Archaeological Updated

SAPIENS IAS
ARCHEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
BY PRADIP SARKAR
ADDRESS: 17A/44,3rd FLOOR, W.E.A. KAROL BAGH NEW DELHI – 05

CONTACT NO: 8700922126, 9718354962
WEBSITE: www.sapiensias.in
INDEX
S.No. Name of The Topic Page No.
1
LOWER PALEOLITHIC CULTURE 1–4
2
MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC CULTURE 4–7
3
UPPER PALAEOLITHIC CULTURE 7–9
4
MESOLITHIC CULTURE 9 – 13
5
NEOLITHICAGE OR NEW STONE AGE 13 – 16
6
CHALCOLITHIC CULTURE 16 – 19
7
HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION (IVC) 19 – 24
8
IRON AGE 25 – 26
9
ETHNO-ARCHAEOLOGY 26 – 27
10
DATING METHODS 28 – 31
SAPIENS IAS: ARCHEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY BY PRADIP SARKAR
LOWER PALEOLITHIC CULTURE

The lower Paleolithic culture covers greater part of ice age. Characteristic tools
of this phase are chopper-chopping, hand axe and cleavers. The lower
Paleolithic culture is found throughout India except northern plains and Kerala.
Homo erectus was associated with this phase.
GEOLOGICALTIME SCALE AND CLIMATIC REGIME:
Indian lower Paleolithic ranges between 2,50,000 and 1,00,000 B.C. Climatic
regime of lower Paleolithic period is given below:
Give the table of climatic regime from class notes
TOOL: TECHNIQUES, TOOL TYPES AND TOOL MATERIALS:
TOOLTECHNIQUES: Lower Paleolithic tool technologies evolved from

uncontrolled technologies to controlled technologies which are described
below:
1) UNCONTROLLED TECHNIQUES:
a) Direct percussion or stone hammer technique:
b) Anvil on anvil or block on anvil technique:
c) Cylinder hammer technique:
2) CONTROLLED TECHNIQUE: is further divided into simple controlled and

compound uncontrolled technique.
a) simple uncontrolled technique: step flaking technique: As follows

b) compound controlled technique: is of two types i) Clactonian technique
and ii) Levalloisian technique.
For diagrams of all the techniques vide class notes
1
Address: 17A/44,3rd Floor, W.E.A. Karol Bagh New Delhi– 05 / Contact No: 8700922126, 9718354962
TOOL TYPES:
Characteristic tool types are chopper-chopping, hand axe and cleavers. Tools
are multipurpose tools with emphasis on digging, piercing and skinning. Tools
are as follows:
Draw diagram of all the tools from class notes
TOOL MATERIALS: Quartz was primarily used as tool materials which were
very hard and solid.
REGIONAL VARIATIONS:
SOAN TRADITION:
Geographical distribution:
Potwar plateau is located between the river Indus and Jhelum, a stretch of
nearly 100 square kilometer is surrounded by four mountain ranges- the
Himalayan in the north, the Salt ranges in the south, Pirpanjal in the west and
an extension of Siwalik in the east.
The river Soan was flowing through this plateau and it is located in the peri-
glacial region pf the Himalayan glacial zone. Therefor it had been influenced
primarily by the climate of glaciation and inter-glaciation.
Peculiar Features:
De Terra and Patterson explored the region and this lower Paleolithic site can
be divided into four sub-phages with the following findings:
Draw the diagram of transverse section of Soan valley
PRE SOAN: Tools are made of split pebbles and flakes showing small platforms
and bulbs of percussion indicating that man had just started to know the art of
tool making. There was no secondary working except kolan site.
EARLY SOAN: It can be divided into a) Early Soan-A: tools are heavily patinated
and much rolled out b) Early Soan-B: though deeply patinated and quietly
unworn, hence quite recent. Early Soan-C: being less patinated and fairly fresh
2
hence the most recent. Tools in early Soan were mainly hand axes which are
characteristic pebble tools of this phase.
LATE SOAN: CHOPPER-CHOPPING COMPLEX: It is further divided into Group-

A: no flake tools, Group - B: flakes which are poorly prepared, Group-C: flakes
with extensive primary flaking.
EVOLVED SOAN: Characterized by mostly flakes with thinner, slender, and

more blade like tools. A few Mousterian flakes were also found.
Thus, the early Soan and late Soan belongs to the lower Paleolithic age while
the evolved Soan to the middle Paleolithic age.
BHIMBETKA:
This site is located in pluvial and inter-pluvial zone and the site comprising a
large number of rock shelters and caves in the bank of the river Narmada in the
Raisen district of MP. It was excavated by V. S Wakankar and V. N. Mishra. So
far 8 layers have been discovered as follows:
Draw the diagram of layers from class note
The ratio of cleavers and hand axes is 3:1, a peculiarity of this site. Absence of
chopper chopping and Abbevillian type isolates this from almost all the known
lower Paleolithic sites of India. In Hathnora, few km away from this site, a
Skeletal remains of Homo erectus was discovered and named after Narmada
man and this is the only skeletal remains from the lower Paleolithic site in India.
DIDWANA: It is laying west of the Aravalli at an elevation of 1000 ft. in the

ancient river bed in the region of Nagore district of Rajasthan. V.N. Mishra
explored this region and came out with the following findings:
Draw the diagram of layers from class note
Peculiarity of this site is choppers-chopping with massive hand axes prepared

only by stone hammer technique. These are found in high frequency.
3
KULIANA AND KAMARPARA: Located in the Mayurbhanj district of Orissa.

