Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 1(19)

23.9.2010
COOLING TOWER
1. Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 2
2. Theory.............................................................................................................................................. 2
2.1 Humid air ................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Balance Equations...................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Operating Line ........................................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Heat and Mass Transfer ............................................................................................................. 8
2.5 Lewis Equations........................................................................................................................ 9
2.6 Height of the Tower ................................................................................................................. 10
2.7 Deriving the Equation for Calculating the Height of the Tower.............................................. 10
2.8 NTU ......................................................................................................................................... 11
2.9 Slope of the Tie Line................................................................................................................ 12
2.10 HTU ....................................................................................................................................... 12
2.11 Calculating the Coefficients of Heat and Mass Transfer ....................................................... 12
3. Equipment ...................................................................................................................................... 14
3.1 Cooling Tower ......................................................................................................................... 14
3.2 Measuring Equipment .............................................................................................................. 14
4. Operating the tower........................................................................................................................ 15
4.1 Starting the Work..................................................................................................................... 15
4.2 Measurements .......................................................................................................................... 15
4.3 Finishing the Work................................................................................................................... 15
5. Report............................................................................................................................................. 16
6. Nomenclature................................................................................................................................. 17
7. References...................................................................................................................................... 19
8. Appendixes .................................................................................................................................... 19

Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 2(19)
23.9.2010
1. INTRODUCTION
A cooling tower is a unit where water is cooled with air. Warm water enters the top of the tower,
runs down the column and chills because it partially vaporizes to air, which flows upward. Also, the
air flow is usually colder than the water flow, so water is chilled because of the heat exchange.
Since both mass and heat transfer phenomena are present, the theory of cooling towers is a bit
complicated. Certain simplifications can be made because the liquid phase is pure water, and
therefore there is no driving force for mass transfer in that phase.
As many other vapor-liquid mass transfer units, the cooling tower is packed with packing materials,
which increases the surface area, in order to enhance the mass and heat transfer.
2. THEORY
In this laboratory work, the height of the cooling tower (the height of the packing) is calculated from
the measuring results and the equations derived from mass balances. Obtained result is compared to
the real height.
Evaluating the height of the cooling tower is based on theory derived for mass transfer units. The
theory will not be presented here entirely but only the parts, which are needed for this work.
Next, lets consider a stationary cooling tower; a sketch is shown in figure 1. Nomenclature is in
chapter 6. Notice, that the dry air flow V is constant and no subscripts are used with it.

m
A
q
b
a
l
l
l+dl
L
l
, i
x,hl
L
l+dl
, i
x,l+dl
L
b
, i
x,b
, T
x,b
L
a
, i
x,a
, T
x,a
V, I
y,b
, T
y,b
, Y
b

V, I
y,a
, T
y,a
, Y
a

V, I
y,l+dl

V, I
y,l


Figure 1. Schematic of a cooling tower
Cooling tower is an example of gasliquid mass transfer equipment. The essential thing in this
equipment is to bring the two phases into contact so that the mass and heat transfer between phases
is possible. The two phases are usually in countercurrent connection.
Design of a cooling tower is based on equations derived from balances. The most important
equation for a mass transfer equipment is the equation of the operating line, which describes how
the states of the two phases depend on each other at the same location in the unit (at the same level
in the equipment). Here, as usual, the radial (horizontal) mixing is assumed to be perfect or ideal (or
mean values are used). Then the properties of a phase are the same on a certain level. The equation
of the operating line is always obtained from one (or some) of the balances of the equipment.
In a cooling tower the temperature of the liquid phase T
x
and the enthalpy of the gas phase I
y
are
chosen to describe the states of the phases. Thus the operating line will be represented in T
x
,I
y

coordinates, where it is a straight line with certain assumptions. It is possible to represent the
temperature of the gas phase T
y
in the same coordinates in which case T, I
y

coordinates are used.
Next the so called constitutive equations of the equipment and the mass and heat balances are used
to derive the equations needed to calculate a cooling tower. During the derivation many steps and
equations are needed because of the simultaneous mass and heat transfer but the achieved result is
still quite simple.
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 3(19)
23.9.2010
2.1 HUMID AIR
Here only a case where air is the gas and the vapor in it is water is dealt. By definition humidity Y is
the mass proportion between water in air and dry air:
B
A
AIR
WATER
m
m
m
m
Y , (1)
where air is marked with subscript B and water with A. The mass of the water consists of all the
water, which is in the air (solid, liquid, and vapor), but in this work it is assumed that neither ice nor
mist is present. The unit of the humidity is
1
]
1

air dry kg
water kg
m
m
Y
AIR
WATER
(2)
Since the humidity is defined as mass proportion rather than mass fraction, the water carried by the
air can be calculated as humidity * dry air (not humidity * total air flow).
Relative humidity is defined as
f
Y
Y

*
(3)
Notice that the saturation point Y
*
and therefore the relative humidity is defined only at
temperatures less than the boiling point of water (if the temperature is higher than boiling point, Y
*

