Fundamental Theology

General Introduction

Introduction to Theology:

What is theology?
The word “theology” comes from the ancient Greek word ϑεολογία, which is formed
from the two words ϑεος and λογος. ϑεος means God and λογος means speech,
knowledge or science. Etymologically, ϑεολογία means God’s speech or speech from
God. It denotes not only the speech from God but also that which God has spoken,
revelation. Generally, it refers to every speech which has God as its object.
The word “theology” can therefore be defined as “teaching concerning God.” St.
Augustine defined theology as “rational speech or thinking about the divine”
(rationem sive sermonem de divinitate)1.

Categorisation of Theology
Theology is usually categorised according to the means of cognition into two types:
natural theology and supernatural theology. Natural theology, which was expounded
by Plato, is the rational inquiry and exposition (rational discourse) of truths concerning
God, in so far as God can be known by natural reason. It is part of philosophical
ontology, the culmination of philosophy. St. Augustine called it theologia naturalis.
Supernatural theology, on the other hand, is the scientific exposition of truths about
God under the light of divine revelation. Supernatural theology is today generally
known as theology.

Theology in Ancient Greece:

The word ‘theology’ (ϑεολογία) originated in ancient Greece as a concept that denoted
the cultic and religious talk about gods (or about the divine) which was found in the
form of worship and cult, the practice of mystical speech of gods and the divine, and in
religious works of literature (especially religious poetry). Hence, preachers in cult,
those who told stories about the gods and the poets who wrote and sang the praises of
the gods, were all called theologians. Hence, Homer, Hesiod and Orpheus were all
called theologians.
The original form of theology was the narrative, predicative and evocative teaching
about the divine. The original ancient Greek understanding of theology was not that of
a systematic reflected teaching about the divine, but a speaking of divinities in the
form of myths.
But as mythical religion began to recede, the first era of Enlightenment emerged in
ancient Greece (between the 6th and the 4th century B.C.). Rational thinking began to
replace mythical stories and to seek rational explanation for events and things.
Philosophy sought the origin of the world through human experience and rational
insight. A new form of reflected theology, according to the method of philosophers,
emerged. This new theology was in the form of rational (ordered according to human
reason) discourse. This was the emergence of Ontology and Philosophy of Religion.
1
Augustine, De civitate Dei, VIII, I).

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Generally, theologians recognise 3 types of theology in ancient times:
Mythical theology (theologia mythica): This was in form of myths about gods. These
myths were told by poets in theatres.
State theology (theologia civilis): This was the official cult of the divine. It is the
theology sanctioned (authorised) by the state.
Natural theology (theologia physica or theologia naturalis): This was a philosophical
inquiry into the truths about the divine. In actual fact, this was metaphysics.

Object of Theology:
Like every other discipline, theology has a material object and formal object. The
material object of a science or discipline refers to the diversity and multiplicity of
individual things that it considers. It refers to the subject matter of a particular science
or discipline. The material object of theology is, in the first place, God and secondly
created things under the aspect of their relation with God 2. St. Thomas Aquinas tells us
that, in theology, all things are considered under the aspect of God, either because they
are God Himself or because they refer to God as their beginning and end. 3 Hence, the
material object of theology includes all reality.
Every science or discipline has a particular identity or focus by which it is
distinguished from other sciences or disciplines. This identity comes from its focus on
one general or universal object, in the light of which everything else is considered (-
Lawrence Feingold). This limitation of focus of the science is called its formal object.
The formal object of a science or discipline is the perspective of the point of view from
which a discipline approaches it material object (- Prof. Okogbuo). The formal object
of theology is God known through revelation or reason. The formal object of natural
theology is God as he is known by natural reason from creation. The formal object of
supernatural theology is God, as he is known by faith from revelation.4

Differences Between Natural and Supernatural Theology:

The differences between natural and supernatural theology may be outlined as follows:
i) principle of cognition: natural theology uses unaided human reason (ratio naturalis)
whereas supernatural theology uses reason illuminated by faith (ratio fide illustrate).
ii) means of cognition: natural theology studies created things to arrive at the truths
about God whereas supernatural theology depends on divine revelation for knowledge
about God.
iii) formal objects; natural theology sees God as creator and Lord of the created world
whereas supernatural theology sees God in terms of the revealed Trinity.

Classification of Theology:
Theology has various divisions (branches) and subdivisions according to its various
functions:
Dogmatic Theology: this includes Fundamental Theology, Sacramentology,
Ecclesiology, Mariology, Eschatology,Christology, Pneumatology, etc.
Biblical-Historical Theology: Exegesis, Biblical Theology, Hermeneutics, Church
History, Patrology, etc.
2
Cf, Ott, Ludwig, Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, North Carolina: TAN Books, 1974, page 1
3
Aquinas, S. Th. 1, i, 7.
4
Cf, Augustine, De civitate Dei, VI, 5; Aquinas, S. Th. 1,, i ad 2.

