalah is to achieve direct experience and union with God's
presence.
3. Islamic Mysticism (Sufism):
 Sufism, as mentioned earlier, is the mystical dimension of Islam. Sufis aim to attain
closeness to Allah through spiritual practices, inner purification, and devotion.
 Sufi mystics often speak of "annihilation in God" (fana) and "subsistence in God"
(baqa), signifying the merging of the individual soul with the Divine.
 Sufi poetry, particularly that of Rumi and Hafiz, expresses the profound love and
longing for God.
4. Buddhist Mysticism:
 In Buddhism, particularly in the Mahayana tradition, there's a focus on mystical
experiences associated with enlightenment and awakening.
 Zen Buddhism, for example, emphasizes direct insight into the nature of reality
through meditation and mindfulness practices.
 Tibetan Buddhism incorporates esoteric practices and rituals aimed at achieving
profound spiritual experiences.
5. Hindu Mysticism:
 Hinduism has a rich tradition of mysticism, with practices like yoga, meditation,
and devotion leading to profound spiritual experiences.
 Concepts like "samadhi" and "moksha" represent states of union with the divine or
liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
 Various Hindu sects, such as Advaita Vedanta and Bhakti, offer different paths to
mystical realization.
6. Native American and Indigenous Spirituality:
 Indigenous cultures worldwide have their own mystical traditions, often involving
rituals, ceremonies, and visionary experiences.
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 Shamanism is a common form of indigenous mysticism, where shamans or

medicine people enter altered states of consciousness to communicate with spirits
and receive guidance.
7. Taoist Mysticism:
 Taoism in China emphasizes harmony with the Tao, often through meditation and
qigong practices.
 Taoist mystics seek unity with the Tao, a concept that represents the fundamental,
unchanging source of everything.
Mystical experiences in these religions and spiritual traditions are highly diverse, reflecting the
unique beliefs, practices, and goals of each tradition. However, they all share a common thread of
seeking direct communion with the divine, transcending ordinary consciousness, and experiencing
a profound transformation of the self.
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2. Sufism
Sufism is a mystical and spiritual tradition within Islam that focuses on the inner, personal
experience of God and the pursuit of spiritual closeness to the Divine. Sufism is sometimes referred
to as Islamic mysticism or Islamic spirituality. It has a rich history and has had a profound influence
on Islamic culture, art, and philosophy.
Here are some key aspects of Sufism:
1. Mystical Experience: Sufism places a strong emphasis on the direct, personal experience
of God (Allah). Sufis believe that it is possible to have a direct and intimate connection
with the Divine through spiritual practices and inner devotion.
2. Spiritual Practices: Sufis engage in a variety of spiritual practices to attain spiritual
closeness to God. These practices often include dhikr (remembrance of God through
repetition of His names or phrases), meditation, fasting, and prayer. Sufi orders or tariqas
may have specific rituals and practices unique to their tradition.
3. Sufi Orders: Sufism is organized into various Sufi orders or tariqas, each with its own
spiritual lineage, teachings, and practices. Some of the well-known Sufi orders include the
Naqshbandi, Qadiri, Chishti, and Mevlevi (known for their whirling dervishes).
4. Love and Devotion: Love for God, often expressed in poetic and metaphorical language,
is a central theme in Sufism. Sufi poets like Rumi, Hafiz, and Attar are renowned for their
verses that speak of divine love and the soul's longing for union with the Beloved.
5. Sufi Poetry and Literature: Sufism has produced a rich body of poetry, literature, and
philosophical writings that explore the spiritual journey and the nature of divine reality.
The works of famous Sufi poets and writers continue to be widely read and appreciated.
6. Universal Brotherhood: Sufism emphasizes the unity of all human beings and the idea
that all individuals, regardless of their religious or cultural background, can seek and attain
spiritual truth and closeness to God.
7. Contemplative and Philosophical Aspects: Sufism has also contributed to Islamic
philosophy and theology, with thinkers like Ibn Arabi developing complex metaphysical
systems and concepts related to the nature of God and the soul.
8. Tolerance and Non-Violence: Sufism often promotes values of tolerance, non-violence,
and compassion. Many Sufi saints and leaders have played significant roles in promoting
peace and harmony.
It's important to note that Sufism is not a separate sect within Islam but rather a dimension of
Islamic practice and spirituality. While some scholars and theologians within mainstream Islam
have debated certain Sufi practices and beliefs, Sufism remains
3. Origin and History of Sufism

Sufism, also known as Islamic mysticism, has a long and complex history that evolved over
centuries within the broader context of Islam. Its origins are intertwined with the early
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development of Islamic spirituality and the quest for a deeper, more personal relationship with
God. The history of Sufism can be divided into several key phases:
1. Early Islamic Period (7th to 9th Centuries CE):
 Sufism's roots can be traced back to the early days of Islam, as Muslims sought to
understand and practice their faith in a more profound and experiential way.
 Ascetic and contemplative practices, such as retreats in the desert, meditation, and
intense devotion, were undertaken by early Muslims who aimed to purify their
hearts and draw closer to God.
 Figures like Hasan al-Basri and Rabia al-Basri are often cited as early examples
of individuals whose spiritual pursuits laid the groundwork for later Sufi
developments.
2. Formative Period (9th to 11th Centuries CE):
 The development of Sufism as a distinct mystical tradition began during this period.
 Sufi masters or spiritual guides, known as "shaykhs" or "pirs," started to emerge as
influential figures who imparted spiritual guidance to disciples.
 Early Sufi literature, such as the works of Al-Hallaj and Junayd of Baghdad,
began to articulate Sufi doctrines and practices.
3. Golden Age (12th to 15th Centuries CE):
 Sufism flourished during the medieval Islamic period, particularly during the height
of the Islamic Golden Age.
 Prominent Sufi orders or tariqas, such as the Qadiri, Chishti, Suhrawardi, and
Mevlevi, were established, each with its own distinctive teachings and practices.
 The poetry of Sufi luminaries like Rumi, Attar, and Ibn Arabi became renowned
for its expression of divine love and mysticism.
 Sufism gained acceptance and popularity among various social strata, including
rulers and scholars.
4. Challenges and Resurgence (16th to 18th Centuries CE):
 Sufism faced challenges during periods of political instability and reform
movements within the Islamic world. Some rulers and scholars viewed it with
suspicion.
 Despite these challenges, Sufism continued to thrive, and new Sufi orders emerged
in response to changing circumstances.
 Figures like Ahmad Sirhindi played a significant role in reinvigorating Sufism and
addressing perceived deviations from orthodox Islamic practice.
5. Colonial and Modern Period (19th Century Onward):
 Sufism adapted to the challenges of colonialism and modernity in the Islamic world.
 It experienced both revival and reform movements, with some Sufi orders
emphasizing traditional practices, while others adopted more contemporary
approaches.
 Sufism has continued to have a significant impact on Islamic culture, spirituality,
and the arts, and it remains influential in the lives of many Muslims worldwide.
Throughout its history, Sufism has been marked by a diversity of beliefs and practices, with
different Sufi orders emphasizing various aspects of mysticism and spiritual development. It has
also played a crucial role in shaping Islamic literature, art, and philosophy, and it continues to be
a source of inspiration for seekers of spiritual truth within and beyond the Islamic tradition.
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4. Philosophy, Traditions and Practice of Sufism