= ).
2.1.1 Enthalpy of Humid Air
Next, the following assumptions are made:
O1: Airwater mixture is an ideal mixture of ideal gases. (4)
O2: The heat capacities of air and steam c
p,B
and c
p,A,y
are constant. (5)
Despite the assumption O2 the heat capacity of humid air is not constant, but depends on humidity
as follows:
c c Yc
p y p B p A y , , , ,
+ (6)
The enthalpy of an air-water mixture in temperature T compared to a reference temperature T
0
is
[ ] [ ]
I I YI
c T T i Y c T T r i
y y B y A
p B B p A y A A
+
+ + + +
, ,
, , , , , ,
( ) ( )
0 0 0 0 0
(7)
By choosing the enthalpies of the reference temperature T
0
to be zero, a following form is obtained:
I c Yc T T Yr
y p B p A y A
+ + ( )( )
, , , , 0 0
(8)
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 4(19)
23.9.2010
2.1.2 Changes in the Enthalpy of the Humid Air
When the temperature and humidity of humid air change, so according to equation (7) and
assumption O2:
[ ] [ ]
I I c Y c T T Y r c Y c T T Y r
y y p B p A y A p B p A y A , , , , , , , , , ,
( )( ) ( )( )
2 1 2 2 0 2 0 1 1 0 1 0
+ + + + (9)
This can be written again by using the heat capacity of the humid air c
p,y
either in state 2 or in state
1. If the state 2 is taken and the term below is both added in and subtracted from the right side of
equation (9)
( )( )
, , ,
c Y c T T
p B p A y
+
2 1 0
,
the following is obtained:
[ ] [ ]
I I c Y c T T Y r c Y c T T Y r
c Y c T T c Y c T T
c Y c T T c Y c T T
Y Y r
c Y c
y y p B p A y A p B p A y A
p B p A y p B p A y
p B p A y p B p A y
A
p B p A
, , , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
,
, , ,
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
(
2 1 2 2 0 2 0 1 1 0 1 0
2 2 0 2 1 0
2 1 0 1 1 0
2 1 0
2
+ + + +
+ +
+ + +
+
+
[ ]
y p A y A
p B p A y p A y A
p B p A y A
T T Y Y c T T Y Y r
c Y c T T Y Y c T T r
c Y c T T Y Y I
)( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
, , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , ,
2 1 2 1 1 0 2 1 0
2 2 1 2 1 1 0 0
2 2 1 2 1 1
+ +
+ + +
+ +

Naturally, a suchlike result is obtained when specific heat capacity of air c
p,y
in the state 1 is used.
Altogether:
1 , 1 2 1 2 2 , , 1 , 2 ,
) ( ) (
A y p y y
I Y Y T T c I I + (10a)
I I c T T Y Y I
y y p y A , , , , ,
( ) ( )
2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2
+ (10b)
These equations will be used when deriving the equations for the height of the tower.
2.1.3 Enthalpy of Saturated Humid Air
In order to calculate the height of a mass transfer unit one needs to know how the properties of
vapor and liquid phases depend on each other when they are in physical equilibrium. This is
described with equilibrium line.
According to the two-film theory the interface between two phases (phase boundary) is in
equilibrium state. That is, the temperature curve is continuous and the equilibrium concentrations of
the phases prevail. However, the bulk concentrations and temperatures in liquid and vapor phases
are different (and not in this equilibrium state).
The equilibrium line will be drawn in the same coordinates than the operating line (T
x
,I
y

coordinates). The relationship between temperature and the enthalpy of air must be known when the
cooling tower is calculated. Because theres equilibrium between water and water-air mixture in the
system, we need data how the enthalpy of air saturated with water depends on temperature.
These values of the equilibrium line are collected for example in the Tables of Keskinen handout
(Keskinen 1989). For numerical calculation, an equation that fits the data in the tables is needed.
The fitting of the equilibrium data into an equation with three parameters is shown in appendix 1.
The error, which this procedure causes, is approximately 3 %, which is more accurate than the other
steps of calculations. So three parameters are adequate enough. As a result, an equation for the
relation between the temperature and the enthalpy is obtained:
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 5(19)
23.9.2010
I T
y
* .
. . * + 22 75 0 05126
2 159
(11)
where the reference state is 0
O
C and 1 bar.
According to the two-film theory of mass transfer, the states of the phases at their interface are on
this equilibrium line (equation (11)), where T is the temperature of the phase boundary and
T T
x i y i , ,
(12)
2.1.4 Humidity of Saturated Humid Air
The humidity of saturated humid air is fitted to a function of three variables in appendix 1. Now an
average accuracy of 6 % is obtained.
Y T
* .
. . * * +

0007656 786 10
7 2 956
(13)
2.2 BALANCE EQUATIONS
A general balance equation can be described as
accumulation = input - output + generation (14)
If the system works in steady state and no reaction occurs, then both the accumulation and the
generation terms are zero and
input = output (15)
2.2.1 Whole Tower
The overall water and heat balances for a cooling tower are:
L VY L VY
a b b a
+ + (16)
L i VI L i VI
a a y b b b y a
+ +
, ,
(17)
2.2.2 Differential Part of the Tower
Next, a part of the process, between arbitrary imaginary levels l and l + dl (which can be thought as
actual levels in the equipment), is considered. The change in quantities between the two levels is
marked (flow L as an example):
dL L L
l dl h