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Practical Theology: Moral Theology, Church Law, Pastoral Theology (including
Catechesis and Homiletics).

Theology as a Science:
Theology is often denied the status of a science by many. This is because many people
equate science generally with the empirical sciences (such as the natural sciences)
whose measure of verification lies in empirical experimentation and repeatability. But
this is not the original understanding of the word ‘science’.
The concept of science and scientific knowledge originated from Aristotelian
philosophy. Aristotle saw science as the methodological inquiry into a defined subject
matter and the argumentative securing of relevant facts in the form of knowledge.
Aristotle believed that only absolutely certain provable knowledge is science, since
such shows the cause through which something is and that it cannot be different or act
differently. Knowledge is consequently a conviction resulting from necessary reasons
and which commands universal validity. Knowledge is insight into a state of affairs or
facts of a case. It is on the basis of sufficient reasons objectively accessible and
intersubjectively communicable. Science is based on proof in the form of a logical
deduction (syllogism) from true premises. It can prove that its results are really true. 5
Today, science is understood as a system of methodically worked out knowledge about
a unitary object.
In the course of the Middle Ages, scholars faced the question as to whether theology
can also be carried out like such a science. Some scholars like Peter Damiani denied
that theology can be carried out like a science. For him, the light of revelation
supercedes the rational activity and makes it superfluous. But most scholars affirmed
that theology can be carried out in a scientific way. This view became the generally
accepted view and thereafter only scientific theology was regarded as theology.
According to Thomas Aquinas, “…theology is a true science because it uses as
principles the securely founded basic truths of Divine Revelation and draws from these
new knowledge (theological conclusions) by a strict scientific method and unites the
whole in a closed system.”6 Indeed, theology has a unitary object, uses a methodical
process adapted to the object, and unites its results in a closed system. Thomas
Aquinas called theology “sacra scientia” (sacred science).
Some people, especially from the natural and social sciences, often deny the scientific
nature of theology on the basis that theology is based on divine revelation which gives
not proven but assumed facts. But as Ludwig Ott affirmed, the dependence of theology
upon divine authority and that of the Church does not derogate from its scientific
character.7

Theology as Secondary Science:

Now, Christian theology (supernatural theology) has the Christian faith as its point of
departure. Its point of departure is not rational knowledge but the self-revelation of
God which is not rationally self-evident to us. From this point of view, Thomas
Aquinas posited too that theology cannot be made totally a science like other sciences.
The self-revelation of God, which is available in the Christian faith, must always be a
5
Böttigheimer, Christoph, Lehrbuch der Fundamentaltheologie, Freiburg; Herder, 2016, 39.
6
Ott, Ludwig, Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, North Carolina: TAN Books, 1974, page 1
7
Ott, Ludwig, Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, North Carolina: TAN Books, 1974, page 2

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pre-condition for Christian theology. Faith is neither a work of pure human reason nor
can it reduced be to pure human reason. Theology, according to Thomas Aquinas, is
not to be understood as a purely rational science. It is rather to be understood as a
subordinate science (scientia subalternata). Theology is subordinate to the primary
science (protoe theologia) which is the knowledge possessed by God and the Blessed
from whose principles it proceeds.
This does not mean that theology is inferior to other sciences. On the contrary, Thomas
Aquinas maintained that theology transcends all other sciences because i) its object is
sublime, being supremely certain since it is based on the infallible knowledge of God,
ii) its practical purpose is the ultimate destination of mankind (eternal bliss). 8 St.
Anselm of Canterbury expressed it thus: “Fides quaerens intellectum” (faith seeking
understanding) and “Credo, ut inteligam” (I believe that I may understand). Richard of
St. Victor summarised it when he said “Let us endeavour so far as we can, to
understand that which we believe.”9

Theology Is a Science of Faith:

Theology is a science of faith (scientia fidei). Like faith it accepts Scripture and the
doctrines of the Church as its sources of knowledge. But as a science of faith, it seeks
to rationally (by human reason) penetrate supernatural truths and make this rationally
understandable. In theology, the Christian faith analyses itself rationally, presents the
rationality of its truths and makes these communicable. It is a science which proceeds
secundum revelationem.
St. Augustine expressed this thought in his famous words “Crede ut intelligas”
(Believe, that you may understand).10

Faith
Since theology is the science of faith and faith constitutes the point of departure for
theology, we shall now attempt to understand the meaning of faith.

Dimensions of the Concept of Faith:

The word ‘faith’ can be understood in various ways:
Conviction: Faith is commonly understood as holding an assertion as true. It simply
expresses a personal conviction. It can also express a provisional deficient form of
knowledge. In this form, faith can be understood as something between opinion and
knowledge, as possessing a status between supposition and the exact insight, an unsure
deficient conviction. Such is meant when one says ‘I believe Onitsha is bigger than
Aba.’ Here, the level of certainty is insufficient.
Trust: In common parlance too, faith means an act of trust which encompases the
whole person – mind, will and feeling.11 It is the kind of faith that is expressed when
one says ‘I believe in you’ or I believe you’. In this form, faith is related to a person. It
is an act of encounter and of trust. The form ‘I believe you’ entails some measure of
reservation. But the form ‘I believe in you’ is radical and comprehensive. The Latin
word ‘credere’ (from cor dare) expresses it succinctly. Credere means literally ‘to
8
Aquinas, Thomas, S. Th. 1,I, 5.
9
Richard of St. Victor, De Trinitate, Prologus
10
Augustine, Sermo, 43, 7, 9.
11
Cf, Böttigheimer, Christoph, Lehrbuch der Fundamentaltheologie, Freiburg; Herder, 2016 , 54.