Among others, Valentine Ball surveyed the sites and came out with the
following findings.
Almost 50% of the tools described are chopper-chopping in type. In association

with this both Abbeville an and acheulian hand axes and cleavers of rich variety
are also found. These tools are very often seen with pebble butts.
PENNINSULAR OR MADRASIAN CULTURE- HAND AXE-CLEAVER CULTURE:

Out of all the sites, the most important is Kortalayar valley along the Kortalayar
River in Chengalpattu district of Tamil Nadu. Krishnaswami studied the site and
talked about the following remaining:
Draw the diagram of transverse section of Kortalayar river
No representative of upper Paleolithic age has been discovered. They used the
techniques which is very similar to the Vaal technique used in Africa.
SOCIO-CULTURAL FEATURES OF LOWER PALAEOLITHIC:
People were hunters and gathers. They usually hunted large game such as
elephant which is evident from the deposition of elephant bone in large amount.
They were nomad; having small population might have intra and inter group
cooperation which can be inferred from hunting of large animals. They might
have some sort of language as they hunted in group.
Thus, it can be said that lower Paleolithic culture in India was a late beginning
where as in other parts of the world e.g. Europe it was started in early
Pleistocene. Regional variations are due to differences in environmental
conditions, hence homogeneity.
4
MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC CULTURE

Lower Paleolithic gave way to middle Paleolithic all over the world including
India. Climate became extremely cold. Middle Paleolithic industry was based on
flakes prepared on Mousterian technique. Flakes are found in different parts of
India with regional variations. Neanderthal man was associated with this
phase.
GEOLOGICAL TIME PERIOD AND CLIMATIC REGIME: Middle Paleolithic

culture ranged between 1, 00, 000 and 40.000 B.C. in India. It had experienced
the following climatic regime:
Draw the table of climatic regime from the class note
TOOLS:
TECHNIQUES: MOUSTERIAN TECHNIQUE
It is much more advanced and more innovative on flakes than the earlier lower
Paleolithic ones. However, it does not mean that earlier techniques of lower
Paleolithic period completely disappeared e.g. Direct percussion, anvil on anvil
techniques etc.
Mousterian technique involves choosing a large flat surface. Small flakes are
removed around the flat surface of the core and continue until no more flakes
could be removed. These small flakes were used as tools.
TOOLTYPES: Characteristic tool types are as follows:
Draw the diagrams of tools from the class notes
TOOL MATERIALS: A striking feature of middle Paleolithic culture in India is

the change in raw materials for tool making. Earlier it was mainly quartzite,
now tools were made on flint, jasper and chalcedony to a lesser extent. This
shift is owing due to making smaller and lighter but sturdy tools.
5
NEVASA:
It includes not only the sites along the river Pravara at Nevasa in Maharashtra
but also Godavari in Karnataka Son, Burb along, Krishna and its tributaries. H.
D. Sankalia explored this site and came out with the following findings:
Draw the diagram of transverse section of Pravara river valley from class
note
It was a Levallois based industry. Tool types of Nevasa include scrapers, points
and a few blades like tools. Also, lower Paleolithic tools such as hand axe and
cleavers are found.
LUNI INDUSTRY:
It is located along the river Luni in Rajasthan explored by Mishra. Tool types
include convex and concavo- convex side scrapers, points of various types etc.
Besides, hand axes, cleavers and edged blades are also found. It has shown a
very high quantity of repeatedly reworked flakes.
ANDHRA SITES: KURNOOL, CHITOOR AND NALGONDA DISTRICTS
Located along the rivers of these districts. Explored by Cammiade. Materials

used was quartzite and show extensive use of cylinder hammer technique. Tool
types include several discs shaped or rounded scrapers, burins, elongated
blades and end scrapers. Levallois technique in these sites is not so frequent as
in Nevasa-Karnataka sites.
BHIMBETKA:
Raisen district of MP. It was excavated by V. S Wakankar and V. N. Mishra. So
far 8 layers have been discovered.
For making hand axes and cleavers, they used quartzite and for other tools
yellowish quartzite used. But only 100 km away from this site, an isolated site
6
Shivna along the Narmada valley a middle Paleolithic site appears to be

completely exotic because of complete change of raw materials.
EASTERN REGIONS:
Mahapatra has recorded middle Paleolithic sites from all most all the river
banks in Orissa. It has yielded middle Paleolithic industry in combination with
pebble choppers and blade core in abundance.
SOCIO-CULTURAL FEATURES OF MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC CULTURE:
Middle Paleolithic people were also hunters and gatherers like the preceding
phase. Main hunting animals were rein deer indicating a very cold temperature.
They were nomad maintain a small populations and stronger social networks
as they hunted with primitive technologies. They buried their dead bodies with
tools and implements suggest emerging rites and rituals.
From the above discussion, it can be pointed out that there were two types of
middle Paleolithic industries-one which had evolved from the preceding phase
of lower Paleolithic culture e.g., Nevasa, Bhimbetka etc., while others evolved
entirely on new sites e.g., Shivna etc. The latter had also used different raw
materials. From this some scholars suggest that perhaps we are dealing with
two kinds of people.
UPPER PALAEOLITHIC CULTURE

Upper Paleolithic was connected with last phase of ice age when climate
became relatively warmer. It makes the appearance of modern man, Homo
sapiens. Upper Paleolithic demonstrates a marked difference in tool
technologies, tool types and materials used. Moreover, artistic activities were
set in full swing in this phase.
GEOLOGICAL TIME PERIOD AND CLIMATIC REGIME:
Upper Paleolithic ranges between 40, 000 and 10, 000 B.C. Climatic pattern of
this phase is given below:
7
Note: draw the table of climatic regime of the lower Paleolithic and indicating
the time period i.e. 40, 000 to 10, 000 in the table.
TOOL: TECHNOLOGIES, TOOL TYPES AND TOOL MATERIALS:
TOOL TECHNIQUES: It was predominantly meant for blade technologies which

are described below:
TOOLT YPES: as follows
Draw the diagrams of all the tools from the class note
TOOL MATERIALS: Lithic and non-lithic materials both were used. Non-lithic
materials include bone, antlers, ivory, horns etc.
RENINGUNTA:
Murthy explored the Renigunta site in Chittoor district of AP. It is entirely based
on blade manufacturing. The industry contains a tremendous number of blades
which at times attain the size of as much as 10 cm in length, 3 to 4 cm in breadth
and nearly 2 cm in thickness. Besides burins, backed blades awls points,
scrapers and choppers are also found.
MUCHTALA CHINTAMANI GAVI:
A cave site in Kurnool district of AP was excavated by Moorthy. This site has
yielded lithic components along with non-lithic components in the ratio of 1:3.
Lithic components include side scrapers, burins and retouched flakes. Bony
components include scrapers, perforators, chisel, scoops, shoulder points,
barbs and spatula. of these, shouldered points form the highest frequency.
Sankalia feels that many of this bone show the evidence of groove and splinter
technique.
BHIMBETKA:
8
Raisen district of MP. It was excavated by V. S. Wakankar and V.N. Mishra. So

far eight layers have been discovered as follows:
Draw the diagrams of all the layers from the class note
Tool types include broad blade, end scrapers, burins and backed blades.
BELAN VALLEY:
Beslan is a small river in the district Allahabad in UP surveyed by G.R. Sharma

and four layers were identified as follows:
Draw the diagrams of all the layers from the class note
SOCIO-CULTURAL FEATURES OF UPPER PALAEOLITHIC PALEOLITHIC

