UNIT 02.

THE POLITICAL
ORGANIZATION OF THE
WORLD.
 INDEX

1. POLITICAL ORGANISATION
1.1. TYPES OF STATES
1.2. NON-DEMOCRATIC REGIMES
1.3. RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS OF DEMOCRACY
1.4. THE SPANISH CONSTITUTION
2. THE POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF SPAIN
2.1. INSTITUTIONS WITH STATE POWERS
3. TERRITORIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION
3.1. AUTONOMOUS GOVERNMENT
3.2. PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT
3.3. LOCAL GOVERNMENT
4. THE EUROPEAN UNION
4.1. EUROPEAN STATES
4.2. THE INSTITUTIONS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
4.3. CRITICISM OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
5. SUPRANATIONAL ORGANISATIONS: THE UN

1. POLITICAL ORGANISATION
Political regimes: Democracy. States manage their territory and the population that lives in it
following a series of rules and institutions that apply laws. Therefore, we can distinguish di erent
political regimes according to the characteristics of political power and the way it is accessed.
Nowadays, the world’s most common political regime is democracy.
Democracy is a political system based on the principles of individual liberty and equality before
the law. It also advocates the separation of powers:
• Legislative power has the mission of making and passing laws.
• Judicial power has the function of administering justice and enforcing laws.
• Executive power has the function of applying policies and laws, as well as ensuring the correct
function of the state. Executive power is represented by a president and his or her government.

In democratic systems, sovereignty is held by the people, or in other words, in the citizens who
elect political representatives. This choice is made through an electoral system called universal
su rage, in which all adult citizens have the right to vote without any discrimination.
Democracies are usually multi-party; that is, there are di erent political parties that seek people’s
votes during elections. Each party presents candidates and a government programme in which
they o er their political, social, cultural and economic proposals, amongst others.
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The parties respond to di erent ideologies. When they achieve state, regional or local power, they
govern for a certain period of time. In Spain this is four years. Parties that are not in power provide
an opposition to the actions of the government.
In a democracy, people use their vote to elect representatives for the territory’s political
institutions. In the case of Spain, there are municipal, autonomous, legislative and European
elections. Additionally, a special election called a referendum can be held. It is used to ask
citizens for their opinion on a speci c issue.

1.1. TYPES OF STATES

According to the distribution of power in territorial divisions, a state can be centralised (A if it is
the central government that applies the law equally throughout the territory) or decentralised (B, if
decisions are taken by the territorial divisions).
According to the way the head of state is appointed, a state can be a monarchy if there is a king
or queen who holds o ce by right of succession, or a republic, where the head of state is a
president who has been elected.

1.2. NON-DEMOCRATIC REGIMES

Although democracy is the most widespread political regime, there are other non-democratic
regimes in which political parties are prohibited, or there is just one party with authoritarian
government. In this case the rights of citizens, separation of powers and equality before the law
do not exist or are very limited.
- Theocratic regimes. These are regimes in which the legitimacy of power is based on religious
principles. In these states, power is exercised by the religious authorities, and sacred books and
texts are the basis of laws. This is the case in Iran.
- Communist regimes. At present, very few countries are governed by Communist regimes. The
clearest examples are China and Vietnam. All policy decisions are channelled through a single
party that controls government bodies.
- Absolute monarchies. A king or emperor governs with absolute or dictatorial rule, relying on
collaborators or parliaments elected directly by him.
- Military or presidential dictatorships. In this type of regime freedom is restricted and power is
controlled by a military or political elite.

1.3. RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS OF DEMOCRACY

Democratic systems usually defend a series of individual freedoms for citizens, which are a series
of rights. These freedoms include the right to life, freedom of expression and freedom of
assembly, among others. However, not all democratic countries guarantee these rights in the
same way. Many of the individual rights advocated by democracy are contained in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, a document approved by the UN in 1948.
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1.4. THE SPANISH CONSTITUTION
The text that sets out the principles and fundamental laws of a state is called the Constitution. All
other rules of the state must comply with the principles and provisions that are set out in it.
In Spain, the current Constitution was adopted by a referendum on 6 December 1978. The text
was the result of a consensus and understanding between all political forces of the time it was
approved.
The constitution de nes Spain as a social and democratic state of law: it provides social,
economic and political rights, as well as the opportunity to participate in democratic processes for
all citizens, whilst those who lead it are subject to law.