+
(18)
Water balance in the whole balance area is (flow rate of the dry air is considered to be constant)
L VY L VY
l dl l l l dl + +
+ + ( ) ( ) (19)
or
dL VdY (20)
Water balance for the water phase is
L L m a Adl
l dl l A M +
+ (21)
or
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 6(19)
23.9.2010
dL m a Adl
A M
(22)
Water balance for air phase between the two levels is (with a constant dry air flow rate)
( ) ( ) VY m a Adl VY
l A M l dl
+
+
(23)
or
VdY m a Adl
A M
(24)
Combining all the water balances leads to
dL VdY m a Adl
A M
, (25)
which shows that the change in water flow is equal for both phases. So the change of humidity in air
related to the height of the tower is equal to the change of flow amount in water phase related to the
height of the tower. Because the direction of mass transfer is from water phase into air and water is
running downwards, flow tends to decrease in that direction. The change in both phases is equal to
the amount of water, which has been transferred.
Heat balance (or enthalpy balance) for whole balance area between the two levels is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Li VI Li VI
l dl l l l dl + +
+ + (26)
or
d Li VdI ( ) (27)
Heat balance for water phase between the two levels is
( ) ( )
,
Li Li q a Adl i m a Adl
l dl l x H A i A M +
+ + (28)
or
d Li q a Adl i m a Adl
x H A i A M
( )
,
+ (29)
Heat balance for air phase is
( ) ( )
,
VI q a Adl I m a Adl VI
l y H A i A M l dl
+ +
+
(30)
or
VdI q a Adl I m a Adl
y H A i A M
+
,
(31)
Heat balance (27) shows that change of enthalpy in the water phase is equal to the change of
enthalpy in air phase. Heat balance (29) shows that total heat flux from water phase to air phase
consists of heat flux q
x
and the enthalpy flux
A i A
m i
,
of mass transfer.
Since
i. Water is transferred in mass transfer,
ii. The interface of two phases is the balance boundary of the heat balance and
iii. Mass transfer in balance (29) is in water phase,
the enthalpy that moves along the mass transfer is same as the enthalpy of water at the phase
boundary in water phase. In other words the transferring enthalpy is the enthalpy of liquid water at
the interface of two phases i
A,i
, and i
A,i
= i
x,i
(because L phase is pure water).
Heat balance (31) is the corresponding equation in air phase. The total heat flux, which transfers to
air, consists of heat flux q
y
and enthalpy flux I m
A i A ,
carried by mass transfer. Again, since
i. Water is transferred in mass transfer,
ii. The interface of two phases is the balance boundary of heat balance and
iii. Mass transfer in balance (31) is in air phase,
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 7(19)
23.9.2010
the enthalpy that moves along the mass transfer is same as the enthalpy of water at the phase
boundary in air phase. In other words it is the enthalpy of water as steam at the interface of
phases I
A,i
(which is not equal to the enthalpy of V phase at the phase boundary I
y,i
).
Notice that since
A i A A i A
m I m i
, ,
(that is i I
A i A i , ,
), so equations (29) and (31) substituted in
equation (27) gives
q q
y x
(32)
2.3 OPERATING LINE
The operating line indicates how the quantities, which describe the states of the phases, depend
from each other. The equation of the operating line can always be derived from the balances of
equipment.
In the chosen T
x
,I
y
coordinates, the operating line of the cooling tower can be derived from the heat
balance (27) when the following assumptions are made: The flow rate of water is constant
(transferring amount is small compared to total flow) and heat capacity c
p,x
of liquid water is
constant:
O3: dL 0 and m 0 (33)
O4: i c T T
x p x x REF

,
( ) (34)
Substituting these assumptions to the left side of the heat balance (27) gives (For clarity, L phase is
marked with subscript x and V phase with y):
d( Li Ldi i dL Ld c T T i dL Ldc T
x x x p x x REF x p x x
) ( )
, ,
+ + (35)
The heat balance (27) becomes to
Lc dT VdI
p x x y ,
(36)
Integrating this over the whole tower gives (V, L, and c
p,x
are constant):
Lc T T V I I
p x x a x b y a y b ,
( ( ) )
, , , ,
(37)
Integrating between the top of the tower (marked with a) and an arbitrary level l (without subscript)
gives
Lc T T V I I
p x x x a y y a ,
( ( ) )
, ,
(38)
or between the bottom of the tower (marked with b) and an arbitrary level l gives
Lc T T V I I
p x x x b y y b ,
( ( ) )
, ,
(39)
Two last equations connect quantities I
y
and T
x
at an arbitrary height in the tower, so they are the
two forms of the operating line. Solving I
y
from equations (38) and (39) as a function of T
x
gives:
I
Lc
V
T I
Lc
V
T
y
p x
x y b
p x
x b
+
,
,
,
,
( ) (40a)
I
Lc
V
T I
Lc
V
T
y
p x
x y a
p x
x a
+
,
,
,
,
( ) (40b)
Hence, equations (40a) and (40b) are the equations of the operating line.
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 8(19)
23.9.2010
2.4 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Coefficients of heat and mass transfer are actually proportionality coefficients, which are defined
with the flux equation so that the flux can be calculated from the driving force:
flux
driving force
resistance
proportionality coefficient * driving force (41a)
This equation is commonly used in technology, for example in electrotechnology, heat transfer and
mass transfer. The flux equation does not define the mechanism, so all hypothesis about the
mechanism are included in the coefficients. So, when publicing a correlation, it must be told, in
which circumstances the correlation was derived so that it could be used correctly. (For example,
theres no use for a correlation of laminar flow in case of turbulent circumstances.)
2.4.1 Heat transfer
Heat transfer fluxes in the cooling tower are:
q h T T
x x x i
( ) (42)
q h T T
y y M i y ,
( ) (43)
Notice that the heat transfer coefficient h
y
of air phase holds simultaneously for heat and mass
transfer. In addition, according to equation (32) q q
y x
, because of the vaporization at the phase
boundary. Due to his, the overall coefficient of heat transfer U cannot be defined.
2.4.2 Mass transfer
Mass transfer flux from water to air can be calculated only in air phase, because there is no
concentration gradient in water phase and thus it has no resistance for mass transfer. In the air
phase:
N
k
y y
A
y
y
i