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give one’s heart’, ‘to make a gift of one’s heart. Here faith is not an act between
impersonal entities but an act between I and you. It is a personal act.12
Faith as the Content of a Relationship: The knowledge of a person is dependent on
his/her voluntary self-revelation. I become part of the person’s self-revelation when I
believe him, when I believe in his person. The act of faith and the understanding in
faith that is opened correspond to the revelation of the person. Faith, in this form,
means participation in that which is communicated.

Faith as a Mode of Cognition:

Faith understood as a personal act, a relationship, is not only an act of encounter but
also an eminent mode of cognition.13 This is true especially for personal congition
(knowledge of a person). Faith understood as encounter, as a personal act, is the
manner in which I gain knowing access into the person of the other. Without faith the
other person remains shut off from me. “When I, in order to know the human being as
person, restrict myself to analysis, test and external observation ... I obtain a more or
less foreground knowledge of the person, a perhaps average or typical knowledge, or a
knowledge of certain qualities, abilities and modes of reaction, but in no way do I gain
a proper, individual knowledge. But this is what is needed for personal knowledge”: 14
A knowledge of the essence, the uniqueness, the depth of a person in its innermost self
is possible only when one can believe the person and believe in the person. Through
believing in the other, we become part of the voluntary self-revelation of the other and
thus gain access to the essence of the person. We then have communion with him and
participate in his life and in its self-appraisal. We, sought of, take the person over and
give ourselves to him. Through faith (I believe in you) a new way of seeing and
recognising emerges. I see with the eyes of the other. A sought of ‘with-one-another’
emerges in the realm of knowledge, a knowledge though communication.
When faith is understood in this way, it means knowing in the fullest meaning of the
word. It is no lesser kind of knowing than in the other sciences. Hence, the rejection of
faith is no liberation for knowledge but a loss of a good possibility for knowledge.15

Faith in the Scriptures:

In the Old Testament, faith is depicted by the word aman. aman means to keep oneself
steadfast on, hold oneself firm on, firmness, reliable, time-tasted. As Joseph Ratzinger
states, faith understood as aman includes the meanings truth, firmness, firm ground,
ground, loyalty, to trust, to entrust oneself, take one’s stand on something, believe in
something.16 aman depicts an inner process of stability or the taking of a posture of
trust or confidence. The Old Testamment depicts faith as the firm trust in the covenant
of God with his people Isreal, his salvific acts in the past, his faithfulness in the present
and God’s promises and guidance in the future. A classical example of such faith is the

12
Fries, Heinrich, Fundamental Theology(transl. by Robert J. Daly), Washington D.C.: Catholic University of
America Press, 1996, page 12.
13
Fries, Heinrich, Fundamental Theology(transl. by Robert J. Daly), Washington D.C.: Catholic University of
America Press, 1996, page 12.
14
Fries, Heinrich, Fundamental Theology (transl. by Robert J. Daly), Washington D.C.: Catholic University of
America Press, 1996, page 13.
15
Fries, Heinrich, Fundamental Theology (transl. by Robert J. Daly), Washington D.C.: Catholic University of
America Press, 1996, page 15.
16
Cf, Ratzinger, Joseph, Introduction to Christianity, San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2004, pg 69.

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faith of Abraham, who hoped against hope (cf Rom 4;18), obeyed God without
hesitation and believed God’s promises. His faith is understood as a binding of oneself
unto God.
In the New Testament, the word pistis (πίστις) is used to denote faith. πίστις means
trust, belief, convinction. Connected with faith are trust and hope, confidence, fidelity
(loyalty), obedience and knowledge. Since Jesus Christ is the centre of the New
Testament understanding of faith, the New Testament depicts faith as a binding of
oneself in God which is made concrete in the belief in Jesus Christ, the unique salvific
act of God. Faith here (New Testament) centres around the person of Jesus Christ. It is
focused not only on the message of Jesus Christ but on Jesus Christ himself as the
Lord. This is the faith which, according to St. Paul, justifies (cf Rom 1;17, 3;22,etc).
Such a faith commands moral action which, according to St. James, distinguishes
Christian faith from mere acceptance of a fact as true. Faith is, according to St. John, a
new foundation of existence founded in Jesus Christ (John 2;11, 3;16, 5;24, 6;35.47).