CULTURE:
Upper Paleolithic people were also hunters and gatherers like the preceding
phases. They were nomad consisting of a small population and stronger social
networks as they hunted with primitive technologies. There was a decided step
towards organizing human groups in closely tied kinship organizations. The
relatively sudden and widespread appearance of figurines especially female
figurines and other artifacts reflecting art and rituals.
Thus, upper Paleolithic in India is not a well distinguished site at many places.
It is mainly found at the surface layer. Upper Paleolithic cultures in India are
not as diverse as elsewhere in the world.
MESOLITHIC CULTURE
In 9000 B.C. began an intermediate stage in stone age culture and continued at
some places up to almost iron age which is called the Mesolithic age. The
characteristics tools are microliths. The Mesolithic people lived on a hunting,
fishing and food gathering at a later stage they also domesticated animals. The
Mesolithic sites are found throughout India. Homo sapiens associated with this
culture.
9
CLIMATIC REGIME:
The Pleistocene, the age of glaciation and inter-glaciation, pluviation and inter-
pluviation came to an end. The ice of glaciated regions started melting and
flowing into the rivers and the seas. At the same time, huge expenses of land so
far covered under ice were now opened up forest cover. Forests were growing
over large tracts.
With the large animals retreating into forests or migrating towards north, man
had to readjust his food habits, fishing increased rapidly to compensate food
gathering and hunting of large animals. Bird hunting also increased because of
the increased availability of birds around water.
TOO: TECHNOLOGY, MATERIALS AND TYPES
TECHNOLOGY:
The Mesolithic people with his large brain soon realized that the heavy tools of
Paleolithic were a technological disadvantage in fishing, bird hunting and other
areas of economic life. Thus, come into being microliths. The technology was
based upon the principle of shedding mass drastically so that it can be
streamlined and fly long way more efficiently. The prominent technology was
blade technology as follows:
Draw the diagrams of blade technology from the class note
MATERIALS: Different types of cryptocrystalline silica stone, bone, antlers and

wood.
TYPES: Both geometric and non-geometric types. Geometric types were

younger to non-geometric type.
Draw the diagrams of Microlithic tools from the class note
Besides arrows, harpoons, hooks, knives, tools meant for specific purposes.
10
MICROLITH: Microliths were never complete tools in themselves rather these

were working ends of the composite tools.
Draw the diagrams of microliths as composite tools from the class note
Microliths were halted or attached to the antlers or bones or any similar

handles, they were used to improvise the efficiency of large tools. (a large
number of real efficient and large tools). Length of microliths ranged between
1. 0 to 4cm. Both geometrical and non-geometrical microliths were used to
make complete tools.
LANGHNAJ:
This site is located in the Mehsana district of Gujrat along the western bank of
the river Sabarmati which was excavated by Sankalia & Subbarao.
It is dated around 2040 (+/-) 110 B.C. Mesolithic or microlithic layer has
produced microliths and burials besides animal bones and some crude pot-
sherds in addition to microliths.
Peculiar findings:
a. A tanged iron arrow head, a stone bead and some fragments of stone querns
are the other cultural materials from this phase.
b. Associated with microliths occurs a soft hematite piece with smooth robbed
surfaces, a rhinoceros blade with marks of striations and several hammer
stones.
c. 14 human skeletons have been found buried in a flexed position. The

repeated finding and cut on the forehead led some experts to believe that they
were probably cannibals.
Langhnaj was contemporary of Harappan civilization and located within 100-

200 km distance from this full blown Harappan Settlement.
11
BHIMBETKA:
It comprises caves and rocks shelter from Raisen District of M.P excavated by
V. N. Mishra and so for 8 layers were identified as given below:
Draw the diagram of layers from the class note
Mesolithic horizon is believed to be roughly at 5000 BC, and contains a number

of human burials as well.
The shift of raw material to chalcedony occurs first time in the Mesolithic level.
Mesolithic horizon starts with a rich geometric industry but does not contain
any potsherds. Microliths are much larger in size. They built a screen or wall of
stone near the cave mouth acted as a wind broker.
SARAI NAHAR RAI GROUP:
It is located in Mirzapur District of U.P. forms the last Vindhyan limits. Several
rock shelters with paintings presumably attributable to Mesolithic culture.
Sarai Nahar Rai Group comprises several sites among them the most important
one is as follows:
Morhana Pahar:
It is a rock shelter situated around 70 km west of the town of Mirzapur.

Microliths form the most pre-dominant antiquity in the oldest layer whereas in
the younger layer Pot-sherds are also known to accompany. Microliths of both
geometric and non-geometric varieties occur in association of potsherds. In
addition to these, bones tools are also found.
BIRBHUNPUR:
A site near Durgapur railway station has been excavated by B.B. Lal. Microliths
occur on the top of this layer. Lunates form the main microlithic type and
triangles and trapezes are conspicuous by their absence. Some post-holes were
also claimed to have been discovered but no hearth, bones or human body could
be found. Typologically the Birbhanpur Industry seems more archaic as big
flakes and blade tools dominate it.
12
TERI:
Located in the Tirunelveli District of Tamil Nadu, explored by Foote, Ayapana

Foote and Zener. The industry is prepared on chalcedony quartz and fossil
wood and shows one of the most primitive features in Typological sense,
besides numerous flakes found. Disc or discoid cores, flakes shopped into
various kinds of points, side scrappers, thumb nail scrapers and borers, besides
baring form the majority of the industry. Lunates prepared on flakes and points
and arrow heads prepared by bifacial pressures flaking are some of the
significant features of this site. Teri industry shows closeness to Srilanka
microlith, Bandarwela Microlithic factory in several significant features.
SOCIO ECONOMIC FEATURES DURING MESOLITHIC PERIOD:
Numerous rock paintings studied from this period show the emphasis of
fishing, honey collecting, net trapping and similar small game-based economy.
Inter-group warfare is empirically demonstrated in Sarai Nahar Rai skeleton
but also from rock painting also. In some instance show the factor for human
aggression having evolved during this period.
Wild seed collection, domestication of animals indicate that a stage was almost
being set for man to enter into the settled and productive economy.
NEOLITHICAGE OR NEW STONE AGE