( ) , (44)
where
y
is the relative speed coefficient, which takes into account the deviations from equimolar
mass transfer:

y
i
i
z y z y
z
z y
z y
z
z y

( ) ( )
ln
( )
ln
1
(45)
If the mass transfer is equimolar, then
y
1 and if concentrations are dilute, so then
y
1. In
this case the mass transfer is not equimolar (only water transfers) but the concentrations are
assumed to be so small that
y
1 is a proper approximation. So
O5:
y
1 (46)
This leads to
N k y y
A y i
( ) (47)
Multiplying with the molar mass of the transferring component gives
m M k y y
A A y i
( ) (48)
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 9(19)
23.9.2010
Instead of mole fractions, the gradient of humidity is used in cooling tower. This can be changed
with equation (49):
y
n
n
m
M
m
M
m
M
Y
M
M
Y
M
A
A
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
B A

+

1
(49)
Equations (48) and (49) gives

+

_
,

_
,

m M k
Y
M
M
Y
M
Y
M
M
Y
M
k
Y
M
Y
M
Y
M
Y
M
A A y
i
A
B
i
A
A
B A
y
i
B
i
A B A
1 1
1 1
(50)
According to the assumption O5 (dilute concentrations) Y is small, so the second terms of the
denominator are negligible and equation (50) reduces to
m M k Y Y
A B y i
( ) (51)
Notify that M
B
is the molar mass of air, not water!
Since diffusion is not equimolar in the cooling tower (air does not dissolve in water), the
assumption O5 of low concentrations has to be used twice.
2.5 LEWIS EQUATIONS
It can be shown that
h
M k
c
y
B y
p y

,
(52)
holds quite well for air-steam systems. Calculations of cooling tower are based on an assumption
that heat and mass transfer can be described with one coefficient. This is possible if Lewis equation
(52) holds for air phase. In addition the Lewis number has to be one, that is
Le
Sc
y
y
y

Pr
= 1 (53)
Next, a rough estimate is calculated for steam in air (T = 25 C) by using physical properties of air.
Diffusivity of water in air is about 26*10
-6
m
2
/s (Treyball, 1980). Other values are obtained from
Kemian laitetekniikan taulukoita ja piirroksia (Keskinen, 1989):
Le
Sc
Pr
D
c
. *
. * *
. * * . *
.
.
.
.
y
y
y
p

18 43 10
1186 26 10
1843 10 1006 10
0026
0 60
0 71
085
6
6
6 3
(54)
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 10(19)
23.9.2010
2.6 HEIGHT OF THE TOWER
The height of the tower (packing) can be calculated with either HTU-method or HETP-method.
h N HETP * (55)
h NTU HTU * (56)
The HTU-method is used in this work, but the HETP-method is tried too. All calculations should be
made where the resistance is the greatest; in this work it means the air phase.
2.7 DERIVING THE EQUATION FOR CALCULATING THE HEIGHT OF THE TOWER
Substituting equations (43) and (51) to equation (31) gives:
VdI h T T a Adl I M k Y Y a Adl
y y M i y H A i B y i M
+
, ,
( ) ( ) (57)
Next, the mass transfer is assumed not to affect heat transfer and the surface areas for heat and mass
transfer are equal in size. Also the Lewis equation is assumed to hold for the air phase, so:
O6: h h
y M y ,
(58)
O7: a a a
M H
(59)
O8:
h
M k
c
y
B y
p y

,
(60)
Substituting assumptions (O6 O8) into equation (57) gives:
[ ]
VdI M k c T T I x x aAdl
y B y
p y
i y A i i
+
,
,
( ) ( ) (61)
The expression inside the brackets is the difference of enthalpy of humid air between the phase
boundary and bulk as in equation (10). Substituting this into equation (61) results in:
VdI M k I I aAdl
y B y y i y
( )
,
(62)
According to equation (63), the change in the enthalpy of air related to the height of tower is
proportional to the product of mass transfer coefficient and the difference of enthalpies in the air
phase (phase boundary bulk). So, the driving force for heat transfer is the enthalpy gradient.
Equation (62) can be rearranged:
dl
V
M k aA I I
dI
B y y i y
y

_
,

1
( )
,
(63)
This can be integrated over the tower from the bottom (b), where Y is small, to the top (a), where Y
is large.
o
l
I
I
B y y,i y
y
dl l
V
M k aA (I I )
dI
y b
y a

_
,

,
,
1
(64)
If the first quotient of the right side stays constant in the tower, equation (65) is obtained:
l
V
M k aA I I
dI H N
B y y i y I
I
y y y
y a
y b

_
,

1
( )
,
,
,
, (65)
which is the final equation for calculating the height of the tower.
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 11(19)
23.9.2010
In equation (65) H is the height of transfer unit (HTU) and N is the number of transfer units (NTU)
in the tower. Subscript y indicates that calculations are made in air phase.
2.8 NTU
The number of transfer units in air phase is
N
I I
dI
y
y i y I
I
y
a
b

1
( )
,
(66)
This integral is the inverse of driving force (enthalpy gradient). This means; the smaller the driving
force, the higher the tower.
Water and heat transfers from the water phase to the air phase in a cooling tower, so the cooling
tower corresponds to a stripper (figure 2).





T
x,a
, I
y,a

T
x,b
, I
y,b

equilibrium
I
y,i

T
x,

I
y

I
y,i
-I
y

T
x,i
-T
x

T
x


h
M k
x
B y

Operating
line

Figure 2. Determining the number of transfer units.