It declares that sovereignty resides in the people and guarantees fundamental rights and
freedoms to citizens, as well as equality before the law for all Spaniards. It also establishes the
separation of powers (executive, legislative and judicial).
It states that the political form of the Spanish state is the parliamentary monarchy. That is, the
king is the head of state with functions that are de ned in the Constitution. However, he does not
govern the country.
It recognises the right to political autonomy for di erent nationalities and regions within the unity
of the Spanish nation; and organises the territory into Autonomous Communities and cities, which
can govern themselves. It also organises smaller bodies such as provinces and municipalities.

The Spanish Constitution also establishes a series for fundamental rights and public freedoms for
citizens. Some of them are accompanied by prohibitions, such as freedom of expression, which
means that censorship is prohibited. The state is obliged to intervene to ful l some of these rights.
This is the case with the right to education, which implies that the state must provide free basic
education.
Some of the duties of Spanish citizens are also established in the Constitution, such as
contributing to the maintenance of public expenditure through the tax system.

EXERCISES I

1. In your notebook, classify the following characteristics according to the political

regime or regimes to which they belong.

a) Economic system based on collective ownership of the means of production.

b) Constitution.
c) They are characterised by being autocratic.
d) One single political party.
e) They can be a theocracy.
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 f) Separation of powers.
g) They use repression to impose their will on the civil population.
h) They place all power in the hands of the state, without restrictions or divisions
i) They restrict personal freedoms and citizen rights.

2. Research the types of political regime that exist in the following countries and compare
them with your own country. Write your answers in your notebook.

3. In your notebook, complete this diagram showing the separation of powers in

democracies.

4. Read this text and then answer the questions.

a) Is democracy a new system of governance?

b) Which are the most important principles of democracy?
c) Is it possible to have a democracy without separation of powers?
5. Choose the right words from the vocabulary related to democracy: democracy,
opposition, monarchy, candidate, bureaucracy, executive, voting, oligarchy, campaign,
dictatorship.
a) The term _________ refers to a form of power structure in which power
effectively rests with a small number of people.
b) The form of government in which the head of state is a king or queen is called a
______ .
c) A ______ is a person seeking or nominated for election to a position of
authority such as president, prime minister etc.
d) A _______ is a form of government in which all eligible people have an equal
say in the decisions that affect their lives.
e) A ________ refers to an autocratic form of government in which the
government is ruled by an individual.
f) The formal decision-making process by which a population chooses an
individual to hold public offce is known as ______ .
g) The _______ comprises one or more political parties or other organised groups
that are opposed to the government.
h) The _______ branch of government is the part of government that has sole
authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy.
i) An election ______ is a series of coordinated activities, such as public
speaking and demonstrating, designed to achieve a social or political aim.
j) The term _______ refers to an administrative system in which the need or
inclination to follow rigid or complex procedures impedes effective action.
2. THE POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF SPAIN
Spain is a democracy which is organised as a parliamentary monarchy. Therefore, although the
king is the head of state, power is exercised by other institutions.

2.1. INSTITUTIONS WITH STATE POWERS

Spanish Parliament (Cortes Generales)
This holds legislative power. Its mission is to make and pass laws and state budgets and control
the actions of the government.
It is made up of two parliamentary chambers: The Chamber of Deputies, which is the main
institution that represents the people, and the Senate, which is the chamber of territorial
representation.
Government
This holds executive power. It consists of the president and ministers who apply or enforce laws
approved by the Cortes Generales. They also direct domestic and foreign policy, the defence of
the nation and the General Administration of the state. The president of the government is elected
by the Chamber of Deputies, and he chooses his ministers.
High Courts of Justice
They exercise judicial power. They are composed of judges and magistrates who administer
justice and enforce the law. The Supreme Court is the highest court in the land. In addition, the
judicial government body is the General Council of the Judiciary, which has competences
throughout Spain. Its aim is to guarantee the independence of the judiciary. Therefore, sovereignty
resides in the Spanish people. One way to express the will of the people is with elections in which
citizens elect their representatives in di erent state, sub-national and supranational institutions.

3. TERRITORIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION

Spain is organized into municipalities, provinces and autonomous communities. Each of these
territorial units is administered by di erent levels of government.
The most important principles of the Spanish State are:
1. Spain is a democratic State, based on national sovereignty and universal su rage.
2. Spain is a Parliamentary Monarchy. The king of Spain, Philip VI, is the Head of State, who
represent Spain in the international community. But he has no political power, his role is only
representative.
3. The system of government is based on the division of powers: executive, legislative and
judicial.
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3.1. AUTONOMOUS GOVERNMENT
Spain is organised into 17 Autonomous Communities and two Autonomous Cities (Ceuta and
Melilla).
Each Autonomous Community has its own Statute of Autonomy, where the institutions of the
community, its competences and its funding system are set out.
The Constitution also establishes the institutional organisation of the Autonomous Communities:
- The Legislative Assembly is elected by universal su rage every four years and is responsible
for making laws. Its members elect a president from amongst the members. This person is the
highest representative of the autonomous community.
- The Governing Council ful ls executive and administrative functions. It is made up of the
president, vice presidents and, where appropriate, councillors.
- The High Court of Justice of each community is the highest legal body within the jurisdiction of
a territory.

3.2. PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT

Spain is organised into 50 provinces. A province is a group of municipalities with a governing
body called the Provincial Deputation. Its mission is to promote municipal cooperation. It is
known as the Foral Deputation in the Basque provinces and in Navarra. However, the Provincial
Deputation does not exist in the single-province Autonomous Communities or in the islands,
where there are speci c government bodies called island councils: insular councils in the Balearic
Islands and cabildos in the Canary Islands.

3.3. LOCAL GOVERNMENT

The municipality is the basic territorial division. It consists of one or more cities, towns or villages
in an area which varies in size. Its government is in charge of the council, made up of the mayor
and several councillors. The number of councillors is not the same in all municipalities, as it
depends on the number of inhabitants. Councils are responsible for providing important services
for citizens: street lighting, cleaning services, roads and pavements, facilities such as libraries
and sports centres, etc.
Other non-territorial bodies are also included in the Constitution:
- Sub-municipal bodies that depend on a municipality: hamlets, councils and parishes.
- Supramunicipal bodies that are made up of a group of several municipalities, such as counties
or associations of municipalities, which are voluntary groups that provide certain services to
inhabitants.
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4. THE EUROPEAN UNION

4.1. EUROPEAN STATES

The predominant political system in Europe is a democracy, but during the second half of the 20th
century until the fall of socialism, in 1991, the Communist regimes of Eastern Europe lived
alongside the democracies of the West.
Countries that lived under communist regimes include Russia, Poland, Romania and Hungary,
amongst others.
At present, the political con guration of European countries is either:
- Constitutional monarchy, like the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands and Sweden.
- Republics, like France and Germany.
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4.2. INTEGRATION PROCESS.
-TREATY OF PARIS (1951): established the European Coal and Steel Community. The idea of
pooling Franco-German coal and steel production was not only economic but also political, as
these two raw materials were the basis of the industry and power of the two countries. The
political objective was to strengthen Franco-German solidarity.
The French Foreign Minister, Robert Schuman proposed that Franco-German coal and steel
production be placed under a common High Authority within the framework of an organisation in
which other European countries could participate.
France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands accepted the challenge and
began negotiating a treaty. The Treaty was signed in Paris on 18 April 1951 and entered into force
on 23 July 1952. This treaty created a common market for coal, iron ore and scrap for steel
production.
The aim of the Treaty, as stated in Article 2, was to contribute, through the common market for
coal and steel, to economic expansion, growth of employment and a rising standard of living.
Thus, the institutions had to ensure an orderly supply to the common market by ensuring equal
access to the sources of production, the establishment of the lowest prices and improved working
conditions. All of this had to be accompanied by growth in international trade and modernisation
of production.
- TREATY OF ROME (1957). The six countries that signed the European Coal and Steel
Community, signed at Rome a new Treaty constituing the European Economic Community (EEC),
or Common Market, whose main objectives were the free movement of people, goods, services
and capital, and the suppression of customs and tari s.
- MAASTRICHT TREATY (1992): signed on 7th February by the 12 country members of the
European Economic Community. It created the European Union and led to the creation of the
EURO, a common currency. Furthermore, the Treaty established three great common policies:
economic and monetary union, common foreign and security policies and cooperation in judicial
and domestic matters.