Neolithic period in Indian sub-continent was started around 7000 BC doing
post-glacial period. Archaeologically speaking ground cells, pot shreds or
permanent dwelling structures either individually or together whenever found
are taken to indicate a Neolithic culture. Neolithic culture is associated with
Homo sapiens. Thus, Neolithic culture marks great technological and economic
changes in human society from previous cultures. Hence V.G. Childe called
Neolithic culture as first revolution in humanity.
CLIMATIC REGIME:
13
During post glacial period, climate has become warm and dry, the ice of
glaciated and inter-glaciated region started melting and consequently huge
expenses of land so far covered under ice were now opened up for vegetation
cover. Forests were growing over large tracts.
TOOL: TECHNOLOGIES, TYPES AND MATERIALS:
TECHNOLOGIES: Neolithic people came to know the art of cultivation. Since

Homo sapiens was associated with large brains hence they could have learned
it.
To clear jungle and bushes over large areas of land, man (H. Sapiens) felt the
need of such tools which should not remain stuck to the wood while striking
woods for felling them down. Hence, his large brain which had enabled him to
evolve the technologies of Peking, grinding and polishing which had surmised
the problems of earlier tools in felling down woods. Now he had cleared larger
areas for cultivation.
Peking: removal of undulating surface or scarce with chisel like tools.
Grinding: rubbing this pekked tools against rough surface with water.
Polishing: Now these rubbed tools polished tools with plant and animal fat.
TOOL TYPES:
Draw the diagrams of tools from the class note
MATERIALS: Both stone and organic materials such as bone and woods, antlers.
MEHERGARH: (7000 B.C.)
It is located near the Bolan pass in Baluchistan. Excavated by Jarringe and

Lechavillion. In all 7 archaeological periods are identified of these periods I-III
are considered as Neolithic dated around 7000 B.C.
The period-I is further divided into l-a and I-b. I-a represents a semi nomadic
settlement and mud brick structures are found. Big rooms had well planned
14
storage complex in addition to these a raised platform described as funerary

platform also described. Artifacts were prepared on stone and bone objects
including a large number of microliths on flint. Microlithic blades are the only
tools from the lowest level, some of them also have bitumen sticking. No proper
ceramics occurs in this period, remains of basket with bitumen coating are
found. Some ground axes were also found from a burial. Most surprising
features of Mehrgarh, besides the habitational structures are two tiny grave
goods-copper bead and some turquoise beads representing existence of trade
like phenomena.
The Period-II: Presence of one perforated pendant of lead and several beads of
Lapis lazuli. The subsequent phases show the introduction of handmade and
wheel made pottery. It is demonstrated that wheat, barley, date and cotton
were domesticated. Animal bones found are predominant in sheep, goat, cattle
and buffaloes domesticated species.
BURZAHOM: located on the bank of Jhelum near Srinagar, dated around 2375
to 1550 BC.
16 dwelling pits have been exposed; they were provided with stair to enable
one to reach the bottom. The ground on the surface shows a number of post
holes supported thatch cover on the pit. The pottery is represented by
handmade, coarsely finished, ill fired potsherds only. The cells recovered show
a wide variety of function and form. The bone tools are found equally rich.
Harvester recovered from here which are known from anywhere in India but
are quite common in Chinese Neolithic. Microliths are conspicuously absent all
through. Domesticated plants have so far not been reported from any of these
Neolithic sites. People buried their dead in a variety of way in crouched position
or in extended form or represent secondary internment. The skeletons were
often covered with red ocher. In some cases, full wild dog or selected bones of
dog are found buried along with human skeleton. In one case the evidence of
trepanning of the skull proves their possible knowledge of some kind of
primitive surgery.
CHIRAND: located in District Chapra Bihar, dated around 1755 B.C. Presence
of overwhelming amount of bone and antler tools, in fact actual Celts were only
15
4 in number. In addition to these a developed Microlithic industry of blades,

lunates, points, borers are also present. The houses were circular with bamboo
and mud plastered walls and paved floors. The pottery is extremely well made
and may have been prepared on turn table. Red, Grey, Black and Black and Red
wore are found. Evidence of domesticated wheat, rice, masoor and moong
seems to be a very significant feature, domesticated animals are not known.
Several terracotta objects from another important features of this site. These
include besides beads, bangles and wheels, several bulls, birds and serpent
figurines.
DAOJALI HADING: located in North Cachar Hills (Dima Hasao) in Assam.

Excavated by T.C. Sharma. The cells were mostly shouldered at the butt end and
had the border ground sharp. The fabric of ceramic is coarse, having card
impressions, and ill fired.
Artificially constructed habitation was absent. Microliths and bone tools were
absent.
TEKKALKOTA: located in Kolar district of Karnataka. 19 remains of circular

huts were exposed. Burials are found under the floor of the house. Sometimes
bodes have been interned within urn. Presence of grey ware ceramics found.
Animals bones recorded indicate domesticated cattle mainly buffalo, goat,
sheep and dog. A bull, deer, gazelle or stylized human figures are some of the
usual depictions recorded.
CHALCOLITHIC CULTURE
The metal to be used first was copper and several cultures were based on the
use of stone and copper implements such culture is called chalcolithic. They
were primarily rural communities spread over a wide area in those parts of the
country where hilly land and rivers were available. Chalcolithic was pre-
Harappa, contemporary of Harappa and post Harappan too.
CLIMATIC REGIME:
16
Chalcolithic period began around 3000bc had been experiencing a period

which is characterized by warm and dry climate.
TOOL: TECHNOLOGY, TYPES AND MATERIALS:
TECHNOLOGY: Blade technology occupied the most important position. Copper

