Excercises 1

Measurement and Instrumentation – Measurement Error
1.1 Measurement Error

The goal of a measurement system is to find the cosmic truth about the measurand. However, it
must be clearly understood that cosmic truth about a measurand is only a concept–there is no
realizable system that measures cosmic truth. Indeed, we cannot know the truth; if we had a way of
knowing the truth, we would not need to make measurements!
However, all measuring systems made by humans incur measurement error in the system. This
applies to both analog and digital measuring systems. However, a good measuring system can
measure something closely enough that the difference between the result and cosmic truth has no
practical effect on our design or decision-making. For example, if we have a manufacturing process
that produces a designed shaft tolerance of +/- 0.001 inches (one mil), and our quality control
measuring device is accurate to 0.000001 inches (one micron), then our measuring device can achieve
a result that is as good as cosmic truth from our design specification perspective. The point is that all
measuring systems (or devices) have some measurement error associated with them. Therefore, it
must be understood that measurement error is an inescapable part of measuring something.
Measurement error is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true
value:
ε(i) = x_{measured}(i) – x_{truth}(i)
Assuming the measurand has reached a steady state condition there are two broad categories
of error: deterministic and random.
• Deterministic errors (also referred to as systematic errors) are those that have a static or known
time-dependent behavior. These often show up as a bias in the data set. The term bias is often used
interchangeably with the term “DC offset” because measuring systems often use transducers that
produce electrical signals that include a DC offset voltage.
• Random errors are those whose value at any given time cannot be known but will fall within some
range of possible values. Random errors typically follow some type of statistical distribution (the
Gaussian distribution is the most commonly assumed form). Random errors are not repeatable from
one trial to the next, while deterministic errors (especially DC offsets) are repeatable. In general, we
can define random errors mathematically as the difference between the measured value and the
average of all measured values.
ε_n[t_i] = x_n[t_i] – x_{ave}[t_i]
It is important to recognize that the random errors are not affected by deterministic error. In
order to assess the random error the mean value must be removed from the recorded data. On the
other hand, deterministic error is found by taking the difference between the mean value of the trials
and the true value. This creates a conundrum given that we have already asserted that we cannot ever
really know the true value. Indeed, any fixed bias must be inferred by testing our measurement system
against a known measurand. This is accomplished by calibration.
1.2 Precision and Accuracy
Random and deterministic errors cause us to question the validity of a measurement, or series of
measurements. Furthermore, we must decide how to assess the validity of a group of measurements
that all vary somewhat in value. To do this we use two concepts: precision and accuracy.
When determining how accurate a measurement is, the percent error (% Error) is usually used as
the performance metric. The % Error is defined as
Precision is defined as the repeatability of a measurement. For example, if we use a caliper to

measure a steel shaft with a nominal diameter of three inches, and we make four measurements of:
3.121”, 3.122”, 3.122”, 3.123”; we say that the caliper has good precision because the variance
between the measurements is very small (i.e. the difference between each individual measurement
and the mean is small). However, if we know that the steel shaft’s diameter has a true value of 3.000”
(perhaps this shaft is a standard for calibration), then the caliper that we used has a significant
systematic bias in its results that is an average value of 0.122”. This leads to the second concept,
accuracy, which describes how close the average of the readings is to the true value. If we used
another caliperthat measured: 2.938”, 3.019”, 3.048”, and 2.991”; we get an average of 2.999”, which
is only one mil (0.001”) from the nominal value. The difference between the mean value and each of
the individual measurements is larger than the first group, so our second caliper is obviously much
less precise, but the mean value of the measurements ended up being much more accurate. Figure
1.1 demonstrates the concepts of precision and accuracy by representing the nominal measurand
value as the center of a target.
Figure 1. Precision versus Accuracy.
1.3 Sensitivity to Disturbance

All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled conditions of
temperature, pressure etc. These standard ambient conditions are usually defined in the instrument
specification. As variations occur in the ambient temperature etc., certain static instrument
characteristics change, and the sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the magnitude of this change.
Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main ways, known as zero drift and sensitivity
drift. Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative term, bias.
Zero drift or bias describes the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by
a change in ambient conditions. This causes a constant error that exists over the full range of
measurement of the instrument. The mechanical form of bathroom scale is a common example of an
instrument that is prone to bias. It is quite usual to find that there is a reading of perhaps 1 kg with no
one stood on the scale. If someone of known weight 70 kg were to get on the scale, the reading would
be 71 kg, and if someone of known weight 100 kg were to get on the scale, the reading would be 101
kg. Zero drift is normally removable by calibration. In the case of the bathroom scale just described, a
thumbwheel is usually provided that can be turned until the reading is zero with the scales unloaded,
thus removing the bias.
Zero drift is also commonly found in instruments like voltmeters that are affected by ambient
temperature changes. Typical units by which such zero drift is measured are volts/°C. This is often
called the zero drift coefficient related to temperature changes. If the characteristic of an instrument
is sensitive to several environmental parameters, then it will have several zero drift coefficients, one
for each environmental parameter. A typical change in the output characteristic of a pressure gauge
subject to zero drift is shown in Figure 2(a).
Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor drift) defines the amount by which an instrument’s
sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient conditions change. It is quantified by sensitivity drift
coefficients that define how much drift there is for a unit change in each environmental parameter
that the instrument characteristics are sensitive to. Many components within an instrument are
affected by environmental fluctuations, such as temperature changes: for instance, the modulus of
elasticity of a spring is temperature dependent. Figure 2(b) shows what effect sensitivity drift can have
on the output characteristic of an instrument. Sensitivity drift is measured in units of the form (angular
degree/bar)/°C. If an instrument suffers both zero drift and sensitivity drift at the same time, then the
typical modification of the output characteristic is shown in Figure 2(c).
Figure 2. Effects of disturbance: (a) zero drift, (b) sensitivity drift, and (c) zero drift plus sensitivity drift.
Example 1.1 The true value of temperature is known to be 27.1 ◦C. The system is at steady state and
five measurements are made and the results are: 26.93◦C, 26.89◦C, 27.23◦C, 27.31◦C, and 27.05◦C.
What is likely the primary type of error that is occurring? Estimate the measured value and the % Error
from these readings.
Example 1.2 The true value of temperature is known to be 27.1 ◦C. Several measurements are made
and they are all very nearly equal to 27.5 ◦C. What is likely the primary type of error that is occurring?
Find the % Error.
Example 1.3 The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer were measured at
a range of temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of the instrument in ohms/°C.
Example 1.4 A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20°C and has the
following deflection/load characteristic.
It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30°C and the following deflection/load

characteristic is measured. Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per °C change in ambient
temperature.

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Measurement and Instrumentation – Measurement Error

1.1 Measurement Error

ε(i) = x_{measured}(i) – x_{truth}(i)

ε_n[t_i] = x_n[t_i] – x_{ave}[t_i]

Precision is defined as the repeatability of a measurement. For example, if we use a caliper to

Figure 1. Precision versus Accuracy.

1.3 Sensitivity to Disturbance

It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30°C and the following deflection/load

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