Sufism, the mystical and spiritual dimension of Islam, encompasses a rich philosophy, a variety of
traditions, and distinct practices aimed at achieving spiritual closeness to the Divine. While
Sufism's beliefs and practices can vary among different Sufi orders (tariqas), there are common
themes and principles that underpin Sufi philosophy, traditions, and practices:
1. Philosophy of Sufism:
 Divine Unity (Tawhid): Sufism emphasizes the fundamental Islamic belief in the absolute
oneness of God (Tawhid). Sufis seek to experience and internalize this unity through their
spiritual journey.
 Love and Devotion: Love for God (Ishq) is central to Sufi philosophy. Sufis believe that
love is the most potent force that drives the spiritual journey, leading to union with the
Divine.
 Annihilation and Subsistence (Fana and Baqa): Sufi philosophy includes the concept of
"fana" (annihilation), where the individual ego is transcended or dissolved in the Divine
Presence. After fana, there is "baqa" (subsistence), where the individual returns to the world
but with a heightened awareness of God's presence in all things.
 The Journey of the Soul: Sufism often portrays the soul's journey as a return to its origin,
which is God. This journey is marked by various stages, stations (maqamat), and states
(ahwal) of spiritual development.
 Mystical Paradoxes: Sufism frequently employs paradoxical language and metaphors to
convey mystical experiences and concepts that transcend ordinary understanding. These
paradoxes challenge conventional thought and invite contemplation.
2. Sufi Traditions:
 Sufi Orders (Tariqas): Sufism is organized into various Sufi orders or tariqas, each with
its own lineage, teachings, practices, and spiritual leaders (shaykhs or pirs). Some well-
known Sufi orders include the Naqshbandi, Qadiri, Chishti, and Mevlevi.
 Initiation and Spiritual Lineage: Aspiring Sufis often seek initiation (bay'ah) into a Sufi
order, where they receive guidance and instruction from a spiritual mentor. The
relationship between the teacher and the disciple is central to Sufi tradition.
 Dhikr (Remembrance): Dhikr is a central Sufi practice involving the repetitive recitation
of divine names, verses, or phrases. It serves to remember and invoke God's presence,
leading to a state of heightened awareness and devotion.
 Sama (Spiritual Music and Dance): The Mevlevi order is famous for its practice of
whirling dervishes, a form of Sufi dance and music. Sama is considered a spiritual practice
that induces a trance-like state and a sense of spiritual ecstasy.
 Zikr Gatherings: Sufis often gather in communal settings for zikr (remembrance) sessions,
where they engage in collective worship, chanting, and meditation.
3. Sufi Practices:
 Meditation and Contemplation: Sufis engage in meditation and contemplative practices
to explore the inner dimensions of their faith, often seeking direct experiences of God's
presence.
 Fasting and Austerity: Many Sufis practice fasting and asceticism as a means of purifying
the soul and detaching from worldly distractions.
 Charity and Service: Sufism places a strong emphasis on acts of charity and service to
others as expressions of divine love and compassion.
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 Sufi Poetry and Literature: Sufism has a rich tradition of poetry and literature, with poets
like Rumi, Hafiz, Attar, and Ibn Arabi composing verses that express mystical experiences,
divine love, and spiritual wisdom.
 Silence and Solitude: Some Sufis engage in prolonged periods of solitude and silence
(khalwa) as a means of deepening their spiritual connection.
Sufism is a multifaceted tradition with diverse interpretations and practices, and it has played a
significant role in shaping the spiritual landscape of the Islamic world. It continues to inspire
individuals in their quest for spiritual growth, inner transformation, and closeness to the Divine.
5. Mystical Stages in the Spiritual Journey of Sufis
Sufism, the mystical and spiritual dimension of Islam, emphasizes the inner journey of the soul
towards a direct and intimate connection with the Divine. It recognizes various spiritual stages or
levels of development that a Sufi practitioner may pass through on their path of spiritual
transformation. These stages are often described metaphorically and can vary between different
Sufi orders and traditions. Here is a general overview of the spiritual stages in Sufism:
1. Sharia (Islamic Law): The starting point of the Sufi path is adherence to Islamic law and
ethical principles (Sharia). Sufis believe that one must first establish a strong foundation in
religious duties, including prayer, fasting, and almsgiving, before delving into deeper
spiritual practices.
2. Tariqah (Path): This stage involves entering a Sufi order or tariqah, where an individual
seeks guidance from a spiritual teacher (sheikh or murshid). The teacher serves as a mentor
and helps the seeker progress on their spiritual journey.
3. Tawba (Repentance): Sufis emphasize the importance of repentance and seeking
forgiveness for past sins. It is considered a crucial step in purifying the heart and turning
towards God.
4. Tazkiyah (Purification of the Self): Tazkiyah is the process of purifying the self or the
ego (nafs). Sufis believe that the ego is a barrier to experiencing God's presence, and it
must be tamed and transformed through inner purification.
5. Waridat (Spiritual States): In this stage, Sufis may experience spiritual states or moments
of ecstasy (hal). These experiences are seen as gifts from God and provide glimpses of
Divine reality. However, Sufis are cautioned not to become attached to these states.
6. Maqam (Spiritual Stations): Maqamat are spiritual stations or milestones on the Sufi path.
They represent different levels of spiritual realization and are marked by increased
closeness to God, humility, and detachment from worldly concerns.
7. Fana (Annihilation): Fana is the concept of self-annihilation or egolessness. It refers to
the complete surrender of the individual's ego to God. Sufis aim to transcend their own
sense of self and merge with the Divine.
8. Baqa (Eternal Presence): Baqa follows Fana and represents the state of subsistence or
eternal presence with God. The Sufi retains a sense of individuality but is now rooted in
Divine consciousness, experiencing unity with God while still living in the world.
9. Haqiqa (Ultimate Reality): Haqiqa refers to the direct experience of Divine reality. Sufis
seek to know God through direct mystical experiences and revelations. It is considered the
highest stage of spiritual realization.
10. Marifa (Gnosis): Marifa is the experiential knowledge of God, often described as an
intimate knowledge that transcends mere intellectual understanding. Sufis at this stage have
deep insight into the Divine mysteries.
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11. Ishq (Divine Love): Divine love (ishq) is a driving force in Sufism. Sufis cultivate a
profound and passionate love for God, which fuels their spiritual journey and motivates
them to seek union with the Divine.
12. Wilaya (Saintly Status): In some Sufi traditions, individuals who have reached a high
level of spiritual realization may be recognized as saints (awliya) and serve as guides and
spiritual leaders for others.
It's important to note that these stages are not rigid or linear, and individuals may progress through
them at different rates or even revisit earlier stages. Sufi orders and teachers may have their own
interpretations of these stages and additional insights to offer. The ultimate goal of Sufism is to
attain closeness to God and experience Divine love and presence.
6. Islamic Criticism on Sufism
Sufism, the mystical and spiritual dimension of Islam, has faced criticism and debates within the
broader Islamic community throughout its history. While Sufism has many proponents and
adherents, there have also been various criticisms and concerns raised by different groups and
scholars within Islam. Here are some of the common criticisms directed at Sufism from within the
Islamic tradition:
1. Innovation (Bid'ah): One of the most prominent criticisms of Sufism is that some Sufi
practices and beliefs are seen as innovations (bid'ah) that were not practiced or taught by
the Prophet Muhammad or his companions. Critics argue that innovations in religious
practice can deviate from the pure teachings of Islam.
2. Excessive Mysticism: Some critics argue that Sufism places too much emphasis on
mystical experiences, such as visions, dreams, and ecstasies, which can be seen as a
distraction from the core religious obligations of Islamic law (Sharia).
3. Intermediaries: Sufism often involves the relationship between a spiritual guide (shaykh
or pir) and a disciple. Critics argue that this reliance on intermediaries can potentially lead
to a cult-like following, with followers attributing divine qualities to their spiritual guides.
4. Syncretism: Critics express concern that Sufism has sometimes incorporated elements
from pre-Islamic or non-Islamic traditions, leading to syncretism and compromising the
purity of Islamic belief and practice.
5. Lack of Scrutiny: Some argue that Sufi orders and practices are not subject to the same
level of rigorous scholarly scrutiny and oversight as other aspects of Islamic jurisprudence
and theology, potentially leading to deviations from orthodox beliefs and practices.
6. Escapism: Critics contend that Sufism's focus on seeking direct experiences of God can
lead to escapism, where individuals withdraw from their societal and community
responsibilities.
7. Aesthetic Practices: Certain Sufi practices, such as music, dance (sama), and elaborate
rituals, are criticized for their perceived extravagance and deviation from the simplicity of
early Islamic worship.
8. Exclusivity: Some Sufi groups may be seen as exclusive and elitist, creating divisions
within the Muslim community and fostering a sense of superiority among their followers.
9. Heterodoxy: In some cases, Sufi orders and individuals have been associated with beliefs
or practices that are considered heterodox or outside the bounds of mainstream Islamic
orthodoxy.
These criticisms are not universally held within the Islamic community, and many Muslims see
Sufism as a legitimate and valuable spiritual path within Islam. Additionally, Sufism itself is
diverse, with a wide range of beliefs and practices, and not all Sufi orders or individuals are subject
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to the same criticisms. Islamic scholars and theologians have engaged in ongoing debates about
the legitimacy and practices of Sufism throughout Islamic history. These debates continue to shape
the relationship between Sufism and mainstream Islamic thought in various ways.
7. Islamic Justifications of Sufism
Sufism, the mystical and spiritual dimension of Islam, has been the subject of various Islamic
justifications and arguments throughout history. While Sufism has faced occasional criticism and
debate within the broader Islamic community, there are also strong Islamic justifications for the
practice of Sufism. Here are some of the key Islamic justifications for Sufism:
1. Quranic References:
 Sufis often point to Quranic verses that emphasize the importance of drawing near to God
(Allah) and seeking His guidance and presence. Verses such as "So remember Me; I will
remember you" (Quran 2:152) are cited to support the idea of remembrance (dhikr) and
spiritual closeness to God.
Verse of Light (Ayat al-Nur):
 Sufis often refer to Ayat al-Nur (Quran 24:35) to highlight the concept of divine light and
illumination. The verse states: "Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The example
of His light is like a niche within which is a lamp, the lamp is within glass, the glass as if
it were a pearly [white] star lit from [the oil of] a blessed olive tree, neither of the east nor
of the west, whose oil would almost glow even if untouched by fire. Light upon light. Allah
guides to His light whom He wills."
 Sufis interpret this verse to symbolize the inner illumination of the heart by divine light,
suggesting that God's guidance and presence can be experienced within the heart of a
sincere seeker.