Theology and Prayers

St. Thomas Aquinas states that a good theologian must be a man of prayers. This is
because, to illuminate divine things, he has to experience them though intimate
contemplation. Unlike in material things which we see before we taste them, we have
to taste spiritual things before we can see them. 17 The Congregation for the Doctrine of
the Faith (CDF) also states that “the theologian is called to deepen his own life of faith
and continuously unite his scientific research with prayer. In this was he will become
more open to the ‘supernatural sense of faith’ upon which he depends.”18
Prayer is necessary for the enterprise of theology because theology needs living faith
to understand and penetrate revelation. Romano Guardini expresses this succinctly:
“… it means that the living act of faith and its concrete activity, in prayer and
Christian deeds, are together the methodological foundation of theological thought …
It is not at all accidental that the truly great theologians were saints – men of prayer.”19

Faith and Reason

Having seen that theology builds on faith, the question naturally arises as to
relationship between faith and reason. Do faith and reason exclude one another? Can
the contents of faith be considered rational? Is faith itself rational or only a blind
acceptance of propositions?
The Rationality of the Christian Faith:
Christianity has always been threatened by the danger and temptation to separate the
faith from reason. The result would be a blind, irrational faith not involving any kind
of understanding, or a faithless reason which qualifies faith as an attitude proper and
suitable for those who are unknowing and inarticulate, but not expected of those with
knowledge and understanding. From the New Testament times till the contemporary

17
Thomas Aquinas, In psalmos Davidis exposition, commentary on Ps 33(Marietti no. 9),
http.//www.corpusthomisticum.org/cps31.html. Quoted according to Feingold, Lawrence,
Faith Comes From What is Heard, USA: Emmaus Academic, 2016, 144.
18
CDF, Instruction on the Ecclesial Vocation of the Theologian, Donum Varitatis 8.
19
Guardini, Romano, Holy Scripture and the Science of Faith, in Letter and Spirit 6 (2010),
422

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time, Christianity has always rejected this dichotomy and affirmed the
interdependence of faith and reason, of theology and philosophy.

Biblical Foundations:
The rationality of the Christian faith is witnessed to in the New Testament. Although
St. Paul’s theology of the cross knew that the Gospel is foolishness in the eyes of the
wise (cf 1 Cor 1:18-3:4), leading him to condemn the arrogance of Athenian
philosophy and to turn away from the ‘wise’ Athenians and their philosophy, he knew
exactly, what human reason is capable of. In Rom 12:1 he writes “I urge you, then,
brothers, remembering the mercies of God, to offer your bodies as a living sacrifice,
dedicated and acceptable to God; that is the kind of worship for you, as sensible
people.” The original Greek word used here is , a derivative of  (reason,
understanding). For St. Paul, then, entrusting oneself to God is the logos-suited
(reasonable) form of worship. Accordingly, the Christian faith is, for him, rational
(reasonable, understandable by human reason). In Acts 26:25 he confirms this
expressly: “I am not mad; I am speaking words of sober truth and good sense.” St.
Paul even sees the defence (apologia) and establishment of the Gospel as his duty
(Phil 1:7.16). For him, the Christian hope is thoroughly reasonable (understandable).
That is why he used the theme of ‘reason’ and ‘understanding’ in connection with the
Christian faith quite often. He even abhorred unreasonable speech in worship and
would rather “say five words with my mind, to instruct others as well, than ten
thousand words in a tongue” (1 Cor 14:19).
St. Peter, too, was convinced of the rationality of the Christian faith: “Always have
answer ready for people who ask you the reason for the hope you have” (1 Pet 3:15b).
Noteworthy here is the conscious use of the word  (translated here as ‘reason’)
and apologia (answer). Believers have to argumentatively justify the  of their
Christian hope. They have to offer rational and convincing arguments in defence of the
faith to those who are outside the faith. This means that St. Peter believed that
Christian hope contains logos (reason) which the apologia (defence of faith) has only
to lay bare. The justification (substantiation) of the faith and the motivation for the
faith have to be rationally proven. But this does not mean that one should replace the
faith with rational proofs. Christian theology and the Teaching Office of the Church
have always rejected that.