was locally available in many places and they practiced smelting and
metallurgy from the very beginning e.g. In the period between 2100 and 1500
BC.
TYPES: Tiny tools and weapons made of bones particularly blade, Celts
occupied an important position. Stone axes and microliths were also used to
some extent in many places. In certain settlements copper objects are found in
good numbers.
MATERIALS: Implements or tools were made of stone and copper but they also
occasionally used low grade bronze.
POTTERY: Pottery is known as black and red ware made on wheel and
occasionally painted with white linear design.
REGIONAL VARIATION:
KAYATHA:
It is situated on the bank of Kalisindh an affluent of Chambal. Pottery is in three

fabrics. The most predominant is a thick, sturdy brown slipped ware painted in
violet or deep red. The designs were generally linear. It was quite well off in
copper as from one pot alone 28 copper bangles were recovered. They also had
a developed blade industry comprising lunates, Knives, parallel sided blades
etc. made on chalcedony. No complete house plans were uncovered by the
excavations. No burial has been reported.
BANAS:
It is situated on the bank of river Bana in Rajasthan. Black and red were painted
in white on the exterior. Motifs are generally geometric. Jawar (millet) is known
from the pottery matrix. There are also impression and long grained rice.
17
Animal’s bones were however in plenty-turtle, fish, goat, sheep, deer, pig and
cattle were eaten.
JORWE CULTURE:
It predominates the whole of Maharashtra expecting Konkan. They cultivated

barley, wheat, lentil, and rice. Artificial irrigation had also been discovered.
Large Saddle querns may have been used to make barley and wheat flour. It has
a fine fabric well backed, a red or orange matt surface painted with geometric
designs in black. Both adult and children were buried with the head facing
north. Female figurines with exaggerated reproductive organs indicating
fertility cut. The center of settlement was probably occupied by the elite.
CHIRAND:
It is located in the confluence of the Ganga & Ghaghara in the district Saran of
Bihar. Ceramic industry includes handmade thick grey ware, a wheel thrown
red were & black & red ware. A variety of terracotta objects have also been
found. Serpent figurines are quite common and here may be seen the origin of
Nag puja. Pit dwellings with that thatched roofs were used in the beginning but
later on only over ground huts were made.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS: They were primarily rural communities

appeared around river valley and hilly areas. People produced wheat, rice, and
also cultivated bajra and several pulses such as lentil (masur) black gram, green
gram, and grass pea. Domesticated animals were cows, sheep, goats, pigs, and
buffaloes and hunted dears. It is not clear whether they were acquainted with
the horse. People were generally not acquainted with burnt bricks except in
Gilund around 1500bc.
ARTS AND CRAFTS: Manufactured beads of semiprecious stones such as

cannel ion, steatite, and quartz crystal. People knew art of spinning and
weaving as spindle whorls were discovered in Malwa, thus people might have
known manufacture of cloth.
18
RELIGIOUS PRACTICE: Terracotta figurines of women suggest that

chalcolithic people venerated mother goddess. The bull was the symbol of
religious cut. People were buried from north to south directions with certain
objects. Tools and potteries for the use of them in the next world by the dead.
Both the settlement patterns and burial practices suggest beginning of social
inequalities. In Inamgaon, craftsmen were living on western fringes and chief
probably in the center in rectangular houses.
It appears that some chalcolithic farming communities moved to the flood

plains of the Indus, learnt bronze technology and succeeded in setting up cities.
HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION (IVC)

The first known civilization in India grew in the north western part of the
country along the river valley, particularly Indus around 2500-1800 B.C. It
covered an area of nearly 2 million square kilometers which is larger than
Pakistan and certainly bigger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.
GENERAL FEATURES OF INDUS CIVILIZATION: The Features which mainly

characterize this spectacular culture are many when all these occur together;
the site is referred to as urban metropolis. These features are listed below:
POTTERY: Were well fired, wheel made and generally decorated with floral
and faunal desi
TOWN PLANNING: The Harappa culture was distinguished by its system of

town planning. Structure in general, in almost all sites was fortified town ship
is as follow:
FIG: General structure of fortified township in Indus sites.
A) Citadel or acropolis was occupied by ruling class.
19
B) The arrangement of the houses in cities followed the grid system and the
cities were divided into block. Nowhere building was allowed to encroach on a
public highway as in Sumer.
C) Lamp post at regular interval indicates the existence of street lighting.
Buildings were built on raised platforms and they fall into two categories viz.
dwelling houses contained two rooms along with a kitchen, courtyard,
bathroom, and possibly an upper storey and public buildings and citadel.
E) Granaries: were divided into blocks with attached platforms for loading and
unloading, provision for airing.
F) Great bath: For religious bathing and supplied with fresh water taken from
nearby well. A hot air bath is also attached with the great bath.
G) The elaborate drainage is a unique feature of Indus civilization it was

underground and constituted on grid pattern. The immaculate maintenance of
drains both in the streets and houses indicate to the elaborate knowledge of the
people about town planning.
H) Generally, in building walls, pavements, bathrooms, drains, walls, etc. brunt

bricks were lavishly used; sundried was used only for foundation, packing of
terraces. Brick kilns have been found from Mohenjo-Daro.
I) Dockyard has been identified at Lothal.
Thus, it can be concluded that there was social stratification explained by the
presence of citadel and workmen house. The town planning carried a
remarkable uniformity which was probably brought by centralization of
production along with efficient administration. Perhaps no other Bronze age
civilization gave so much attention to health and cleanliness as Harappa did.
Some of the most significant objects found in these sites are a large number of
seals, beads, naturalistic statue, chessboards, weights, and measures, terracotta
figurines, metal utensils and weapons stone axes and chert blades.
Weights seem to have 1:6 fragment system and the measuring roads show that
the unit of stone length was 13.2 inches and perhaps the lowest fraction was
20
0.367 inch. Terracotta figurines include some toys, wheeled carts and some
grotesque human forms which might be used as some form of folk cult objects.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS:
Emergence of cities and consequent urban life resulted in specialization in

occupation. Yet most of the people were farmers lived beyond the walls of cities.
They grew wheat, barley, and peas. Cotton was also cultivated. Domestication
of animals and castles were also in vogue. Thus, we see that formation of
different classes of people had started.
RELIGIOUS LIFE: Worshiped flora and fauna, a large number of seals depicting
trees like Neem, pupal and humped bull, besides, figure of gods and goddess
were also discovered. Perhaps they worshiped king and mother goddess. Dead
bodies were cremated as well as buried.
ECONOMIC LIFE: Agriculture was predominance they used wooden plough