Verse of Remembrance (Ayat al-Dhikr):
 Sufis emphasize the practice of dhikr (remembrance of God) as a means of drawing closer
to Allah. They often cite verses like Quran 13:28, which states: “Those who have believed
and whose hearts are assured by the remembrance of Allah. Unquestionably, by the
remembrance of Allah, hearts are assured.”
 Sufis argue that engaging in dhikr helps purify the heart and brings about a sense of spiritual
tranquility and closeness to God.
Verse of Love for God (Ayat al-Mawadda):
 Sufis highlight the importance of love for God as an essential element of their spiritual
path. They reference verses like Quran 3:31-32, which states: “Say, [O Muhammad], 'If
you should love Allah, then follow me, [so] Allah will love you and forgive you your sins.
And Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.”
 Sufis argue that love for God and His Messenger leads to a deep and transformative
spiritual experience.
Verse of Nearness to God (Ayat al-Qurb):
 Sufis often refer to verses that emphasize God's nearness to His creation. Quran 50:16
states: “And We have already created man and know what his soul whispers to him, and
We are closer to him than [his] jugular vein.”
 Sufis interpret these verses to highlight the immanence of God and the possibility of a
close, personal relationship with the Divine.
Verses on the Spiritual Journey:
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 Sufis point to various Quranic stories, such as the story of Moses (Musa) and the burning
bush (Quran 20:9-14), as allegories for the spiritual journey of seeking closeness to God
and receiving divine guidance.
2. Hadith Tradition:
 Sufis frequently reference Hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad) that
encourage spiritual reflection, inner purification, and the importance of the heart. Hadith
such as "The believer's heart is the House of the Lord" highlight the significance of the
inner spiritual journey.
 Hadith of the Heart:
 Sufis often cite the Hadith that speaks of the heart as the "kingdom of God" within
the believer. The Prophet Muhammad is reported to have said, "In the body, there
is a piece of flesh; if it is sound, the whole body is sound, and if it is corrupt, the
whole body is corrupt. Verily, it is the heart."
 Sufis interpret this Hadith to underscore the importance of purifying the heart and
nurturing the spiritual aspect of one's being.
 Hadith on Spiritual Excellence (Ihsan):
 Sufis emphasize the Hadith of spiritual excellence (Ihsan) in which the Prophet
Muhammad described it as "worshipping God as if you see Him, and if you do not
see Him, He surely sees you."
 Sufis argue that their practices and teachings help individuals attain this state of
heightened consciousness and mindfulness of God's presence.
 Hadith of Inner Struggle (Jihad al-Nafs):
 Sufis draw on the concept of "Jihad al-Nafs," the struggle against the self, which
the Prophet Muhammad emphasized in Hadiths. For example, he said, “The most
excellent Jihad is that for the conquest of self.”
 Sufis interpret this Hadith to mean that the true battle is against one's own ego and
lower desires, which must be overcome on the path to spiritual growth.
 Hadith on Love for God and His Creation:
 Sufis highlight Hadiths that emphasize love and compassion for God and His
creation. The Prophet Muhammad is reported to have said, “None of you has faith
until you love for your brother what you love for yourself.”
 Sufis argue that cultivating love and compassion are central to their path of spiritual
realization and closeness to God.
 Hadith of the Night Journey (Isra and Mi'raj):
 The Prophet's miraculous night journey, known as the Isra and Mi'raj, is seen by
Sufis as an example of profound spiritual experience. They interpret it as an
allegory for the ascent of the soul and the seeker's journey toward God.
 Sufis argue that, like the Prophet's night journey, their own spiritual journey is a
transformative and mystical experience.
3. Ihsan (Spiritual Excellence):
 Sufism is often seen as a path to achieving ihsan, which is the highest level of faith and
spiritual excellence described by the Prophet Muhammad in the Hadith. Ihsan encompasses
worshiping God as if one sees Him or, if not, knowing that He sees the worshiper.
4. Tazkiyah (Purification of the Self):
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 Sufism emphasizes the purification of the self (nafs) as a central aspect of the spiritual
journey. This aligns with Islamic teachings that call for self-purification and self-
improvement. Sufis argue that their practices help individuals overcome ego and negative
traits.
5. Love for God:
 Sufis argue that their emphasis on love for God (ishq) aligns with the core Islamic value
of loving and worshiping Allah with devotion. They often cite the Prophet's saying, “None
of you truly believes until I am more beloved to him than his father, his child, and all
people.”
6. The Spiritual Path of the Prophets:
 Sufis believe that their practices and teachings are in continuity with the spiritual traditions
of the Prophets, including Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. They argue that the
Prophets themselves engaged in spiritual practices and sought communion with God.
7. The Example of Early Muslim Mystics:
 Sufis point to the examples of early Muslim mystics and ascetics, such as Hasan al-Basri
and Rabia al-Basri, who practiced deep devotion and spiritual reflection.
8. Contribution to Islamic Scholarship:
 Sufism has made significant contributions to Islamic philosophy, theology, and ethics. Sufi
scholars like Ibn Arabi and Al-Ghazali have explored profound metaphysical and ethical
questions within an Islamic framework.
9. Promoting Moral Values:
 Sufism emphasizes moral and ethical virtues such as humility, compassion, forgiveness,
and empathy, which align with Islamic teachings about character and conduct.
It's important to note that while there are strong Islamic justifications for Sufism, there have also
been historical debates and disagreements within the Islamic community regarding the legitimacy
and practices of Sufism. These debates often center on issues like the role of intermediaries
(spiritual guides), the use of rituals, and the potential for deviation from orthodox Islamic beliefs
and practices.
Overall, Sufism remains an integral and influential aspect of Islamic spirituality, with many
Muslims around the world embracing its teachings and practices as a means of drawing closer to
God and attaining spiritual realization.
8. Early Sufis of Islam
The early Sufis, also known as the "early mystics" or "early ascetics" of Islam, were individuals
who played a foundational role in the development and spread of Sufism as a distinct spiritual and
mystical movement within the broader Islamic tradition. These early Sufis were characterized by
their deep piety, ascetic practices, and a profound desire to draw closer to God. Here are some of
the notable early Sufis in the history of Islam:
1. Rabia al-Basri (717-801 CE):
 Rabia al-Basri, an early Sufi saint and poet, is often regarded as one of the most
influential women in Islamic mysticism. She is known for her intense devotion to
God and her emphasis on divine love. Her poetry expressed themes of longing for
union with God and the purification of the soul.
2. Hasan al-Basri (642-728 CE):
 Hasan al-Basri was a prominent early Sufi figure and ascetic known for his piety
and deep knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence and spirituality. He attracted many
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followers and was admired for his ethical teachings and emphasis on inner
purification.
3. Ibrahim ibn Adham (d. 777 CE):
 Ibrahim ibn Adham was a prince who renounced his throne and embraced a life of
asceticism and piety. He is known for his teachings on detachment from worldly
possessions and devotion to God.
4. Bishr al-Hafi (767-841 CE):
 Bishr al-Hafi, also known as Bishr the Barefoot, was a renowned early Sufi known
for his simplicity and humility. He emphasized repentance and turning away from
sinful behavior.
5. Sufyan al-Thawri (716-778 CE):
 Sufyan al-Thawri was a prominent jurist and theologian who also had a deep
interest in Sufism. He advocated for the inner dimension of faith and is known for
his contributions to early Islamic spirituality.
6. Junayd of Baghdad (835-910 CE):
 Junayd of Baghdad is often regarded as one of the early masters of Sufism and a
key figure in its development. He emphasized the importance of sincerity, love, and
divine knowledge on the Sufi path.
7. Mansur al-Hallaj (858-922 CE):
 Mansur al-Hallaj is a controversial figure in Sufi history. He is known for his
mystical poetry and his famous declaration, “I am the Truth” (Ana al-Haqq),
which led to his execution. His life and teachings continue to be subjects of debate
within Sufism.
These early Sufis laid the foundation for the development of Sufism as a spiritual and mystical
movement within Islam. Their emphasis on piety, inner purification, devotion, and love for God
helped shape the core principles and practices of Sufism. Over time, Sufism evolved, giving rise
to various Sufi orders, teachings, and spiritual practices that continue to influence the lives of many
Muslims around the world.
9. Sufi Tradition in South Asia
Sufi traditions have had a profound and enduring impact on South Asia, shaping its religious,
cultural, and social landscapes for centuries. South Asia, which includes countries like India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, and parts of Sri Lanka, has been a fertile ground for the development and
dissemination of Sufi thought and practices. Here are some key aspects of Sufi traditions in South
Asia:
1. Historical Development:
 Sufism was introduced to South Asia during the early centuries of Islam's spread in the
region. Sufi missionaries and mystics played a crucial role in spreading Islam and
establishing Sufi orders.
2. Syncretism and Integration:
 Sufism in South Asia is characterized by a remarkable degree of syncretism and integration
with indigenous religious and cultural traditions, including Hinduism and Sikhism.
 Sufi saints and dargahs (shrines) often became centers of communal harmony, where
people from various religious backgrounds came together to seek blessings and guidance.
3. Prominent Sufi Orders:
 Several Sufi orders established themselves in South Asia, each with its own distinct
practices and teachings. Some of the prominent ones include:
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 Chishti Order: The Chishti order, known for its emphasis on love and devotion,
played a significant role in South Asia. Prominent Chishti saints include
Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer and Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi.
 Qadiri Order: The Qadiri order also had a strong presence in the region, with
notable figures like Abdul Qadir Gilani.
 Suhrawardi Order: This order was influential in parts of South Asia, with spiritual
leaders like Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya in Multan.
 Naqshbandi Order: The Naqshbandi order gained popularity in South Asia as
well, promoting a more structured approach to Sufi practices.
4. Dargah Culture:
 Dargahs are shrines dedicated to Sufi saints and are scattered throughout South Asia. These
sites serve as places of pilgrimage and worship for devotees seeking spiritual blessings,
healing, and guidance.
 The annual Urs (death anniversary) of Sufi saints is celebrated with great fervor and attracts
thousands of visitors.
5. Sufi Poetry and Literature:
 South Asia has produced some of the most celebrated Sufi poets and writers, including
Rumi's disciple, Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi, whose poetry remains immensely popular.
 Other notable Sufi poets from the region include Amir Khusrow, Bulleh Shah, Kabir,
and Guru Nanak (founder of Sikhism).
6. Music and Qawwali:
 Qawwali, a form of devotional music rooted in Sufism, is a cherished tradition in South
Asia. Qawwali performances often take place at Sufi shrines and feature the use of
instruments like the tabla and harmonium.
 Legendary qawwals like Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan gained worldwide recognition for their