Early Christian Apologetics

The word apologia ), from which the word apologetics is derived, denotes
the justification of the Christian faith, through the presentation of its credibility,
against accusations and against voices calling it into question. It refers to the
professional and systematic exposition of the truth of the Christian faith. In a strict
sense, it denotes the literary defence of the truths of the Christian faith against
accusations and against voices that deny them.
Except for the reports recorded in the New Testament, the time of the Apostles and of
the Apostolic Fathers saw little or no work of apologia. It was only at the beginning of
the 2nd century AD that the Church saw the need for a rational defence (apologia) of
the Christian faith before the world. Several theologians, known today as apologists,
rose up to offer literary defence of the faith against Hellenistic philosophy by using
natural theology to show the inner rationality of the faith. Among these apologists
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were; (from the Greek Church) Justin the Martyr († 165), Tertian († about 120),
Aristides von Athens (2nd century), Athanagoras of Athens (2nd half of the 2nd
century), Theophilus of Antioch († about 183), Clement of Alexandria (about 150 –
215), Origen (about 185 – 254), Eusebius of Caesarea († ). Others were (from the
Latin Church) Tertullian († about220), Lactanz († 325/330), Augustine of Hippo (†
430).
The occasions for these apologetics were mainly the disputes and conflicts with
Judaism, the defence against suspicions and defamations, protection against
persecution, and the repudiation of philosophical doubts, especially the accusation that
Christians are atheists. Reacting to the situation of their time, early apologists used the
philosophy of their time, the Middle Platonism (1st century BC – 2nd century AD) to
achieve an inviting presentation of the truths of Christianity and the argumentative
demonstration of the veracity of Christianity. In this connection, Jesus was identified
with the world-logos and the rationality of the Christian faith was seen as the only
sensible philosophy.
The apologia of the early Church really shaped later theology through its emphasis on
the rationality of the Christian faith. This interest in a theology that is guided by reason
was never given up.

Apologetic Models of High Scholasticism

The thinkers of the Middle Ages were mostly Christians who carried out philosophy in
the light of theology. They proceeded rationally and can be said, in this sense, to have
been philosophers. Since the Christian faith had, by this time, already become
generally accepted, their goal was no longer so much to prove the existence of God as
to show his essence.
Middle Ages was characterised by the contrast between Plato and Aristotle. Initially, it
was shaped by Platonism through the influence of St. Augustine. But through St.
Thomas Aquinas, Aristotelianism came to dominate scholastic thought.

Anselm of Canterbury:
Anselm of Canterbury, known as the father of scholasticism, is credited with
describing the theological enterprise as “fides quaerens intellectum” (faith seeking
understanding). According ot him, sin darkened the natural light of reason in man.
Accordingly, human reason is dependent on the light of faith, which sets autonomous
reason free, so that it can, without recourse to the authority of Scripture, set out, for
instance, the doctrine about God – including the doctrine about the Trinity and
anthropology. Anselm, therefore, presumed the priority of faith over reason.
The goal Anselm set for himself was to make the Christian faith plausible through a
strict logico-rational thinking. He wanted to explicate rationally the faith which comes
from revelation. It is a faith that seeks the insight of reason to justify itself. This
procedure has guided apologetics till today.
Anselm devoted his efforts to the rational justification of the truths of the Christian
faith including its foundations and assumptions. He sought a convincing proof of
God’s existence and the justification of other contents of the Christian faith without
reducing them to mere human reason.

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Thomas Aquinas:
Thomas Aquinas argued that supernatural truths cannot be proven by reason. Since
supernatural truths are not accessible to unaided human reason, they can only be
presented, elucidated and defended. Only through revelation can they be recognised as
true and accepted. From this conviction, Thomas set out to substantiate the faith from
the point of view of the so-called praembula fidei (preambles of faith) – existence of
God, immortality of the soul, the ethical necessity of man to worship God, etc.
Thomas Aquinas based his arguments not on the supernatural revelation but on the
natural reason which supports the credibility of revelation and of the faith.

Vatican I over the Rationality of the Christian Faith

Vatican I emphasized that the Christian faith is not a product of reason and can, hence,
not be reduced to reason. But the Council emphasized too that the faith is not shy of
scientific reasoning. The Council then mentioned 3 ways though which reason can
reach a deeper understanding of the faith:
i) analogia entis (analogy of being): correspondence between the objects of natural
knowledge and the content of faith.
ii) nexus mysteriorum inter se: the connection of the mysteries (content) of faith with
one another.
iii) ultimus finis hominis: the meaning of the mysteries of the faith in connection with
man’s ultimate end.20

The Encyclical ‘Fides et ratio’:

With the encyclical ‘fides et ratio’, Pope John Paul II addressed the issue of the
relationship between faith and reason, between theology and philosophy in matters
concerning truth. The pope noted that, in the contemporary age, there is a tendency to
separate faith from reason. The result of this tendency is a relativistic world view
which shoves faith into subjectivism or private sphere with the attendant exclusion
from the sphere of reason.
Pope John Paul II pointed out the interdependence of faith and reason: “Faith and
reason are like two wings on which the human spirit rises to the contemplation of
truth.”21 For this reason, he encouraged the dialogue between theology and philosophy.
But he was also aware that not every philosophy is compatible with the Christian faith.
He specifically mentions such philosophies which exclude the possibility of a
metaphysical reflection (positivism, materialism, scientism, nihilism) as incompatible
with the Christian faith. The faith, he said, needed a ratio recta as partner.
The encyclical posits the ability of the human reason to recognise God and the
fundamental truths about human existence. A faith which diverges from reason or
develops as alternative to it is not good enough. Faith, on the other hand, does not
endanger or threaten reason and freedom of human beings but secures them.