share. However, it can’t be said whether plough was drawn by man or oxen.
People belonged to craftsmanship and metallurgical activities also emerged.
People produced images; utensils and other tools. People were also engaged in
trade and commerce within the Indus and outside civilization i.e. Sumer &
Egypt. Indus seals and objects of measures were discovered form these places.
SCRIPTS: Indus civilization had used script on seals, pots etc. It was
pictographic in nature. Still date the scripts were not deciphered.
INDUS SITES: So far more than 200 Harappa sites have been recorded but not
more than a dozen can be really identified as urban metropolis. All these sites
were located near the bank of stream or the delta of a river or near the coast.
The Harappa culture cover parts of Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan, And in
Pakistan, Sindh and Baluchistan. It was extended from Jammu in north to the
Narmada in the south and from the Makran coast in Sindh and Alamgirpur in
U.P. It covered an area of nearly 2 million sq. kilometer which is larger than
Pakistan and certainly bigger than Pakistan and bigger than ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia-along the river valleys and costal sites.
21
HARAPPA:
Excavated by DAYA RAM SAHANI in 1921, the civilization is named after it as

first to be discovered. Situated in Montgomery district of Punjab (Pakistan) on
the bank of the river Ravi. Major findings include. Two rows of granaries, Works
men quarters, two sandstone statues, dog attacking deer, little bullock carts
(ekkas), cemetery, first time coffin burial, the Rig Veda mentions it as
Haryupian.
MOHENJO-DARO:
Literally means mound of the dead excavated by R.D. Banerjee on the bank of
the river Indus in Pakistan in Larkana district of Sind. Major findings include:
A college an assembly hall the great bath a granary, a piece of coven cotton.
Bronze dancing girl, seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva, steatite statue of a bearded
man supposed to be a priest.
LOTHAL:
Excavated by R.RAO, Situated on Bhogavo river near Gulf of Cambay. Findings:

First man made port and dockyard, bead maker’s factory, rice husk, fire altars,
chess playing etc. Evidence of joint burials suggest practice of sati.
KALIBANGAN:
Excavated by D. Ghosh on the bank of the river Ghaghara, pre- Harappan and
Harappan phase. Findings: Fire alters, furrowed land indicating practice of
agriculture by ploughshare. Camel bones, many houses having their own wells.
(KALIBANGAN means black Bangles.)
DECLINE OF HARAPPA CIVILIZATION:
There are several theories such as foreign invasion, climate change, and
hydrological changes-shifting of river and frequent flood and physic chemical
explosion in order to explain the decline of the great civilization. However, no
one theory can satisfactorily prove it. Hence, me geomorphologic and
archaeological evidence are required to reach definite conclusion.
22
FOREIGN INVANSION: Advocates of this theory were Piggott, Gordons, and

Wheeler. They draw their conclusion from the following facts.
Periodical reinforcement of fortified or defense wall at urban sites. Rig Vedic

mention of similar invasion and conquering of cities and town by the Indo -
Europeans, presence of bronze and other kinds of traditional weapons
associated with Indo Europeans, discovery of skeletons at Mohenjo-Daro with
signs of violent massacre.
However, it is difficult to support this theory primarily because Indus

civilization existed between around 2500-1800BC and the earliest Indo-
European invasions took place around 1500BC so far known from the Rig Veda.
Its Most of it can be said that nomads and marauders must have been coming
from Asia periodically and a defense against them done by the walls. Thus, this
theory does not hold good.
CLIMATE CHANGE: Marshall and Aurel Stein are the greatest advocates of this
theory. They opined that climate during the Harappa period was wetter than
today and it was slowly causing aridity which caused failure in economy and
hence civilization. However, there is no conclusive evidence so far in favor of
this theory.
TECTONIC PHENOMENA: Raikes, Dales and others studied water deposited

layers in Mohenjo-Daro, Amri and Chanhu-Daro and they argued that river
Indus was flooded suddenly because of tectonic phenomenon. However, M. R
Sahani a geologist and paleontologist studies say that flood in this region was
not a case of immense over flow of river but was probably as event more than
that. Moreover, similar phenomenon did not take place in kalibangan, or for
that matter Saurashtra sites.
According to Lambrick and Possehl, the water origin of the sites could not be
conclusively that it was due to tectonic upliftment of the river in the
geomorphology of the Indus river basin.
HYDROLOGICAL CHANGES: Lambrick suggested that east ward shift of the

Indus caused periodic inundation of arable land in an around Mohenjo-Daro
city. Finally, leading to loss of agriculture economy.
23
V.N. Mishra's study on Paleo-channel of the river Ghaggar. Flowing through

Rajasthan and acted as a feeder channel to the Indus, in the course of time it
shifted towards east and ultimately joined the Ganga system. It resulted in
dryness in the Sutlej and hence the Indus. Thus, it brought about a crash in the
economic surplus. It was not all of sudden rather gradual, migration of artisan
and tradesmen towards Saurashtras and Haryana must have started as early as
1900bc. The Indo - European speakers might have entered into the region
during this slow degeneration of the Indus economy. They might have come in
several waves and brought their culture, but they are destroyer of Indus culture
does not seem archaeological evidence or by the numerous revised radio
carbon dates for the various attested by the archaeological evidence or by the
numerous revised radio carbon dates for the various stages of the culture now
available.
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL EXPLOSIONE: Advocate of this theory Dmitriev, a soviet

scholar, he says that there was a physic chemical explosion, a natural
phenomenon and results in the sudden disappearance or the Mohenjo-Daro
and explained in the following way.
Physicochemical Explosion-black 15000-degree

formation Destruction
lightening Celsius temp,
formation of
stocking agents
Evidence are drawn from the mention of the similar explosion in the region of
Mohenjo-Daro and finding of charred bodies and melting stones, found some
sites in Mohenjo-Daro.
Thus, it can be said that no one theory or factors is responsible for the decline
of the earliest urban civilization of India. However, a combination of factors can
better explain it.
24
IRON AGE
Iron Age started around 1000bc and this metal was used to clear forest and led
to the establishment of large cities on the basis of sizeable surplus and mighty
political powers.
CLIMATE REGIME: It had its origin in the post glacial period around 1500 B.C
this period is characterized by warm and dry climate.
TOOL: TECHNOLOGY, TYPES, AND MATERIALS:
Iron is harder than copper & bronze and cheap and available in plenty. Hence
Iron was used to make variety of agriculture tools. Such as ploughshares,
sickles, shovels, spades on large scale. Iron axes facilitated the clearing of forest
on large scale for getting more land under cultivation. However, there was
presence of Microlithic component without much change.
REGIONAL VARIATIONS: NORTH INDIA originated around 800 B.C area

covering Rajasthan- Jodhpur, Sardargarh. Uttar Pradesh-Kalana, Hastinapur,
Bateshwar.
EASTERN REGION: Around 1370-1340 BC including Chirand, Mahishadal and