contributions to this genre.
7. Social Services and Community Building:
 Sufi orders in South Asia have historically been involved in various charitable and social
services, including running schools, orphanages, and dispensaries.
8. Influence on Other Religious Traditions:
 Sufi ideas and practices have had a significant impact on other religious traditions in South
Asia, including Sikhism, where Guru Nanak's teachings were influenced by Sufi thought.
Sufi traditions in South Asia continue to thrive and remain an integral part of the region's religious
and cultural fabric. They promote principles of love, tolerance, and spiritual connection, and their
impact on South Asian society transcends religious boundaries.
10. Orthodox and Liberal Sufi Traditions in South Asia
In India, as in many other regions, Sufism encompasses a wide spectrum of beliefs and practices.
Within the Sufi tradition, one can observe both liberal and orthodox tendencies. These tendencies
are characterized by their approaches to religious interpretation, rituals, and engagement with
society. Here is an overview of liberal and orthodox Sufi tendencies in India:
Liberal Sufi Tendencies:
1. Pluralism and Inclusivity: Liberal Sufis in India often emphasize the importance of
pluralism and inclusivity in religious thought. They are open to diverse interpretations of
Islam and are accepting of different religious beliefs and practices.
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2. Interfaith Dialogue: Liberal Sufis actively engage in interfaith dialogue and seek common
ground with followers of other religions. They promote religious tolerance and
understanding among diverse communities.
3. Spiritual Individualism: Liberal Sufis may place a strong emphasis on individual spiritual
experiences and personal journeys. They encourage seekers to explore their own paths to
the Divine, often with a focus on love and devotion.
4. Gender Equality: Many liberal Sufis advocate for gender equality within the Sufi
community and society at large. They challenge traditional gender roles and support
women's participation in spiritual and social activities.
5. Critical Thinking: Liberal Sufis often encourage critical thinking and the use of reason in
religious interpretation. They may question established religious norms and practices.
6. Social Engagement: Liberal Sufis are frequently involved in humanitarian and social
welfare activities. They view service to humanity as an essential aspect of their spiritual
practice.
Orthodox Sufi Tendencies:
1. Adherence to Tradition: Orthodox Sufis in India tend to adhere closely to traditional Sufi
practices, rituals, and interpretations of Islamic teachings. They prioritize the continuity of
established Sufi orders and practices.
2. Conservative Interpretations: Orthodox Sufis often adhere to conservative
interpretations of Islamic law and theology. They may be cautious about embracing
innovations or reinterpretations of religious texts.
3. Ritual Observance: Orthodox Sufis place a strong emphasis on the observance of
traditional Sufi rituals, such as dhikr (remembrance of God) and qawwali (Sufi devotional
music). These rituals are seen as integral to the Sufi path.
4. Hierarchical Structure: Traditional Sufi orders often have hierarchical structures with
clear lines of authority. Orthodox Sufis may place a strong emphasis on the authority of
their spiritual leaders (sheikhs or pir).
5. Community-Based: Orthodox Sufi practices are often community-based, with a focus on
congregational worship and communal gatherings. They may be less individualistic in their
approach to spirituality.
6. Preservation of Tradition: Orthodox Sufis see themselves as the custodians of Sufi
traditions and heritage. They emphasize the preservation of Sufi literature, teachings, and
practices as passed down through generations.
It's important to note that these categories are not rigid, and there is considerable overlap between
liberal and orthodox Sufi tendencies. Moreover, Sufi orders and individual Sufis in India may
exhibit a wide range of beliefs and practices, making the classification complex. Both liberal and
orthodox Sufis contribute to the rich tapestry of Sufism in India, each with its own unique approach
to spirituality and engagement with society.
11. Sufis Relations with State and Society
The relationship between Sufis (practitioners of Sufism) and the state, as well as their interactions
with broader society, has been complex and multifaceted throughout history. This relationship has
varied depending on the time period, geographic region, and the specific Sufi order or community
in question. Here are some general points regarding Sufis' relations with the state and society:
1. Independent Spiritual Path: Sufism, at its core, is a mystical and inward-focused spiritual
path. Sufis prioritize their personal relationship with God and seek to attain spiritual
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enlightenment. This focus on spirituality often places them somewhat apart from political and
worldly concerns.
2. Influence on Society: Despite their emphasis on the inner spiritual journey, Sufis have often
played significant roles in shaping the social and cultural fabric of their societies. Through their
teachings, Sufi orders have spread ethical and moral values, and they have been known for their
humanitarian efforts, such as providing education and assistance to the needy.
3. Sufi Orders and Leadership: Many Sufi orders have had hierarchical leadership structures
with spiritual guides (sheikhs or pirs) at the helm. These leaders have sometimes wielded
considerable influence within their communities and could have sway over local affairs.
4. Relations with Rulers: The relationship between Sufis and political rulers has varied over time.
In some periods and regions, Sufis and rulers maintained close ties, with Sufi leaders serving as
spiritual advisors to rulers. In other instances, Sufis have been critical of political leaders,
especially when they perceived injustice or corruption.
5. Political Activism: Certain Sufi orders or individuals have engaged in political activism when
they believed it aligned with their spiritual and ethical principles. For example, some Sufi leaders
have been involved in movements for social justice, human rights, and political reform.
6. Mystical Opposition to the State: Some Sufis have maintained a stance of mystic opposition
to the state, viewing political authority as a distraction from spiritual pursuits. They may have
advocated for a separation between the realms of religion and politics.
7. Sufi Shrines and Pilgrimage: Sufi shrines, often built around the tombs of revered Sufi saints,
have served as centers of devotion and pilgrimage. These shrines have been important in
connecting Sufis with the broader community and sometimes have become focal points for
religious and social gatherings.
8. Cultural and Artistic Contributions: Sufis have made significant contributions to the arts and
culture of their societies, including literature, music, and poetry. Sufi poetry, in particular, has had
a profound impact on literature in many Muslim-majority regions.
9. Persecution and Marginalization: Throughout history, Sufis and Sufi orders have faced
periods of persecution and marginalization by political authorities who viewed them as a potential
threat or heretical. These periods of suppression have varied in severity and duration.
In summary, Sufis have maintained a complex relationship with both the state and society, with
their role and influence evolving over time and across different regions. While they have often
prioritized their spiritual path, their teachings, practices, and social contributions have left a lasting
impact on the Muslim world and beyond.
12. Philosophy of Wahdat ul Wajud and Wahdat us Shahud
"Wahdat ul Wajud" and "Wahdat us Shahud" are two key philosophical concepts within Sufism
that pertain to the understanding of the relationship between God (the Divine) and the created
world. These concepts are often discussed in the context of Islamic mysticism and metaphysics.
Let's compare and contrast these two concepts:
Wahdat ul Wajud (Unity of Being):
1. Concept: Wahdat ul Wajud, which translates to the "Unity of Being" or "Oneness of
Existence," is a Sufi doctrine that suggests that there is only one true and ultimate reality,
and that is God. All of creation is an emanation or manifestation of God's essence.
2. Philosophical Underpinning: This concept is often associated with the teachings of Ibn
Arabi, a prominent Sufi philosopher. It is rooted in the idea that everything in existence is
a reflection of God's attributes and that there is no true existence apart from God.
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3. Implications: Wahdat ul Wajud emphasizes the absolute transcendence of God and the
idea that everything is essentially a part of the Divine. It leads to a sense of unity and the
dissolution of the self (annihilation) in God.
4. Relation to Creation: In Wahdat ul Wajud, the created world is seen as a mirror reflecting
the Divine attributes. All existence is ultimately a manifestation of God's reality, and
individual identities are considered illusory.
5. Key Phrase: "Ana al-Haqq" (I am the Truth) is often associated with Wahdat ul Wajud,
signifying the idea of the complete merging of the individual self with the Divine.
Wahdat us Shahud (Unity of Witnessing):
1. Concept: Wahdat us Shahud, which translates to the "Unity of Witnessing" or "Oneness
of Perception," is another Sufi perspective. It suggests that while God is the ultimate reality,
individual beings and the created world have a distinct existence and reality.
2. Philosophical Underpinning: This concept is often associated with the teachings of
Ahmad Sirhindi, a prominent Sufi figure in the Indian subcontinent. It asserts the real and
separate existence of created beings while acknowledging their dependence on God.
3. Implications: Wahdat us Shahud emphasizes the importance of recognizing the
individuality and diversity of creation. It underscores the idea that created beings have their
own unique existence and roles in the world.
4. Relation to Creation: In Wahdat us Shahud, the created world is seen as a real and distinct
realm with its own integrity. While God is the source and sustainer of all existence,
individual beings are seen as distinct entities.
5. Key Phrase: "La ilaha illallah" (There is no god but God) is a central concept in Wahdat
us Shahud, emphasizing the monotheistic belief while acknowledging the distinction
between God and creation.
Comparison:
 The key difference between these two concepts lies in the perception of the relationship
between God and creation. Wahdat ul Wajud asserts that everything is essentially an
emanation of God and emphasizes the unity of all existence, while Wahdat us Shahud
acknowledges the distinct reality of creation alongside its dependence on God.
 Wahdat ul Wajud tends to be associated with a more monistic and metaphysical approach,
while Wahdat us Shahud aligns with a more dualistic perspective that emphasizes the
multiplicity and individuality of created beings.
It's important to note that these concepts have been subjects of philosophical debate within Sufism,
and interpretations may vary among different Sufi orders and scholars. Both concepts reflect
profound attempts to understand the nature of reality, the relationship between God and creation,
and the spiritual journey toward the Divine.
13. Major and Minor Sufi Orders in India and Pakistan
Sufi orders, also known as Sufi tariqas, have played a significant role in the spiritual and cultural
life of India and Pakistan. These orders have diverse teachings, practices, and lineages. Here are
some of the major and minor Sufi orders that have had an influence in India and Pakistan:
Major Sufi Orders in India and Pakistan:
1. Chishti Order:
 The Chishti order is one of the most influential Sufi orders in the Indian
subcontinent, known for its emphasis on love, devotion, and spiritual
transcendence.
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 Prominent Chishti saints include Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, Nizamuddin Auliya