The integral has to be calculated numerically, which gives
N
I I
dI
I I
I
y
y i y I
I
y
y i k y k k
K
y k
y b
y a

1 1
1
( ) ( )
, , , ,
,
,
,
(67)
In order to calculate the value of the integral, a relationship between the enthalpy of air at the phase
boundary I
y,i
and in the bulk phase I
y
is needed on every level of the tower. This refers to the slope
of tie line, which connects these two states (figure 2).
The integral is calculated numerically as follows:
1. The interval being integrated (the length of the operating line) is portioned out to I
y

2. From each subinterval a value for I
y
is chosen (I
y,k
).
3. The corresponding T
x
is calculated.
Now the operating line point (T
x,k
, I
y,k
) is known.
4. The phase boundary point (T
x,i,k
, I
y,i,k
) corresponding to the operating line point (T
x,k
, I
y,k
) is
calculated.
The phase boundary point cannot be explicitly calculated from the operating line point
but it is determined by the operating line point and the tie line.
The phase boundary point is to be determined by iterating either graphically or
numerically.
5. When the operating line point and (T
x,k
, I
y,k
) and the corresponding phase boundary point
(T
x,i,k
, I
y,i,k
) are known, the value of the integral in a subinterval k is calculated.
6. Finally, all calculated values are summed.
There is an example of calculating a cooling tower with MS.EXCEL program in appendix 1. The
equilibrium line (or phase boundary) points are solved with SOLVER (the difference of a-a or -
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 12(19)
23.9.2010
is being minimized). Notice that cooling tower corresponds theoretically to a stripper, so the
operating line lies below the equilibrium line but the integral is the difference of enthalpies in the
equilibrium line and in the operating line, so it is positive.
2.9 SLOPE OF THE TIE LINE
According to equation (27) d Li VdI ( ) . Substituting this into the left side of equation (62) gives
d Li M k I I aAdl
x B y y i y
( ) ( )
,
(68)
Substituting the equation of heat transfer in the L phase (42) into the heat balance of the L phase
(29) gives
d Li h T T a Adl i m a Adl
x x i H A i A M
( ) ( )
,
+ (69)
Since the amount of water, which transfers from the water phase to the air phase, is negligible
( m
A
0 ), the enthalpy carried by the transferred water is negligible, too:
d Li h T T a AAdl
x x x i H
( ) ( ) (70)
Equations (68) and (70) and assumption O7 give
M k I I aA l h T T aA l
B y y i y x x i
( ) ( )
,
d d (71)
Now the slope of tie lines is obtained:
m
I I
T T
h
M k
y i y
i x
x
B y

( )
( )
,
(72)
If the coefficient of heat transfer is small in the water phase, the slope is small too, and the tie line
approaches a horizontal line. If the coefficient of heat transfer is much greater than the coefficient of
heat transfer in the air phase, the tie line approaches a vertical line.
2.10 HTU
The height of transfer unit in the air phase is obtained from equation (65):
H
V
M k aA
y
B y

_
,

(73)
Since the conditions vary in the tower, gives equation (73) different values for the height of transfer
unit in the top and in the bottom of the tower.
2.11 CALCULATING THE COEFFICIENTS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
The required mass and heat transfer coefficients can be calculated from empirical correlations based
on experimental data. These correlations are usually in the form of:
Sh bRe Sc
n m
Nu bRe Pr
n m
(74)
St bRe Sc
M
n 1 m 1

St bRe Pr
H
n 1 m 1

(75)
Due to the analogy of heat and mass transfer, the parameters b, n, and m are same in equations (74)
and (75). Defining the coefficients for mass transfer is such a difficult task that these correlations
typically exists only for cases where transfer is between a fluid and a solid surface, and the analogy
of heat and mass transfer can be used (heat transfer between solid surface and fluid is a typical heat
transfer problem in process industry).
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 13(19)
23.9.2010
Now the liquid can be thought to percolate along the surface of the packing material and air flows
upwards. The following correlation, which describes mass transfer in turbulent flow, would then be
correct enough:
Sh Re Sc 0023
0 8 1 3
.
. /
Nu Re Pr 0023
0 8 1 3
.
. /
(76)
Although the Reynolds number in the layer will not be higher than 2100, this correlation is used.
Situation for the water phase is more complicated. The velocity of the water is very low, so its
Reynolds number is small and furthermore the calculated Nu-number and heat transfer coefficient
may become very small. In order to avoid this, the following correlation is used in the water phase:
Nu Re Pr + 2 0 05
1 2 1 3
. .
/ /
(77)
This will ensure that the Nu number will not be smaller than 2,0. Different correlations are used for
air and water phase, which is a very common procedure.
The definitions of dimensionless numbers are:
Sc
D
Ab

Sh
kd
cD
p
Ab
Pr

c
p

p
hd
Nu (78)
St
Sh
Sc
k
cu
M

Re

p
H
uc
h
Sc
Nu
St

Re
(79)
It should be defined in every correlation how the values in the correlations are calculated.
Especially, when calculating height of packing, the definitions and calculations of flow velocities
ought to be well-defined.
The velocity of a flow in a packing layer can be defined as superficial velocity or as interstitial
velocity. In correlations (76) the velocities are the interstitial velocities in a pipe, so the they should
be used when calculating the height of the tower. The ratio of the superficial velocity to the
interstitial velocity is the void fraction of bed . The Reynolds number in a bed is then
Re
x
p x x
x
d u

Re
y
p y y
y
d u

(80)
where the characteristic dimension of packing layer is the particle diameter d
p
. So, when using
correlations (76), Reynolds number is calculated with interstitial velocities, which are:
u
L
A
x
x

u
V
A
y
y

(81)
in which it is assumed that humidity is negligible, and the mass flow of dry air can be used. Notice
that the velocity of liquid flow will be very small since it is calculated per the whole cross-sectional
area (of which the gas flow takes the most, which is ignored).
Since flows L and V change as a function of height, the calculations will give local L and V, a local
Re, local Sh and Nu, and finally local k and h. An example of calculations is shown in appendix 1.
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 14(19)
23.9.2010
3. EQUIPMENT
3.1 COOLING TOWER
In the laboratory work a cooling tower made of plexiglass, a schema of which is shown in figure 3,
is used. The tower is in the machinery room E334 of chemical engineering laboratory.