20
Cf DH 3016.
21
Encyclical ‚Fides et ratio‘, Introduction.

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 The Methods of Theology
Like every other science, theology has its own method of demonstration by
which it develops and grows in the understanding and explanation of the
faith. Theology cannot use the same method as the empirical science
because God cannot be observed in an experiment or be subject to
experiment. For the demonstration of God’s existence and his attributes,
philosophical methods are more appropriate. But since theology is based on
faith, it must have a method which is not only different from the empirical
science, but is also different from philosophy. Theology uses a method which
combines faith and philosophical reason to penetrate into God’s revelation. It
uses reason in order to think about what God has revealed.22

Theology makes use of rational arguments in a multiple of way in order to

penetrate the faith. These include, i) Arguments based on authority, ii)
philosophical demonstrations, iii) theological deduction, iv) and arguments
from fittingness.

3.1 Arguments Based on Authority (Positive Theology)

An argument based on authority does not show why (reason) an assertion is
true. It simply vouches for the truth of a statement because of the authority
of the one who affirms it without giving reasons for its veracity. For instance,
one can assert the existence of the Trinity, heaven or hell simply because
Jesus testified to them. We assert that Jesus is true God and true man on
the basis of Jesus' own testimony.

Theology must use arguments based on authority because its principles are
supernatural things that cannot be grasped by human reason but only by
relying on the authority of God who reveals them and on the authority of
those to whom revelation has been made.

In human sciences,23 arguments from authority are the weakest forms of

arguments, although they are useful for orienting neophytes in learning. But
in theology, arguments from authority have a different force than they have
in the empirical and philosophical sciences. This is because it is based on
the revelation God who can neither deceive nor be deceived. Hence, in
theology, the strongest argument one can made is argument based on
authority when the authority invoked is ultimately that of God himself. 24

Hence, one type of theological argument is to show the authority that stands
behind a particular assertion. Such an argument involves showing that a

22
Cf., Feingold, Lawsrence, Faith Comes From What is Heard, An Introduction to Fundamental
Theology, Ohio: Emmaus Academic, 2016, 149.
23
Social sciences refers to the study of human behaviour, culture and society as set apart
from the natural world. Human sciences include psychology, social and cultural
anthropology, economics, global politics, and geography.
24
Cf., Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae I, q. 1,a.8, obj.2.

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particular truth is contained in Scripture or Tradition or has been taught by
the Magisterium of the Church. For instance, a theologian may try to show
that a Church doctrine was already contained in Scripture or Tradition. In
the case of a truth that has not been definitively defined as Church doctrine,
a theologian may help the Magisterium to reach the certainty that the truth
is contained in the deposit of faith. Concerning this, Pope Pius XII says in
his encyclical Humani generis: "It is true that theologians must always
return to the source of divine revelation; for it belongs to them to point out
how the doctrine of the living Teaching Authority is to be found either
explicitly or implicitly in the Scriptures and in Tradition" (§21). This type of
theological investigation is called positive theology.

Arguments based on authority show that a thesis is true, but do not explain
it with regard to its cause or root, its relations with other truths, and its
purpose or finality. It shows that a thesis is true but does not show why the
thesis is true.

Theological Reasoning:
Whereas it is useful to show that a given thesis is true because it is taught
by Scripture, Tradition, or the Magisterium, it is necessary to show how and
why a given thesis is true and how it relates to other truths. In order to show
why a thesis is true and hence be able to demonstrate it, theological
reasoning is required. In theological reasoning, faith collaborates with reason
and employs reason in its service.25 Here the goal is not to establish a
conclusion by way of authority of God's revelation, but to penetrate that
revelation in an orderly way. For instance, if God reveals that He gives grace
to mankind, theology poses the questions as to what grace is, what are its
causes and purposes, and whether there are different kinds of grace and
how they differ. Theology thus inquires into their meaning, causes, essences,
distinctions, interrelations, consequences, and implications of what God
reveals. It shows the believer the reasons for each conclusion and how they
rest on revealed truths and valid universal principles, how they are related to
each other and to what we know by reason. This is called systematic
theology.

In theology, faith collaborates with reason in three different kinds of

theological argumentation: philosophical demonstration, theological
deduction and arguments from fittingness.

3.2 Philosophical Demonstrations Used in Theology

Thomas Aquinas distinguishes two types of truth that are revealed by God:
mysteries that are above the reach of reason and truths about God and man
that natural reason can discover. Philosophical arguments cannot be used to
prove or demonstrate mysteries, but they can be used to demonstrate truths

25
Cf., Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae 1, q.1, a. 8, ad 2.

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that also belong to the natural order. Examples of revealed truths that also
belong to the natural order (and can hence be demonstrated by philosophical
arguments) include God's existence, his attributes, creation ex nihilo, the
freedom of God in creating all things for his glory, the dependence of created
things on God, the goodness of the material world and of man, the spiritual
nature and immortality of the soul, the substantial union of our body and
soul, the freedom of the will, the dignity of the human person, the nature of
love and virtues, the existence of natural law, and the existence of truth
itself.