of Delhi, and Salim Chishti of Fatehpur Sikri.
2. Qadiri Order:
 The Qadiri order has a substantial presence in both India and Pakistan, with
numerous disciples and followers.
 It is associated with prominent figures such as Abdul Qadir Gilani and Data Ganj
Bakhsh in Pakistan.
3. Naqshbandi Order:
 The Naqshbandi order, known for its emphasis on disciplined spiritual practices
and inner purification, has a presence in both countries.
 Notable Indian Sufis from this order include Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi and Shah
Waliullah.
4. Suhrawardi Order:
 The Suhrawardi order has had a historical presence in parts of South Asia,
particularly in regions like Multan.
 Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya, a Suhrawardi Sufi, is highly revered in Multan,
Pakistan.
5. Mevlevi Order (Whirling Dervishes):
 The Mevlevi order, known for its distinctive whirling dance, has had followers in
India and Pakistan.
 While it is not as widespread as some other orders, it has had an impact on the Sufi
landscape in the region.
Minor Sufi Orders and Local Variations:
1. Sarwari Qadiri Order:
 A sub-branch of the Qadiri order, the Sarwari Qadiri order is known for its spiritual
practices and teachings.
 It has had a presence in various parts of India and Pakistan.
2. Firdausi Order:
 The Firdausi order is a Sufi order that traces its spiritual lineage back to the
renowned Persian poet Ferdowsi.
 It has had followers in parts of South Asia.
3. Silsila-e-Azeemia:
 The Silsila-e-Azeemia is a relatively modern Sufi order founded by Qalandar Baba
Auliya, with followers in both India and Pakistan.
 It combines elements of various Sufi traditions and emphasizes self-realization and
spiritual awakening.
4. Rifai Order:
 The Rifai order, originally founded in Iraq, has followers in parts of South Asia and
is known for its unique practices and rituals.
It's important to note that Sufi orders and their influence can vary widely by region and community.
Additionally, there are numerous local variations, sub-branches, and lesser-known orders that have
contributed to the rich tapestry of Sufi traditions in India and Pakistan. Sufism continues to be an
integral part of the spiritual and cultural heritage of these countries, attracting devotees and seekers
from diverse backgrounds.
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14. Philosophies of Major Sufi Orders in South Asia