Exiting
air
Air flow
Hot water
Water tank
Fan

Figure 3. Cooling tower.
Plastic Pall rings of 2 in are placed as packing material inside the tower. The height of the packing
is 2000 mm and the inner diameter of the tower is 580 mm. The rotameter of water flow gives the
flow rate as percentage terms of the maximum flow rate, which is 6018 l/h (20 C).
3.2 MEASURING EQUIPMENT
In the laboratory equipment there are readily attached:
Rotameter of incoming water
Thermometer for incoming and exiting water and air flows and for water tank.
Also a psychrometer is needed for the work.
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 15(19)
23.9.2010
4. OPERATING THE TOWER
4.1 STARTING THE WORK
The work is started according to the assistants instructions. Measurements are done with two
different incoming water flow rates, which are given by the assistant. Temperatures and the
humidity are measured every four (4) minutes until the temperature of the water tank stays constant.
4.2 MEASUREMENTS
Measurements are done with two different incoming water flow rates. In both measurements the
following values are documented after the system has stabilized:
Incoming water flow rate from (rotameter)
Humidity of incoming air from the inlet pipe (near the fan)
Temperature of incoming water
Temperature of incoming air
Temperature of exiting water
Temperature of exiting air
Temperature of water tank
Also measuring accuracy of every value is estimated and documented.
When all measurements are done, the results are shown to assistant.
4.3 FINISHING THE WORK
After the assistant has approved the results, the laboratory equipment is shut down, the surroundings
is cleaned up, and all other equipment is returned where they belong.
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 16(19)
23.9.2010
5. REPORT
1. Operating line
Assume that the exiting air is saturated.
Assume that water flow in the tower is constant and equals to L
a
.
Calculate the flow rate of dry air from the heat balance of the whole tower.
Define the operating line equation and its end points in (T
x
, I
y
) -coordinates.

2. Calculate the amount of vaporized water in the tower. Compare it to the water flow.

3. Calculate h
x
, h
y
and k
y
at the top and bottom of bed
Use the physical properties of air in its temperature.
Diffusivity of water in air is 26*10
-6
m
2
/s.
Velocities are interstitial velocities in the bed (use the flow rate of dry air). The void fraction
of bed can be obtained for example from Perry (1973).
Calculate the concentration in Sh number from ideal gas law. Molar mass of air is M = M
B

=0.029 kg/mol

4. Calculate the Le number from equation (53) at the top and bottom of the bed. Calculate the
left side of the equation (52). Compare it to the heat capacity of dry air.

5. N and HETP
Draw the operating line and the equilibrium line graphically or with computer.
Define number of needed ideal stages N by stepping off the tower manually.
Assume that HETP is 3 ft.
Calculate the height of the tower

6. NTU and HTU
Calculate the height of transfer unit HTU.
Calculate the number of transfer units NTU (for example, as in appendix 1).
Calculate the height of the tower.
(If h
x
>> k
y
, the temperature of phase boundary is the same as the temperature of the water
phase.)

7. Incorrect estimate as in general instructions.
A numerical incorrect estimate is not needed.
Pay special attention to gross and systematic errors and to general estimate of the results.
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 17(19)
23.9.2010
6. NOMENCLATURE
A free cross-sectional surface of the tower, m
2

a surface for mass or heat transfer, m
2
/m
3

a
H
effective heat transfer surface, m
2
/m
3

a
M
effective mass transfer surface, m
2
/m
3

b parameter, dimensionless
c molar concentration, mol/m
3

c
p,A,y
heat capacity of steam, J/kg
c
p,B
heat capacity of dry air, J/kg
c
p,x
heat capacity of the water phase = heat capacity of liquid water, J/kg
c
p,y
heat capacity of the air phase = heat capacity of humid air, J/kg
d
p
characteristic dimension of the packing, m
D
AB
diffusivity, m
2
/s
f relative humidity, dimensionless
l height of the packing, m
h
x
heat transfer coefficient in the water phase, W/m
2
/K
h
y
heat transfer coefficient in the air phase, W/m
2
/K
H
y
height of transfer unit in the air phase, m
i
x
enthalpy in the water phase = enthalpy of liquid water, J/kg
I
A
enthalpy of steam, J/kg
I
y
enthalpy in the air phase = enthalpy of humid air, J/kg
k
y
mass transfer coefficient in the air, kmol/s/m
2