Philosophical arguments seek to purely rationally prove truths already

contained in revelation. As scripture attests: " … through the grandeur and
beauty of the creatures we may, by analogy, contemplate their Author" (Wisd
13:5). An example of the use of philosophical demonstration is theology are
the proofs of God's existences given by Thomas Aquinas (Quinque Viae) and
Anselm of Canterbury (cosmological argument or his argument from degrees
of goodness).

Philosophical demonstrations are used in theology for the following reasons:

i) it shows the reasons and causes of things and is hence more satisfying to
the human mind, ii) hence, it helps believers understand the harmony of
faith and reason, iii) since reason has a universal appeal, philosophical
reasoning is capable of teaching those who do not share the Christian faith
or those whose faith is shaky.

In the use of philosophical demonstrations in theology, the following have to

be borne in mind: i) false philosophy cannot be used in theology.
Philosophical arguments that are contrary to the faith are by that reason
shown to be false. ii) Since philosophical arguments are not always free from
error, they must be employed in theology with an awareness of their
limitations. iii) They should never be confused with revealed truths.

3.3 Theological Deduction

Philosophical arguments are suitable for demonstrating revealed truths that
are also accessible to human reason, but they cannot demonstrate
supernatural mysteries that are not accessible to human reason. Such
supernatural mysteries include man's elevation to a supernatural end, the
beatific vision, the Trinity, the Incarnation, the Redemption, sanctifying
grace, the theological virtues, the sacraments, the Church, and the
inspiration of scripture.26 Although such mysteries are not accessible to
human reason, it can help to understand such mysteries more deeply both
through theological deduction and arguments from fittingness.

26
Cf., Feingold, Lawsrence, Faith Comes From What is Heard, An Introduction to
Fundamental Theology, Ohio: Emmaus Academic, 2016, 149.

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In theological deduction, reason uses revealed truths as basis from which it
deduces other truths as corollaries (i.e. as natural and direct results of
revealed truths). That means, just like other sciences do not argue to prove
their principles (but presume their validity and hence argues out other
truths from them), so does this method not argue in order to prove its
principles, which are the articles of faith, but from them it goes on to prove
something else.27

An example of the use of theological deduction is contained in scripture (as

Thomas Aquinas pointed out – ST 1, q. 1, a.8). In 1 Cor 15 St. Paul argues
from the resurrection of Christ to prove general resurrection. Another
example is found in the teachings of early ecumenical councils on the
Blessed Trinity and Christological doctrines. Beginning from the faith that
Christ is true God and true man (which is found in scripture), these councils
deduced Trinitarian and Christological doctrines. From Christ's divinity, it
can be deduced that he is omnipotent, omniscient, supremely merciful,
supremely just, and consubstantial with the Father. Likewise, from his being
truly human, it can be deduced that he (Christ) has a rational soul with a
human intellect like ours, as well as a free human will (distinct from the
divine will) and human passions, although all this without sin.

Sometimes, the conclusions of theological deductions may also be contained

in revelation, e.g., Christ's free human will and general resurrection. The
former is known in scripture through Christ's prayer in Gethsemane and the
later is witnessed to in many places in scripture (2 Mac 12:43; Matt 22:23-
33; Jn 14:1-4; etc). Even in such cases, theological deduction is still useful
because it shows the connection and harmony between the mysteries
(supernatural truths) and shows also their hierarchy and necessity.

But sometimes, the conclusions of theological deductions are not revealed

directly. In this case, they are said to be virtually or implicitly contained in
revelation. Theological deduction then makes explicit what otherwise would
only be implicit in scripture.

3.4 Arguments from Fittingness

An argument from fittingness is a method of argumentation used to prove
the truth of revealed supernatural mysteries. By means of analogy, it shows
why a mystery makes sense and is worthy of God. In it, one looks at a
question by considering how a particular revealed doctrine fits in or
harmonizes with what we know or can know about God's nature and the
purpose in salvation history. Such an argument presupposes the conviction
that the wisest, most beautiful and harmonious plan or state of affairs is

27
Cf., Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae I, q. 1,a.8.

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most likely to be true and that God would chose the most beautiful plan of
salvation.28

Arguments from fittingness are not strict demonstrations, but means of

progressively gaining insight and conviction. They are directed primarily to
those who already believe because they presuppose faith and then seek to
penetrate into the reason for a doctrine. Such arguments are also examples
of faith seeking understanding. For example, reason alone cannot prove that
God can or did become incarnate. But once one believes this on the
authority of scripture, one can go on to ask why it is fitting that God has
become incarnate. Again, once one believes in the doctrine of the Trinity, one
can go on to ask why it is fitting that God should be a Trinity.

But arguments from fittingness can also be helpful to those who do not yet
believe but are inquiring into the faith and are looking for its harmony with
the eyes of reason alone. To such inquirers it must also be made clear that
arguments from fittingness are not put forward as sources of certainty in the
faith; lest they be strengthened in their unbelief by the weakness of the
argument.