The major Sufi orders in South Asia, such as the Chishti, Qadiri, Naqshbandi, and Suhrawardi
orders, each have their own unique philosophies and approaches to Sufism. While there can be
variations within each order, here are some of the key philosophies and characteristics associated
with these major Sufi orders in South Asia:
1. Chishti Order:
 Philosophy: The Chishti order is known for its philosophy of love, devotion (ishq), and
simplicity. It emphasizes the idea that the path to God can be attained through the heart,
and it encourages seekers to cultivate a deep, personal relationship with the Divine.
 Practices: Chishti Sufis often engage in practices of love and service, including charity,
feeding the hungry, and tending to the needs of others. They believe in the power of love
to transform the soul and remove the veils that separate it from God.
 Influence: Prominent Chishti saints like Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer and Nizamuddin
Auliya of Delhi have left a lasting impact on the subcontinent, promoting love, tolerance,
and inclusivity.
2. Qadiri Order:
 Philosophy: The Qadiri order places a strong emphasis on spiritual discipline and the
purification of the soul (tazkiyah). It encourages adherents to overcome their ego and
worldly attachments to draw closer to God.
 Practices: Qadiri Sufis often engage in dhikr (remembrance of God) and other forms of
spiritual exercises to achieve self-purification. The order also emphasizes following the
guidance of a spiritual teacher (shaykh).
 Influence: The Qadiri order has had a widespread presence in South Asia, and its teachings
have influenced many Sufi practitioners and spiritual leaders.
3. Naqshbandi Order:
 Philosophy: The Naqshbandi order is known for its emphasis on silent dhikr
(remembrance) and inner contemplation. It advocates maintaining a strong connection with
God while remaining actively engaged in the world.
 Practices: Naqshbandi Sufis often practice silent meditation and focus on the inner
journey. They believe in the transmission of spiritual blessings from teacher to disciple.
 Influence: The Naqshbandi order has attracted followers who seek a more structured and
disciplined approach to Sufism. Figures like Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, known as the
"Mujaddid" (reviver) of the 17th century, were influential Naqshbandi leaders in India.
4. Suhrawardi Order:
 Philosophy: The Suhrawardi order emphasizes both intellectual and spiritual pursuits. It
places importance on understanding the relationship between the individual soul and the
divine and explores metaphysical concepts.
 Practices: Suhrawardi Sufis engage in spiritual practices that encompass both
philosophical inquiry and meditation. They may study the works of their founder, Shahab
al-Din Suhrawardi, who integrated philosophy and mysticism.
 Influence: The Suhrawardi order has had a historical presence in South Asia, particularly
in Multan. Its teachings have appealed to those with an interest in intellectual and
philosophical aspects of Sufism.
These descriptions provide an overview of the philosophies and practices associated with the major
Sufi orders in South Asia. It's important to note that Sufism is a diverse tradition with a wide range
of interpretations and practices, and individual Sufi masters within each order may have their own
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unique insights and teachings. Sufi orders continue to be a source of spiritual guidance and
inspiration for countless seekers in the region.
15. History and Philosophy of Chishtiya Sufi Order in South Asia
The Chishtiyya Sufi order, also known as the Chishti order, has a rich history and a distinctive
philosophy that has played a significant role in shaping the spiritual and cultural landscape of India.
Here is an overview of the history and philosophy of the Chishtiyya Sufi order in India:
Historical Background:
 The Chishti order traces its lineage to the revered Sufi saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti,
who was born in Sistan, Persia, in 1141 CE. He is commonly known as Gharib Nawaz,
which means "Benefactor of the Poor."
 Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti came to India during the late 12th century and settled in Ajmer,
Rajasthan. His arrival marked the formal establishment of the Chishti order in India.
Philosophy and Teachings: The Chishtiyya Sufi order in India is characterized by several core
philosophical and spiritual principles:
1. Ishq (Divine Love): Central to Chishti philosophy is the concept of divine love (ishq).
Chishti Sufis believe that the path to God is paved with intense love and devotion. They
advocate loving God unconditionally and passionately, as exemplified by Khwaja
Moinuddin Chishti's famous saying, "Love all, serve all."
2. Simplicity and Poverty: Chishti Sufis emphasize a life of simplicity, humility, and
poverty. They believe that detachment from material possessions and worldly desires is
essential for spiritual growth. Chishti saints often led ascetic lives, living on the bare
minimum.
3. Inclusivity and Universal Love: The Chishti order is known for its message of inclusivity
and universal love. Chishti Sufis believe in the unity of all humanity and advocate for
tolerance and respect for people of all religious backgrounds. The Chishti shrines in India
are open to people of various faiths.
4. Sama (Spiritual Gatherings): Chishti Sufis hold gatherings known as sama, which
include the recitation of poetry, music, and dhikr (remembrance of God). These gatherings
are seen as a means of attaining spiritual ecstasy and closeness to God.
5. Spiritual Guidance: The Chishti order places great importance on the role of the spiritual
guide or teacher (shaykh or pir). Seekers are encouraged to seek the guidance and
mentorship of an experienced Sufi teacher to progress on their spiritual journey.
Prominent Chishti Saints in India:
 Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (Gharib Nawaz) of Ajmer: He is the founder and central
figure of the Chishti order in India. His shrine in Ajmer is a major pilgrimage site.
 Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi: He was a close disciple of Khwaja
Moinuddin Chishti and a highly revered Sufi saint in Delhi.
 Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi: Nizamuddin Auliya was a prominent Chishti Sufi
known for his piety, wisdom, and compassion. He is often referred to as Hazrat
Nizamuddin or Sultan-ul-Mashaikh.
The Chishtiyya Sufi order's philosophy of love, simplicity, and inclusivity has deeply influenced
the spiritual and cultural life of India. Its teachings continue to resonate with many people and
promote values of tolerance, compassion, and devotion to God. The Chishti shrines in India,
particularly the Ajmer Sharif Dargah, remain important centers of pilgrimage and spirituality.
The Chishtiyya Sufi order, also known simply as the Chishti order, is one of the most influential
and widely followed Sufi orders in India. It is known for its emphasis on love, devotion, and
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simplicity in seeking closeness to God. The Chishti order has played a significant role in shaping
the spiritual and cultural landscape of India. Here are some key aspects of the Chishtiyya Sufi
order in India:
1. Founding Saint:
 The Chishti order traces its lineage to the revered Sufi saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti
(also known as Gharib Nawaz) who is believed to have come to India from Persia in the
12th century.
 Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti settled in Ajmer, Rajasthan, and established the Chishti
order's spiritual center there.
2. Teachings and Philosophy:
 The Chishti order is known for its philosophy of love (ishq) and devotion to God (Allah).
It emphasizes the importance of a personal and intimate relationship with the Divine.
 Chishti Sufis believe that love for God is the most potent force that can lead individuals to
spiritual realization and union with the Divine.
3. Simplicity and Sufi Practices:
 Chishti Sufis often adopt a simple and austere lifestyle, focusing on humility, poverty, and
the renunciation of worldly attachments.
 Practices within the Chishti order include recitation of the Quran, dhikr (remembrance of
God), and gathering for spiritual gatherings (sama) that may involve music and poetry.
4. Universal Love and Inclusivity:
 Chishti Sufis are known for their universal love and inclusivity. They believe in the unity
of all humanity and often emphasize the idea that God's love is not restricted to any
particular group or sect.
 Chishti Sufi shrines, such as the one in Ajmer, attract people from various religious
backgrounds, including Hindus and Sikhs, who come seeking blessings and spiritual
guidance.
5. Ajmer Sharif Dargah:
 The shrine of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, known as the Ajmer Sharif Dargah, is
one of the most visited Sufi shrines in India. It is a place of pilgrimage for millions of
devotees from all over the world.
 The annual Urs (death anniversary) of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti is celebrated with great
enthusiasm and attracts large crowds.
6. Prominent Saints and Figures:
 In addition to Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, the Chishti order has produced many renowned
saints and spiritual leaders in India. Notable figures include Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiar
Kaki, Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi, and Sheikh Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari, among others.
7. Literary Contributions:
 Chishti Sufis have made significant contributions to Islamic literature, particularly in the
realm of poetry and mysticism. They have composed poetry that reflects their spiritual
experiences and devotion to God.
The Chishtiyya Sufi order has had a profound and enduring impact on the religious and cultural
fabric of India. Its teachings of love, devotion, and inclusivity continue to resonate with many
people, transcending religious boundaries and promoting harmony and spirituality.
16. History and Philosophy of Suhrawardiya Sufi Order in India
The Suhrawardiyya Sufi order, also known as the Suhrawardi order, is a Sufi tradition that has had