L flow rate of water, kg/s
m parameter, dimensionless
m
i
mass of component i, kg
m
A
mass transfer flux of water to the air phase, kg/m
2
/s
M molar mass, kg/mol
n parameter, dimensionless
N
A
mass transfer flux of water, mol A/m
2
/s
N
y
number of transfer units in the air phase, dimensionless
p total pressure
q
x

heat flux leaving from water, W/m
2

q
y

heat flux entering air, W/m
2

T
i
temperature at the phase boundary, C
T
x
bulk temperature in the water phase, C
T
y
bulk temperature in the air phase, C
V flow rate of dry air, kg/s
u
x
velocity of water, m/s
u
y
velocity of dry air, m/s
Y bulk humidity of air, kg H
2
O/kg dry air
Y
i
humidity of air in the phase boundary, kg H
2
O/kg dry air
y mole fraction of water, dimensionless
y
i
mole fraction of water at the phase boundary, dimensionless
Greek letters
slope of the tie line, J/kgK
empty space, void fraction, dimensionless
heat conductivity, W/mK

x
density of water, kg/m
3

y
density of humid air, kg/m
3

relative speed coefficient in mass transfer, dimensionless
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 18(19)
23.9.2010
Subscripts
a top of the tower
b bottom of the tower
A water
B dry air
i phase boundary
H heat transfer
M mass transfer
y air phase = humid air
x water phase = water
Superscripts
* equilibrium value
mean value
Dimensionless numbers
Le Lewis number
Nu Nusselt number
Pr Prandtl number
Re Reynolds number
Sc Schmidt number
Sh Sherwood number
St
H
Stanton number for heat transfer
St
M
Stanton number for mass transfer
Aalto University School of Science and Technology/ Chemical Engineering 19(19)
23.9.2010
7. REFERENCES
Keskinen, K.I., Kemian laitetekniikan taulukoita ja piirroksia, Otakustantamo, 1989
McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C. and Harriot, P., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, McGraw-
Hill, 5th ed., 1993
Perry, R.H. and Chilton, C.H., eds., Chemical Engineers Handbook, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, 1973.
Treyball, R.E., Mass-Transfer Operations, McGraw-Hill, 3rd. ed., 1980
8. APPENDIXES
1. Sample calculations by Martti Pekkanen (values for packing materials from Perry (1973)).

Appendix 1 23.9.2010 1


23.9.2010
Cooling tower
Saturated air-water system T I* Y*
I*=aa+bb*T^cc Y*=aaa+bbb*T^ccc 10 30.1 0.0084
aa= 22.725754 aaa= 0.007656 20 55.8 0.0132
bb= 0.051216 bbb= 7.860E-07 30 102.0 0.0259
cc= 2.159413 ccc= 2.956000 40 173.2 0.0504
Tref=0 50 264.6 0.0904
Physical properties of air Physical properties of water
cp,B= 1.00 kJ/kg/K cp,x= 4.18 kJ/kg/K IA(Tref)= 2500.00 kJ/kg
MB= 0.0290 kg/mol iA(Tref)= 0.00 kJ/kg
cp,y= 1.88 kJ/kg/K rA(Tref)= 2500.00 kJ/kg
Operating line
a b, saturated b
V*I= 63.85 34.90 22.05 =V*I kW
I= 102.00 55.75 35.23 =I kJ/kg
V*Y= 0.0162 0.0082 0.0038 =V*Y kg water/s
Y= 0.0259 0.0132 0.0060 =Y kg water/kg dry air
Ty= 30.00 20.00 <------ 20.00 =Ty C
V= 0.63 0.63 0.63 =V kg dry air/s
tower initial
L= 0.50 0.50 0.50 =L kg/s
Tx= 45.00 31.15 25.00 =Tx C
ix= 188.10 130.20 104.50 =ix kJ/kg
L*ix= 94.05 65.10 52.25 =L*ix kW
b, saturated is the state of saturated air in the feed temperature T=Tyb of the air phase
Water feed flow rate L= 0.50 kg/s
Amount of vaporized water V*(Ya-Yb)= 0.01 kg/s
Proportion of vaporization Vaporization / water flow rate= 2.50 %
Heat power of cooling tower L*(ixa-ixb)= 41.80 kW
Power of vaporization V*(Ia-Ib)*ra= 31.19 kW
Proportion of vaporization Vapoization / heat= 74.61 %
Height
Hy= 0.16 m From page 2
Ny= 1.00 From page 3
h= 0.16 m
Appendix 1 23.9.2010 2


23.9.2010
Tower a= 500 m2/m3
e= 0.8 A= 0.36 m2
dp= 0.003 m
Transfer coefficients
water phase air phase
a b a b
T= 45.00 25.00 30 20 C temperature measured
eta= 0.000599 0.000894 0.000019 0.000018 kg/m/s viscosity from literature
cp= 4178.70 4178.80 1006.60 1006.30 J/kg/K heat capacity from literature
lam= 0.637100 0.606300 0.026400 0.026000 J/m/K/s heat conductivity from literature
Pr= 3.93 6.16 0.71 0.71 Pr number =eta*cp/lam
eta= 0.000019 0.000018 kg/m/s viscosity from literature
roo= 1.166900 1.205000 kg/m3 density from literature
D= 0.000026 0.000026 m2/s diffusivity assumption
Sc= 0.62 0.58 Sc number =eta/roo/D
m= 0.50 0.50 0.63 0.63 kg/s mass flow rate measured
roo= 1000.00 1000.00 1.166900 1.205000 kg/m3 density from literature
V= 0.000500 0.000500 0.536476 0.519513 m3/s volume flow rate =m/roo
u= 0.001736 0.001736 1.862764 1.803866 m/s velocity =V/A/e
Re= 8.70 5.83 349.28 353.82 Re number =roo*u*dp/lam
Nu= 4.33 4.21 2.22 2.25 Nu number
Sh= 2.12 2.10 Sh number
c= 40.09 41.46 mol/m3 molar concentration =p/RT
h= 918.77 851.36 19.57 19.49 J/m2/K/s heat transfer coefficient =Nu*lam/dp
k= 0.7360 0.7542 mol/m2/s mass transfer coefficient =Sh*c*D/dp
k'= 0.018358 0.018190 m/s mass transfer coefficient =Sh*D/dp
Hy= 0.16 0.16 m height of transfer unit =m/MB/k/a/A
Lewis
all values are from tha air phase air phase
a b
Le= 0.86 0.81 Le number =Sc/Pr
left side of the lewis equation = h/MB/k= 916.74 890.92 J/kg/K
Right side of the lewis equation = cp= 1006.60 1006.30 J/kg/K heat capacity from literature
abs. rel. difference % = 8.93 11.47
Appendix 1 23.9.2010 3