Arguments from fittingness have their foundation in and are part of a wider
use of analogy29 in theology.

3.4.1 Analogical Use of Philosophical Principles in Theology

In analogical use of philosophical principles in theology, a philosophical
principle that is valid in the natural order is extended analogically to the
supernatural order. Here, a general principle of theology is used according to
which God, as the source of all good and all perfection, must possess
everything that we know to be good, but without limitation. In the use of
analogy in theology, two mysteries may also be compared and similarity
established between them.

An example is the development of the Trinitarian processions. In it,

Augustine and Thomas Aquinas sought to explain the procession of the
second and third persons of the Trinity by an analogy with the operations of
intellect and will of spiritual creatures. In human beings, the immanent
operation of knowledge produces an interior word, concept (an abstract
idea). Now, it is reasonable to think that the eternal operation of knowing in
God would be no less fruitful, and thus it should produce an interior word in
God, a perfect Word or Image of the Father (-the Son). Since God is simple,
everything that can be said to be in God is God. Hence, the Word of God is
28
The empirical science also use similar method to ascertain the probably of a theory. The
simplest and most elegant hypothesis is preferred even before decisive empirical observation
is capable of confirming it.
29
An analogy is a process of comparing one thing with another thing that has similar
features in order to explain it: a comparison of one thing with another thing that has similar
features.

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God and says everything that God is. Similarly, it is reasonable to think that
the eternal operation of love that is in God would also be fruitful, producing
an eternal gift of self which would ultimately also be God, for God is love.
The procession of love in God is the procession of the Holy Spirit.

Another example of analogical use of philosophical principles in theology is

taken from the notion of communion. Experience shows that a personal
being is one capable of and finds his perfection in knowing and loving. Love
is self-giving. God, who is pure act, must be infinite love and the highest
form of love. The highest form of love is love of benevolence, love of self-
giving (giving oneself to others). Such a love implies a plurality of persons.
Hence, if God were a solitary being, he would be deprived of a supreme
perfection of self-giving love in his own inner divine life or he would be
dependent on creatures to realize this activity of love. But such possibilities
seem incompatible with the perfection of God's nature.

3.4.2 Analogical Use of Philosophical Concepts in Theology

Theology also uses philosophical concepts to speak analogically about
supernatural mysteries. The First Council of Nicaea (325) used the
philosophical term consubstantial (homousios), a Greek word from the Greek
ousia (substance) to clarify the sense in which Christ's divinity is to be
understood and to exclude the Arian heresy. Similarly hypostasis (person)
was used to speak about the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

3.5 The Use of Analogies in Theology

We must always use analogy when we apply names to God, for we know
God through creatures and speak of God in human words, and yet He
infinitely surpasses all of them. Thomas Aquinas explains that nothing can
be properly predicated in a univocal sense of God and creatures. This is
because we know God though his work of creation, but his creatures fall
short of revealing the fullness of his power and being, for they are infinitely
less than their maker. This means that creatures truly reveal something
about God to us, but they fall infinitely short in making him known.

For example, creatures have power to do things according to their nature.

This tells us something about the power of God. However, the power of
creatures is limited and finite, whereas that of God is infinite. Creatures
have power but God is power. Similarly, rational creatures can have wisdom
that is limited and finite, but God is infinite wisdom. The same thing can be
said of other names of God.30

4. The Ecclesial Character of Theology

Theology is connected profoundly and vitally with the Church, her mystery,
her life and her mission. It is an ecclesial science. It is said to be ecclesial in
30
Cf., Thomas Aquina, Summa Theologiae I, q. 13, a. 5. See also Feingold, Lawrence, Faith
Comes From What is Heard, An Introduction to Fundamental Theology, Ohio: Emmaus
Academic, 2016, 168f.

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two senses: i) theology is ecclesial because its first principles are those of the
faith of the Church, ii) it is ecclesial because it is meant to aid the Church in
fulfilling the mission given her by Christ. The first principles of theology are
derived from scripture and tradition which are authentically interpreted and
defined by the magisterium of the Church. Thus, theology maintains its
foundational principles in their integrity only within the Church and loses
them through dissent and heresy. Hence, a theologian must always seek to
'think with the mind of the Church (sentire cum ecclesia). Theology may
occur outside the Church but only to the extent to which the revelation given
to the Church is conserved outside the boundaries of the Church. 31

iii) Theology is also an ecclesial science because its goal is to build up the
faith of the Church, which includes helping the magisterium to define and
teach the Catholic faith, aiding in evangelization, guiding the contemplation
of her members, assisting in building a Christian culture, and defending the
Church's faith from errors and attacks, whether from without or from within.

5. Academic Freedom and the Theologian

Every theologian has the freedom of inquiry guided by the demands of truth.
This academic freedom, however, must be accompanied by adherence to the
principles of theology which is revelation witnessed to by scripture, tradition
and the magisterium of the Church. To abandon these would amount to
abandoning theology.

31
Cf., Lumen Gentium, no. 8.

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