Pandu Rajar Dhibi in WB.
WESRTERN ZONE: Around 1500-1300 BC south to Rajasthan, Malwa and

northern Maharashtra.
SOUTH INDIA: from 800 to 500 B.C.
SOCI0- ECONOMIC FEATURES: Pottery made on wheel, with oblique bands

and fingertip impression known as painted grey ware (PGW). Houses prepared
on mud bricks. Terracotta figurines become much larger in frequency than the
preceding periods. Firs, time appearance of barley and rice cultivation on large
scale. Domestication of animals carried out. Dead bodies were buried with Iron
implements and megalithic structure also created in south India i.e. megalithic
culture.
25
Since the discovery of iron man never looked back in his endeavor for more
and more technological development.
ETHNO-ARCHAEOLOGY
Ethno-archaeology or New-archaeology is the ethnographic study of people for
the archaeology reasons, focusing on the material remains of a society rather
than its culture. Ethno-archaeology aids archaeology in reconstructing ancient
life styles by studying the material tradition of contemporary ethnic groups.
Ethno-archaeologist can them infer the ancient societies used the same
techniques as their modern counterparts give in a similar set of environment
circumstances. Although, it can throw light on the material life of the pre-
historic people yet it has many limitations.
HISTORIC-BACKGROUND: Around 1930 the totemistic rock paintings done by

Australian aborigines were used to explain Franco Cantabrian Paleolithic art.
During 1950, (CHANG) a famous prehistoric from USA, addressed himself to the
specific issues of Ethno-archaeology as an extremely meaningful approach to
explanation of antiquity. But he also warned against the dangers of using these
as an established methodology. In the late 1960, BINFORD came out with a
comprehensive discussion on the entire methodology of archaeological
reconstruction.
METHOD OF STUDY: Ethno-Archaeology, in very simple terms means

explaining the past society on the basis of a body of generalized knowledge
constructed from ethnography of the contemporary living but simple societies.
Since Archeology essentially deals with the product of human activity, they
need an instrument of analysis which can decode information regarding the
26
nature of activities. For long the antiquities have been looked at as fossilized
culture traits and it is only during the last 4 decades that we are trying to look
at them more closely.
Archaeologist tries to unearth spectacular remains of the pre historic cultures

and they correlate them with the same material remains, being used by present
day ethnic groups. Consequently, they try to understand that material remain
of the pre-historic past.
One good example of ethno-archaeology is that of (BRAIN- HYDEN), who learn

examined the manufacture of Meso-American Quern stone, providing valuable
insights into the manufacture of prehistoric Quern-stones.
SIGNIFICANCE: Ethno-Archaeology can provide insight to archaeologists into

how people in the past may have lived specially regards to their Social
Structure, Religious beliefs and other aspect of their culture.
CRITICISM: Although it can play an important role in understanding pre-

historic material, yet it has been criticized because,
1. These dos not enable us to reconstruct total picture of past human
2. Neither does it sustain strict scientific servility of creating law like

generalization
Although Ethno-archaeology is never useful in drawing cross cultural

comparisons. It is a tool of analysis should be restricted to explain the content
of dig within a limit of its own context.
27
DATING METHODS
There are two types of dating methods absolute and relative dating methods.
The former includes various methods such as carbon 14 dating, potassium
argon dating and amino acid racemization. Whereas the latter includes
stratigraphy and fluorine dating. Both kinds of dating have their own utilities.
A). ABSOLUTE DATING METHODS: Absolute date refers to specific points in

time and is noted on specific calendrical system e.g.: origin of species was
published in 1859.
1. TREE RING DATING (annual rings of trees) have existed for the long times.
However, the development of radioactive method based upon nature of
radioactive substance has brought about a complete revision of our ideas about
the age of earth and the fossil it contains. Radiometric dating are as follows.
2. RADIOMETRIC DATING:
PRINCIPLE OF RADIOMETRIC DATING:
All radioactive materials are unstable. There nuclei are constantly losing
particles. This loss of particle called radioactive decay, proceeds at a constant
rate for each radioactive element but varies from element to element. The half-
life is the time in which half the atoms of a radioactive substance have decayed
into new atoms.
Carbon-14 dating: All living organism contains large amounts in the form of
isotopes. The most common form of carbon is the stable atom with an atomic
weight of 12 i.e. carbon 12
However, all living beings contain a small amount of the radioactive isotope
carbon 14 which has half-life of 5730 years.
As long as the organisms are alive the amount of carbon 14 entering the body
equals the amount lost by radioactive decay. When organisms die no new
carbon atoms in corporate into the body and those atoms present at death
continue to decay. By measuring the amount of carbon 12 in the sample, one
can arrive at an absolute date.
28
ADVANTAGES: This method can be used to date organic material such as bone,
teeth, shell, charcoal, wood, and pollen.
LIMITATIONS: Radiocarbon 14 dating can be used for the materials from the
past 50000 years. Beyond 50000 years, there is not enough carbon 14 left in
the sample to be detected and measured reliably. It can't be used in case of
dating of inorganic materials.
Potassium argon dating: Potassium 40 has a half-life of 1.3 billion years. It is

based upon the radioactive decay of potassium 40. Only 11.2 % of potassium
40 decays into argon 40, a gas which accumulates within certain rocks,
Potassium is a fairly common constituent of rocks under very high temperature
such as those associated with volcanic activity, the argon gas is expelled when
the material cools and solidifies. It contains amount of potassium 40 but no
argon gas. As time goes on, the amount of potassium 40 decreases while the
amount of argon 40 increases. These amounts are used in calculation of the
absolute date.
ADVANTAGES: It can be used to date the age of the earth and has been used
extensively of calibrating the geological time scale. Some researchers believe
that potassium argon dating can be used for dates as recent as 2500b.p
LIMITATIONS: It can't be used for dating organic beings and also for the sort
period of time.
3. AMINOACID RACEMIZATION:
Many organic molecules, such as amino acids occur in two forms, identical in
structure except for being mirror images of each other. The form of amino acid
is found in living form is the L - amino acid. The other form is the D - amino acid.
When an organism dies, the L amino acids slowly turn into the D-amino acids.
This process is known as racemization.
Each amino acid is associated with a characterized speed of racemization at a