a historical presence in India. It was founded by the Persian Sufi saint, Sheikh Shihab al-Din Abu
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Hafs Umar al-Suhrawardi (1153-1234 CE), and is known for its emphasis on combining
elements of philosophy and mysticism. Here's an overview of the history and philosophy of the
Suhrawardiyya Sufi order in India:
 The Suhrawardi order was founded by Sheikh Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi, who was born
in Suhraward, Persia (modern-day Iran). He traveled extensively, including to India,
where he attracted followers and left an enduring legacy.
Philosophy and Teachings: The Suhrawardiyya Sufi order in India is characterized by several
key philosophical and spiritual principles:
1. Illumination (Ishraq): One of the distinguishing features of the Suhrawardi order is its
emphasis on "ishraq" or illumination. Sheikh Suhrawardi believed that true knowledge and
spiritual insight come through divine illumination. He integrated elements of philosophy,
particularly Neoplatonism, into Sufism to explain the process of spiritual enlightenment.
2. Mystical Experience: Suhrawardi Sufis believe in the importance of mystical experiences
and direct encounters with the Divine. They seek to attain a state of spiritual awakening
and communion with God through meditation, contemplation, and inner illumination.
3. Metaphysical Exploration: The Suhrawardi order places a strong emphasis on exploring
metaphysical and philosophical concepts as a means to better understand the nature of
reality and the relationship between the individual soul and the divine realm. This
intellectual approach distinguishes it from some other Sufi traditions.
4. Asceticism and Self-Purification: Suhrawardi Sufis also engage in ascetic practices and
self-purification to overcome the ego and worldly attachments. This process is seen as a
necessary step in the journey toward spiritual enlightenment.
Prominent Suhrawardi Saints in India:
 Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya: Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya, a Suhrawardi Sufi, is highly
revered in Multan, Pakistan. He played a significant role in spreading Sufism in the region
and was known for his teachings on illumination and spiritual awakening.
Contributions to Islamic Scholarship:
 The Suhrawardi order has made significant contributions to Islamic philosophy and
mysticism. Its emphasis on the integration of philosophical thought with mystical
experience has influenced the intellectual landscape of Islamic mysticism.
Historical Presence:
 The Suhrawardi order had a historical presence in parts of South Asia, particularly in
regions like Multan. Its teachings and practices left a lasting impact on the Sufi landscape
in the subcontinent.
While the Suhrawardiyya Sufi order is not as widespread or well-known as some other Sufi orders
in India, it has made important contributions to the spiritual and philosophical discourse within
Islamic mysticism. Its unique blend of mysticism and philosophy continues to be of interest to
those who seek a deeper understanding of the spiritual path in Islam.
17. History and Philosophy of Naqshbandiya Sufi Order in India
The Naqshbandiya Sufi order, also known as the Naqshbandi order, is one of the major Sufi orders
with a presence in India. It is known for its emphasis on silent dhikr (remembrance of God), inner
contemplation, and maintaining a strong connection with God while remaining actively engaged
in the world. Here's an overview of the history and philosophy of the Naqshbandiya Sufi order in
India:
22
 The Naqshbandi order was founded in Central Asia, and its name is derived from the
Persian word "naqsh" (engraving) and "band" (pattern), suggesting the idea of "the
engraver of patterns" or "pattern maker."
 The order was established by Sheikh Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari (1318-1389 CE)
in Bukhara, in present-day Uzbekistan. It was formally organized and systematized by his
successor, Sheikh Alauddin Attar (d. 1390 CE).
Philosophy and Teachings: The Naqshbandi Sufi order in India is characterized by several core
1. Silent Dhikr: The hallmark of the Naqshbandi order is silent dhikr, which involves the
inner repetition of specific names or phrases related to the attributes of God. The
Naqshbandi Sufis believe that this silent dhikr is a powerful means of purifying the heart
and drawing closer to God.
2. Observance of the Heart: Naqshbandi Sufis place great importance on observing and
purifying the heart. They believe that the heart is the center of spiritual consciousness and
that it must be kept pure and focused on God.
3. Transmission of Blessings: The Naqshbandi order places emphasis on the concept of
spiritual transmission (silsila), where blessings and spiritual guidance are passed down
from teacher (shaykh) to disciple. This transmission is believed to be essential for the
progress of the disciple on the Sufi path.
4. Engagement in the World: Unlike some other Sufi orders that advocate for withdrawal
from the world, Naqshbandi Sufis believe in remaining actively engaged in worldly affairs
while maintaining their spiritual practices. This approach is often referred to as "living in
the world but not of the world."
5. Tariqat (Path): Naqshbandi Sufis emphasize that their path is one of discipline, self-
purification, and strict adherence to Islamic law (Sharia). They believe that these aspects
are essential for spiritual progress.
Prominent Naqshbandi Saints in India:
 Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1564-1624 CE): Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, often referred to as
the "Mujaddid" (reviver) of the 17th century, is one of the most influential Naqshbandi
saints in India. He is known for his reformist ideas and efforts to purify Sufism from what
he perceived as deviant practices. His teachings had a significant impact on Islamic
spirituality in the subcontinent.
 The Naqshbandi order has contributed to Islamic scholarship, particularly in the areas of
spirituality, ethics, and jurisprudence. Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi's writings and teachings, in
particular, have been influential in shaping the spiritual landscape of India.
The Naqshbandiya Sufi order has had a lasting presence in India and has attracted followers who
seek a more structured and disciplined approach to Sufism. Its emphasis on silent contemplation,
the purification of the heart, and engagement with the world continue to resonate with many Sufi
practitioners in the subcontinent.
18. History and Philosophy of Qadariya Sufi Order in South Asia
The Qadiriyya Sufi order, also known as the Qadiri order, is one of the prominent Sufi orders in
India. Founded by the great Sufi saint, Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani (1077-1166 CE), it is known
for its emphasis on spirituality, piety, and devotion to God. Here's an overview of the history and
philosophy of the Qadiriyya Sufi order in India:
23
 The Qadiriyya order was founded by Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani, a revered Sufi saint and
scholar from Baghdad, Iraq. He is commonly referred to as "Ghous-ul-Azam" or "Al-
Ghazali of Baghdad."
 Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani's teachings and spiritual practices attracted a large following
during his lifetime and continue to influence Sufi thought and practice worldwide.
Philosophy and Teachings: The Qadiriyya Sufi order in India is characterized by several core
1. Strict Adherence to Sharia: Qadiri Sufis emphasize the importance of strict adherence to
Islamic law (Sharia). They believe that a strong foundation in religious observance is
essential for the spiritual journey.
2. Dhikr (Remembrance of God): Qadiri Sufis engage in various forms of dhikr, including
the repetition of divine names and phrases, to draw closer to God. Dhikr is considered a
means of purifying the heart and attaining spiritual awareness.
3. Following the Spiritual Guide: Qadiri Sufis place great importance on having a spiritual
guide (shaykh or pir) who can provide guidance and mentorship on the path to God. The
relationship between the disciple and the guide is crucial for spiritual progress.
4. Piety and Humility: Humility and piety are key virtues in Qadiri Sufism. Disciples are
encouraged to cultivate these qualities and to be of service to others.
5. Love for God: Like other Sufi orders, Qadiri Sufis emphasize the importance of love for
God (ishq) as a driving force in the spiritual journey. Love for the Divine is seen as
transformative and unifying.
Prominent Qadiri Saints in India:
 Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (Gharib Nawaz): While Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti is
primarily associated with the Chishti Sufi order, he also had a strong connection to the
Qadiri order. His teachings and spiritual practices incorporated elements of both orders,
making him a significant figure in Indian Sufism.
 The Qadiriyya Sufi order has contributed to Islamic scholarship, particularly in the areas
of mysticism, ethics, and theology. Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani's writings and teachings
continue to be studied and revered by Sufis and scholars alike.
The Qadiriyya Sufi order has had a presence in India for centuries and has attracted a diverse group
of followers who seek spiritual growth and closeness to God. Its emphasis on strict adherence to
Islamic principles, spiritual discipline, and devotion to God has resonated with many Sufi
practitioners in the Indian subcontinent.
19. Modern Sufi Trends in Pakistan
Modern Sufi trends in Pakistan reflect a dynamic and evolving landscape that continues to play a
significant role in the country's religious, cultural, and social fabric. While Sufism has deep
historical roots in Pakistan, it has adapted to contemporary realities and challenges. Here are some
modern Sufi trends in Pakistan:
1. Sufi Shrines and Pilgrimage:
 Sufi shrines continue to be important centers of devotion and pilgrimage in
Pakistan. Devotees from various regions and backgrounds visit these shrines to seek
blessings, guidance, and spiritual solace.
2. Sufi Music and Qawwali:
24
 Qawwali, a form of devotional music associated with Sufism, remains popular in