23.9.2010

Tie lines
hx= 900.0000 a= -44335
ky= 0.7000
Ny DIy= 5
operating line phase boundary Ny
Iy Tx Iy,i Tx,i a' Iy,i-Iy DNy Ny (a'-a)^4
35.23 25.00 0.00
40.23 26.50 83.35 26.50 -43800 43.13 0.12 0.12 8.20E+10
45.23 28.00 90.99 27.99 -43681 45.77 0.11 0.23 1.83E+11
50.23 29.49 99.13 29.49 -43789 48.90 0.10 0.33 8.87E+10
55.23 30.99 107.75 30.99 -43716 52.53 0.10 0.42 1.47E+11
60.23 32.49 116.87 32.49 -43778 56.65 0.09 0.51 9.62E+10
65.23 33.99 126.50 33.98 -44005 61.27 0.08 0.59 1.19E+10
70.23 35.48 136.62 35.48 -43798 66.40 0.08 0.67 8.30E+10
75.23 36.98 147.26 36.98 -43916 72.03 0.07 0.74 3.07E+10
80.23 38.48 158.40 38.48 -43853 78.18 0.06 0.80 5.38E+10
85.23 39.98 170.06 39.97 -43870 84.84 0.06 0.86 4.68E+10
90.23 41.47 182.24 41.47 -43954 92.02 0.05 0.91 2.11E+10
95.23 42.97 194.94 42.97 -43962 99.71 0.05 0.96 1.93E+10
100.23 44.47 208.16 44.47 -44204 107.94 0.05 1.01 2.90E+08
105.23 45.97 221.91 45.96 -43901 116.68 0.04 1.05 3.53E+10
9.00E+11
Tie lines
hx >> ky => Tx,i = Tx Tie lines are vertical
Ny DIy= 5
operating line phase boundary Ny
Iy Tx Iy,i Tx,i Iy,i-Iy DNy Ny
35.23 25.00 0.00
40.23 26.50 83.36 26.50 43.13 0.12 0.12
45.23 28.00 91.00 28.00 45.77 0.11 0.23
50.23 29.49 99.13 29.49 48.91 0.10 0.33
55.23 30.99 107.76 30.99 52.53 0.10 0.42
60.23 32.49 116.88 32.49 56.65 0.09 0.51
65.23 33.99 126.50 33.99 61.28 0.08 0.59
70.23 35.48 136.63 35.48 66.41 0.08 0.67
75.23 36.98 147.27 36.98 72.04 0.07 0.74
80.23 38.48 158.42 38.48 78.19 0.06 0.80
85.23 39.98 170.08 39.98 84.85 0.06 0.86
90.23 41.47 182.26 41.47 92.03 0.05 0.91
95.23 42.97 194.96 42.97 99.73 0.05 0.96
100.23 44.47 208.18 44.47 107.96 0.05 1.01
105.23 45.97 221.94 45.97 116.71 0.04 1.05
Appendix 1 23.9.2010 4


23.9.2010

Saturated air-water mixture Enthalpy
I1=aa+bb*T^cc aa= 22.725754
bb= 0.051216
cc= 2.159413
dd=
ee=
Values from literature ABS, %
T I I1 DI DI / I DI / I (DI / I)^2
C kJ/kg k.i.
10 29.29 30.12 -0.83 -0.028 2.83 0.000800
15 42.03 40.47 1.56 0.037 3.71 0.001377
20 57.43 55.75 1.68 0.029 2.92 0.000853
25 76.36 76.20 0.16 0.002 0.21 0.000004
30 99.77 102.00 -2.23 -0.022 2.23 0.000498
35 129.1 133.31 -4.21 -0.033 3.26 0.001062
40 166.1 170.27 -4.17 -0.025 2.51 0.000629
45 213.4 213.00 0.40 0.002 0.19 0.000004
50 274 261.61 12.39 0.045 4.52 0.002046
2.49 0.007274
Saturated air-water mixture Humidity
Y2=aaa+bbb*T^ccc aaa= 0.007656
bbb= 7.86E-07
ccc= 2.956543
ddd=
eee=
Values from literature ABS, %
T Y Y2 DY DY / Y DY / Y (DY / Y)^2
C kg /kg k.i.
10 0.007636 0.008367 -0.000731 -0.096 9.57 0.009168
15 0.010660 0.010015 0.000645 0.061 6.05 0.003665
20 0.014710 0.013178 0.001532 0.104 10.42 0.010851
25 0.020110 0.018337 0.001773 0.088 8.82 0.007776
30 0.027230 0.025967 0.001263 0.046 4.64 0.002153
35 0.036610 0.036539 0.000071 0.002 0.20 0.000004
40 0.048920 0.050520 -0.001600 -0.033 3.27 0.001070
45 0.065080 0.068375 -0.003295 -0.051 5.06 0.002564
50 0.086320 0.090567 -0.004247 -0.049 4.92 0.002421
5.88 0.039671