4.2. THE INSTITUTIONS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION

- EUROPEAN COUNCIL
This is made up of the heads of state and government of each EU country. In addition, the
President of the European Council and the President of the European Commission also participate
in meetings, although they do not vote. The Council meets several times a year to set general EU
policy.

- EUROPEAN COMMISSION
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 This is the executive power of the EU, which is responsible for proposing legislation, policies and
programmes of action. It consists of 28 members (one per country) for a period of ve years. Both
the president and the other members are elected by the governments of states and have to be
endorsed by the European Parliament.

- EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT
This approves the laws and annual budget of the EU, controls the European Commission and
gives opinions on the decisions taken by the European Council. Its members are elected every
ve years by universal su rage of EU citizens. Today, the European Parliament consists of 751
members, who are grouped into di erent political parties.

- COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION

This is the main legislative and decision-making body of the European Union. It also coordinates
economic policy and is responsible for foreign policy and security. It represents the governments
of the member states and its meetings are attended by the minister responsible for the matter to
be discussed.

4.3. CRITICISM OF THE EUROPEAN UNION

In recent years, a social and political movement that opposes the integration process has gained
force within the member states of the EU. This movement has led to the formation of political
parties that have managed to enter the European Parliament.
Experts in European policy have identi ed three types of critical movements with the union:
- Those who accept economic cooperation, provided that this does not reduce the political
sovereignty of the country or a ect its economy. These groups are called Eurosceptics.
- Those who do not accept any type of integration are called Europhobes.
- Those who accept integration, but not the current use that is being given to institutions.

Most of these criticisms express the need for a Europe that is more concerned with social
problems, such as unemployment and immigration, than with defending a neoliberal economy.

EXERCISES II
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5. SUPRANATIONAL ORGANISATIONS: THE UN
Supranational organisations are bodies to which states delegate part of their sovereignty so that
they can deal with problems together. Increasingly, the problems that states face require
cooperation with other countries of the world.
The United Nations is one of the most important supranational organisation. It was founded in
1945, after the end of the Second World War. Nowadays 193 countries belong to it, and they
share tasks such as the maintenance of peace, the defence of human rights and humanitarian
assistance.
The UN includes the following organs:
* General Assembly. Representatives of the member states meet here. They discuss matters
such as peacekeeping, international cooperation and the approval of budgets.
* Security Council. There are 15 member countries, of which ve are permanent members
(Russia, China, the United States, France and the United Kingdom). Its decisions are binding for
member states. The permanent members have the right to veto decisions. The non-permanent
members are elected every two years.
* Secretary-General. This is the person in charge of the administrative o ce of the
organisation, appointed by the General Assembly in accordance with the recommendations of
the Security Council.
In case of con ict, UN peacekeeping forces known as the ‘Blue Helmets’ try to put an end to
hostilities and protect the basic rights of civilian populations.
The UN also includes speci c bodies such as the Economic and Social Council and the
International Court of Justice to carry out other duties.
Other organs that depend on the UN are UNICEF (children), UNESCO (education, science and
culture) and UNHCR (refugees).
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EXERCISES III

1. In your notebook match each UN organ with the function it carries out