Pakistan. Contemporary qawwali performers, often referred to as qawwals, blend
traditional melodies with modern musical elements to appeal to a broader audience.
3. Sufi Festivals and Urs Celebrations:
 Annual Urs (death anniversary) celebrations of Sufi saints are vibrant events in
Pakistan. They include music, poetry, and spiritual gatherings where devotees come
to pay their respects and seek blessings.
4. Sufi Poetry and Literature:
 The poetry of Sufi saints like Baba Bulleh Shah, Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, and
Sachal Sarmast continues to be celebrated and recited in Pakistan. These verses
promote messages of love, unity, and spirituality.
5. Sufi Orders and Spiritual Guides:
 Various Sufi orders, such as the Chishti, Qadiri, Naqshbandi, and others, maintain
a presence in Pakistan. Spiritual guides (shaykhs or pirs) continue to play a role in
mentoring and guiding seekers on the Sufi path.
6. Social Welfare and Philanthropy:
 Some Sufi shrines and organizations in Pakistan are involved in social welfare
activities, including providing food, shelter, and healthcare to the needy. This
reflects an aspect of Sufism that emphasizes service to humanity.
7. Interfaith and Intersectarian Dialogue:
 In a diverse religious landscape like Pakistan's, Sufi leaders and organizations have
often played a role in promoting interfaith and inter-sectarian dialogue to foster
religious harmony and understanding.
8. Challenges and Critiques:
 Modern Sufi trends in Pakistan also face challenges, including commercialization,
political exploitation, and security concerns related to extremism. Some critics
argue that the commercialization of Sufi shrines and practices has diluted their
spiritual essence.
9. Contemporary Sufi Thought:
 Some contemporary Sufi scholars and thinkers in Pakistan are addressing pressing
issues, such as religious extremism, through the lens of Sufism. They emphasize
tolerance, love, and peaceful coexistence as antidotes to extremism.
10. Global Outreach:
 Pakistani Sufi musicians and qawwals have gained international recognition, and
their performances are enjoyed by audiences worldwide. This has contributed to
the global dissemination of Sufi music and culture.
In summary, modern Sufi trends in Pakistan are marked by a blend of tradition and adaptation to
contemporary challenges. Sufism continues to hold a significant place in the spiritual and cultural
life of Pakistan, providing a source of solace, unity, and a counter-narrative to extremism.
However, it also faces challenges in the changing social and political landscape of the country.
20. Sufi Literature in South Asia
Indian Sufis have produced a rich body of literature that reflects their spiritual insights, teachings,
and experiences. Here are ten notable books written by Indian Sufis:
1. "Fawa'id al-Fu'ad" by Amir Khusrau:
25
 Amir Khusrau, a celebrated Sufi poet and musician, wrote this work in Persian. It
contains mystical poetry and anecdotes reflecting his deep devotion to his Sufi
master, Nizamuddin Auliya.
2. "Anwar-e-Suhaili" by Suhrawardi:
 Sheikh Suhrawardi, a Sufi philosopher, is credited with writing this classic work
on ethics and guidance. It includes stories and parables that convey moral and
spiritual lessons.
3. "Risala-i-Raghib" by Shah Waliullah Dehlawi:
 Shah Waliullah Dehlawi, an influential Sufi and scholar, authored this treatise in
Arabic. It discusses various aspects of Islamic spirituality, theology, and ethics.
4. "Tadhkirat al-Auliya" by Fariduddin Attar:
 Originally written by the Persian Sufi Fariduddin Attar, this book has been
translated into various languages, including Urdu. It consists of biographical
accounts of Sufi saints and their teachings.
5. "Maqamat-e-Mazhari" by Shah Ismail Shahid:
 Shah Ismail Shahid was a prominent Indian Sufi who played a role in the revivalist
movement in the 19th century. "Maqamat-e-Mazhari" is a collection of his sermons
and teachings.
6. "Nasihat al-Muluk" by Ziauddin Barani:
 Ziauddin Barani, a medieval Indian Sufi and historian, authored this work in
Persian. It offers advice and counsel to rulers on governance and ethics.
7. "Tohfat al-Muluk" by Fakhr al-Din Iraqi:
 Fakhr al-Din Iraqi, a Persian Sufi poet who spent a considerable part of his life in
India, wrote this collection of mystical poetry that reflects the themes of divine love
and spiritual yearning.
8. "Maktubat-e-Sadi" by Sheikh Sharfuddin Yahya Maneri:
 Sheikh Sharfuddin Yahya Maneri, a 14th-century Indian Sufi, wrote a collection of
letters and spiritual advice known as "Maktubat-e-Sadi" (The Hundred Letters).
9. "Maktoobat" by Khwaja Mir Dard:
 Khwaja Mir Dard, an 18th-century Sufi poet and saint, wrote "Maktoobat"
(Letters), a collection of letters and spiritual guidance for his disciples and seekers.
10. "Maktubat-e-Imam Rabbani" by Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi:
 Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, also known as Imam Rabbani, was a prominent Qadiri Sufi
and a key figure in the history of Indian Sufism. His "Maktubat-e-Imam Rabbani"
consists of a collection of letters that provide spiritual guidance and insights into
his thoughts on Sufism and Islamic spirituality.
11. "Tuhfat al-Muridin" by Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi:
 This work by Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi offers practical advice and guidance for Sufi
aspirants and disciples. It emphasizes the importance of adhering to Islamic law
and ethical conduct on the spiritual path.
12. "Maktubat-e-Saleem" by Sheikh Saleem Chishti:
 Sheikh Saleem Chishti, a Qadiri Sufi saint in India, wrote "Maktubat-e-Saleem," a
collection of letters that provide spiritual guidance and insights into Sufi practices
and teachings.
13. "Awaarif al-Ma'arif" by Sheikh Shah Waliullah Dehlawi:
26
 Although Sheikh Shah Waliullah Dehlawi is not strictly a Qadiri Sufi, his work
"Awaarif al-Ma'arif" (The Subtleties of the Knowledge of Gnosis) is a significant
contribution to Islamic mysticism and spirituality. It delves into the inner
dimensions of Islamic practices and Sufi concepts.
14. "Kashkul" by Maulana Syed Muhammad Zauqi Shah:
 Maulana Syed Muhammad Zauqi Shah, a Qadiri Sufi saint in India, wrote
"Kashkul," a collection of poetry and prose that explores themes of love, devotion,
and mysticism.
15. "Maktubat-e-Maulana Muhammad Ghaus Gwaliori" by Maulana Muhammad Ghaus
Gwaliori:
 Maulana Muhammad Ghaus Gwaliori was a Qadiri Sufi scholar and poet known
for his spiritual writings. His "Maktubat" consists of letters and writings on Sufism
and Islamic spirituality.
16. "Jawahir al-Ma'ani" by Sheikh Sharfuddin Yahya Maneri:
 Sheikh Sharfuddin Yahya Maneri, a 14th-century Indian Sufi, wrote "Jawahir
al-Ma'ani" (The Jewels of Meanings), a work that contains spiritual teachings and
insights into the Sufi path.
17. "Majma-ul-Bahrain" (The Mingling of the Two Oceans):
 Dara Shikoh's most famous work, "Majma-ul-Bahrain," explores the connections
between Sufi Islam and Hindu Vedanta. In this Persian text, he seeks to bridge the
gap between these two traditions and find commonalities in their spiritual
teachings.
18. "Safinat al-Auliya" (The Ship of Saints):
 This Persian work by Dara Shikoh is a collection of biographical sketches and
anecdotes about Sufi saints and mystics. It reflects his deep appreciation for Sufi
spirituality.
19. "Hasanat al-Arifin" (The Good Deeds of the Mystic):
 Another Persian work, "Hasanat al-Arifin," delves into the lives and teachings of
Sufi saints, emphasizing their moral and ethical qualities.
20. "Sirr-i Akbar" (The Great Secret):
 Dara Shikoh's "Sirr-i Akbar" is a translation and commentary on the Upanishads,
the ancient Hindu philosophical texts. In this work, he explores the metaphysical
and spiritual insights found in these texts.
21. "Sarv-i Maktub" (Collected Letters):
 Dara Shikoh's collection of letters, known as "Sarv-i Maktub," contains his
correspondence with various scholars, mystics, and dignitaries. It provides insights
into his intellectual pursuits and engagement with diverse traditions.
22. "Tuzuk-i Dara Shikoh" (Memoirs of Dara Shikoh):
 Dara Shikoh's memoirs offer a glimpse into his life, his spiritual journey, and his
efforts to promote interfaith dialogue. They provide valuable historical and
autobiographical information.
23. "The Diwan of Khwaja Hafiz Shirazi" (Divan-e-Hafez):
 Khwaja Hafiz Shirazi, a revered Persian Sufi poet, is often associated with the
Chishti order. His collection of poetry, "Divan-e-Hafez," is celebrated for its themes
of love, mysticism, and devotion to the Divine.
27
24. "Kashf al-Mahjub" (The Unveiling of the Hidden) by Ali Hujwiri (Data Ganj
Bakhsh):
 Although Ali Hujwiri is primarily known as a Sufi from the Suhrawardi order, his
influential work "Kashf al-Mahjub" has played a significant role in the
development of Sufi thought in the Indian subcontinent, including Chishti Sufism.
25. "Fawaid al-Fu'ad" (The Benefits of the Heart) by Amir Khusrau:
 Amir Khusrau, a renowned Sufi poet and disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya, wrote
"Fawaid al-Fu'ad," a collection of mystical poetry that reflects themes of love,
unity, and spiritual devotion.
26. "Malfuzat" (Discourses) of Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya:
 Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya, one of the most influential Chishti Sufis in India, left
behind a collection of sayings and discourses known as "Malfuzat." These teachings
provide valuable insights into his spiritual guidance.
27. "Sarwari Qadri Book of Hazrat Sultan Bahu" (Abyat-e-Bahoo):
 Although Hazrat Sultan Bahu belonged to the Sarwari Qadri Sufi order, he is
often associated with the Chishti tradition as well. His mystical poetry and writings
emphasize divine love and spiritual union.
21. Sufi Poetry
Indian Sufi poets have made significant contributions to the world of poetry, blending mysticism,
love, and spirituality in their verses. Here are some notable books by Indian Sufi poets:
1. "Divan-e-Hafiz" by Khwaja Hafiz Shirazi:
 Although Hafiz Shirazi was Persian, his poetry has been widely appreciated in
India. "Divan-e-Hafiz" is a collection of his ghazals (love poems) and mystical
verses, which have been translated into various Indian languages.
2. "Rubaiyat-e-Amir Khusrau" by Amir Khusrau:
 Amir Khusrau, a prominent Sufi poet from the Indian subcontinent, wrote ghazals,
quatrains, and other forms of poetry. "Rubaiyat-e-Amir Khusrau" is a collection of
his quatrains.
3. "Sultan-ul-Tawarikh" by Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya:
 While not a book of poetry, "Sultan-ul-Tawarikh" is a historical work written by
the Chishti Sufi saint Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya. It contains valuable historical
and spiritual insights.
4. "Diwan-e-Nizamuddin Auliya" by Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya:
 This collection contains the poetry and verses attributed to Khwaja Nizamuddin
Auliya, offering insights into his spiritual teachings.
5. "Poetry of Bulleh Shah" by Bulleh Shah:
 Baba Bulleh Shah, a Punjabi Sufi poet, wrote poems and kafis (a form of Punjabi
poetry). Various collections and translations of his poetry are available.
6. "Risalo of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai" by Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai:
 Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, a Sufi poet from Sindh, Pakistan, is known for his poetic
work "Shah Jo Risalo" (The Message of the King). It is a collection of his poetry
in Sindhi, exploring themes of love, spirituality, and divine unity.
7. "Kalam Sultan Bahu" by Sultan Bahu:
 Sultan Bahu's poetry, written in Punjabi and Persian, is collected in various
volumes and reflects his profound mystical experiences and devotion to God.
8. "Kalam Sachal Sarmast" by Sachal Sarmast:
28
 Sachal Sarmast's Sindhi poetry, found in collections like "Risalo," emphasizes

themes of love, spirituality, and the search for the Divine.
9. "Kalam Shah Latif" by Shah Latif:
 Shah Latif's Sindhi poetry, found in collections like "Shah Jo Risalo," tells stories
of love, mysticism, and devotion to God.
10. "Kalam Shah Hussain" by Shah Hussain:
 Shah Hussain, a Punjabi Sufi poet, is known for his kafis and poems. Collections
of his poetry are available in various languages.
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Handouts - History of Sufism in India and Pakistan

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Handouts on History of Sufism in India and Pakistan

By Dr. Muhammad Naveed Akhtar

Department of History and Political Science

1. Mysticism and Mystical Experiences in Different Religions

 Shamanism is a common form of indigenous mysticism, where shamans or

3. Origin and History of Sufism

4. Philosophy, Traditions and Practice of Sufism

 Prominent Chishti saints include Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, Nizamuddin Auliya

14. Philosophies of Major Sufi Orders in South Asia

 Qawwali, a form of devotional music associated with Sufism, remains popular in

 Sachal Sarmast's Sindhi poetry, found in collections like "Risalo," emphasizes

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