given temperature e.g. in aspartic acid, racemization is 0.333 at 20 c in about
15000 to 20000 years. This time factor makes aspartic acid racemization
especially useful for the period from 5000 to70000 years ago. Ratio of D to L
29
aspartic acid can be compared to radiocarbon dates of the same fossil, thus
permitting the various ratio to be calibrated with respect to known dates.
ADVANTAGES: It can be used to date material older than that which can be
dated by carbon 14. 15 % much less of the fossil material is needed for
determination of date than that in radiocarbon determinations.
LIMINATIONS: It can't be used in case of inorganic material and for long periods
like million and billion years.
B). RELATIVE DATING METHODS: It is not fixed to cylindrical system but

simply specifies that one thing is older or younger. They are used to place fossils
in the proper time relations ship to one another. This is of the following types.
1. STRATIGRAPHY: Is the investigation of the composition of the layer of the

earth and their relationship to each other. The main principle applied to such
studies is the principle or superposition. It means that under stable conditions,
layers or strata on the bottom of a deposit are older than the one on top.
Figures of stratigraphy in hills and rivers
However, stratigraphy of a cross section river bank shows opposite to that of

stratigraphy in mountain ranges and other places. In the cross section of a river
bank, top layers are the oldest layers, whereas, the bottom layer is the youngest
due to erosion.
LIMITATION: In practice, stratigraphic sequences are not easy to interpret.

Neat layers are not always present and intrusion such as burial can place a more
recent fossil at the same level with much older material. Earth quakes, volcanic
eruption, and other catastrophic events can also alter stratigraphic sequence.
2. FLOURINE DATING: As bones and teeth lie in the ground, they absorb
fluorine and other minerals from ground water on the other hand, the nitrogen
content of bones decrease as the material gets older. The amount of nitrogen
lost can be used to calculate the relative chronology of the materials in the site.
30
Both the methods are useful under various circumstances. Absolute methods
specify date in time whereas the relative methods show time in relation with
one another.
31

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SAPIENS IAS

ADDRESS: 17A/44,3rd FLOOR, W.E.A. KAROL BAGH NEW DELHI – 05

S.No. Name of The Topic Page No.

LOWER PALEOLITHIC CULTURE

GEOLOGICALTIME SCALE AND CLIMATIC REGIME:

Give the table of climatic regime from class notes

TOOL: TECHNIQUES, TOOL TYPES AND TOOL MATERIALS:

TOOLTECHNIQUES: Lower Paleolithic tool technologies evolved from

a) Direct percussion or stone hammer technique:

b) Anvil on anvil or block on anvil technique:

c) Cylinder hammer technique:

2) CONTROLLED TECHNIQUE: is further divided into simple controlled and

a) simple uncontrolled technique: step flaking technique: As follows

For diagrams of all the techniques vide class notes

Draw diagram of all the tools from class notes

Draw the diagram of transverse section of Soan valley

LATE SOAN: CHOPPER-CHOPPING COMPLEX: It is further divided into Group-

EVOLVED SOAN: Characterized by mostly flakes with thinner, slender, and

Draw the diagram of layers from class note

DIDWANA: It is laying west of the Aravalli at an elevation of 1000 ft. in the

Draw the diagram of layers from class note

Peculiarity of this site is choppers-chopping with massive hand axes prepared

KULIANA AND KAMARPARA: Located in the Mayurbhanj district of Orissa.

Almost 50% of the tools described are chopper-chopping in type. In association

PENNINSULAR OR MADRASIAN CULTURE- HAND AXE-CLEAVER CULTURE:

Draw the diagram of transverse section of Kortalayar river

SOCIO-CULTURAL FEATURES OF LOWER PALAEOLITHIC:

MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC CULTURE

GEOLOGICAL TIME PERIOD AND CLIMATIC REGIME: Middle Paleolithic

Draw the table of climatic regime from the class note

TECHNIQUES: MOUSTERIAN TECHNIQUE

TOOLTYPES: Characteristic tool types are as follows:

Draw the diagrams of tools from the class notes

TOOL MATERIALS: A striking feature of middle Paleolithic culture in India is

ANDHRA SITES: KURNOOL, CHITOOR AND NALGONDA DISTRICTS

Located along the rivers of these districts. Explored by Cammiade. Materials

Shivna along the Narmada valley a middle Paleolithic site appears to be

SOCIO-CULTURAL FEATURES OF MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC CULTURE:

UPPER PALAEOLITHIC CULTURE

GEOLOGICAL TIME PERIOD AND CLIMATIC REGIME:

TOOL: TECHNOLOGIES, TOOL TYPES AND TOOL MATERIALS:

TOOL TECHNIQUES: It was predominantly meant for blade technologies which

TOOLT YPES: as follows

MUCHTALA CHINTAMANI GAVI:

Raisen district of MP. It was excavated by V. S. Wakankar and V.N. Mishra. So

Beslan is a small river in the district Allahabad in UP surveyed by G.R. Sharma

SOCIO-CULTURAL FEATURES OF UPPER PALAEOLITHIC PALEOLITHIC

TOO: TECHNOLOGY, MATERIALS AND TYPES

Draw the diagrams of blade technology from the class note

MATERIALS: Different types of cryptocrystalline silica stone, bone, antlers and

TYPES: Both geometric and non-geometric types. Geometric types were

Draw the diagrams of Microlithic tools from the class note

MICROLITH: Microliths were never complete tools in themselves rather these

Microliths were halted or attached to the antlers or bones or any similar

c. 14 human skeletons have been found buried in a flexed position. The

Langhnaj was contemporary of Harappan civilization and located within 100-

Draw the diagram of layers from the class note

Mesolithic horizon is believed to be roughly at 5000 BC, and contains a number

SARAI NAHAR RAI GROUP: