Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792

DOI 10.1007/s00170-015-6858-z

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Characteristics of machined and formed external threads

in titanium alloy
Diogo Tubertini Maciel & Sérgio Luiz Moni Ribeiro Filho &
Carlos Henrique Lauro & Lincoln Cardoso Brandão

Received: 2 September 2014 / Accepted: 27 January 2015 / Published online: 18 February 2015
# Springer-Verlag London 2015

Abstract Mechanical components with easy assembly, Keywords Titanium alloy . Form threading . External
especially those that use the threading process, are es- Threads . Ti-6Al-4V
sential for industrial products. Fixtures using threaded
components are employed from the aircraft to medical
industry. The mechanical fixings by tapping, for exam-
ple, in the biomedical field have the function of facili-
tating the initial insertion of orthopedic and dental com- 1 Introduction
ponents and of ensuring excellent grip. The aim of this
work was to study the external thread by the forming The tapping of titanium and its alloys has attracted interest
process in Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy using a forming from researchers and scientists in the academic and industrial
head with three rollers. Ti-6Al-4v titanium alloy was sectors, especially in the aerospace and biomechanical fields.
used due to its excellent mechanical properties and wide Titanium and its alloys are nonferrous materials that are fre-
application as an aircraft and mechanical component quently applied in the production of aeronautic components
material. A statistical methodology (DoE) was per- because of their light weight [5, 34], high mechanical resis-
formed to identify and evaluate the effect of the factors tance [29, 10, 23], and excellent corrosion resistance [35].
(initial diameter, forming speed, and measuring position) Titanium alloys are also used with temperatures ranging from
on the responses; hardness, fill rate, and thread profile. 0 to 600 °C [25].
The results showed that the characteristics of the threads However, machining is not only used to make parts and
depend on the factors of the threading processes. The machines. The process can also be employed to help in the
forming and machining speeds were the main parame- correct functioning of the human body. This occurs not only
ters affecting the process. The hardness in the thread’s with the production of prostheses and implants to replace
crest was lower than at the base and the middle regions. bones and cartilages but also by improving the quality of
Finally, the threads reached a desired profile with an devices used in complex heart surgeries. The interest and evo-
excellent fill rate not only for formed threads but also lution of manufactured implants to recover injured individuals
for machined threads. intensifies in times of war, improving the research on biocom-
patible materials. Titanium was introduced to medicine in the
1940s with the paper of Bothe et al. [6] about the reaction of
bone to multiple metallic implants. The authors implanted
several metals (titanium, stainless steel, and cobalt–chromium
D. T. Maciel : S. L. M. R. Filho : L. C. Brandão (*)
alloy) in the femur of rats, with no significant adverse
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of São
João del-Rei, 36.307-352Campus Santo Antônio, São João del reactions.
Rei, Brazil According to Zhang and Yang [37], titanium and its alloys
e-mail: [email protected] are widely applied nowadays, but their components are very
difficult to manufacture. This is due to their low elasticity
C. H. Lauro
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, modulus, generating a friction torque that is seven times great-
Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal er than in pure carbon steel. The solution to this problem can
780 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792

be the use of assisted vibration. This process has been used Basically, all metallic materials can be threaded by the
extensively, achieving good results, such as a decrease in form-tapping process. However, several gaps in the knowl-
torque, an increase in tool life, and an improvement of thread edge associated with this process need to be filled [22].
accuracy [26]. Kuo [24] investigated assisted vibration in the Studies on the influence of parameters, such as forming speed,
internal tapping of pure titanium without coolant. The author initial diameter of the hole, fill rate of the thread profile, as
supports the use of a coolant, and smaller diameters for the well as on the behavior of materials, are of great importance
initial holes maintaining this can significantly decrease torque for the command of this process [11, 26, 36, 2].
in the process. In addition, the forming process produces a significant in-
Dogra et al. [15] affirm that the machining of threads is a crease in torque, and hence machine power, when compared
widespread process that should be carefully prepared in its with traditional thread machining [9, 1]. The study of alterna-
setup, paying attention to the tool’s parameters. Failures like tive methods provides scope for a significant increase in the
tool breakage, premature wear, and damage to the workpieces flexibility of the form-tapping process taking into account the
can generate losses not only due to the constant change of tooling, making it more efficient, with less energy consump-
tools but also due to the loss of production time. Such situa- tion. According to Fromentin et al. [19], there is a growing
tions should always be avoided, or at least minimized. interest of industries in metal forming, particularly in the au-
According to Reis et al. [31], tool wear should be controlled tomotive industry, due to the inherent advantages of the sys-
because it can influence the process parameters, such as tem- tem when also using the MQL system. The main advantage is
perature, power, and cutting force. Cao and Sutherland [8] that a great number of threaded holes can be formed with
affirm that the great problem in tapping is the breaking of greater reliability and increased cleanness.
the tap in process due to the increase in torque generated by External thread forming provides thread profiles with a
the clamping of the tool. better surface and threads with more strength when compared
Armarego and Chen [4] studied the torque, pressure, and with traditional threading [21]. The increase of strain speed
lateral force in tapping and concluded that new studies should improves the thread profile, generating a more significant im-
be carried out to improve understanding of the subject. Araujo provement in the form-tapping process [1]. In addition, the
et al. [3] studied a specific force model in the milling of metallographic structure should be considered after the fin-
threads to evaluate the tool’s effects on the geometry of the ished profile. Fromentin et al. [17] and Pereira et al. [30]
threads in order to improve the development of the process. studied the plastic strain and the high strain stress generated
The cutting models proposed were developed considering the after form tapping. The authors concluded that form tapping is
tool’s primary geometry in order to better understand the mill- a good option when compared with the traditional tapping
ing of threads. Dias et al. [12] studied and developed a special process. However, it is suggested that only materials with high
forming process using a tool with radial and axial ductility have great potential for manufacturing by thread
displacement. forming. Generally, there are materials that continuously gen-
The use of coolants is necessary during tapping to decrease erate chips when the traditional process is applied, which
the forces in the process. Browmick et al. [7] studied the makes them more suitable for the forming process [13].
tapping of AM60 alloy with minimum quantity lubrica- As such, and taking into account the peculiarities and dif-
tion (MQL) and compared this with the dry process. ficulties encountered in the threading on titanium, both pro-
They observed that the use of coolant (MQL) can de- cess, traditional threading and forming, should be studied
crease the adhesion of magnesium on the tool’s surface more extensively. Because both processes result in additional
and the development of an edge. Thus, an increase in properties that could satisfy several requirements such as
tool life occurred, demonstrating that the use of a cool- strength at high temperatures, high stress, low wear rate of
ant is paramount. In practice, form tapping is not fre- the tooling, and low tendency to chemical reactions.
quently applied in manufacturing industry because the
companies have a limited understanding of the parame-
ters involved in the process. 2 Materials and methods
In some cases, an exchange of the traditional tapping pro-
cess by form tapping can be justified by its great advantage: no 2.1 Experimental tests
chip generation. This means less time cleaning the threaded
region, because chips can generate interference during the Experimental tests were carried out using a CNC lathe with a
assembly of components [18]. Furthermore, not generating FANUC 0i numerical control model. Two different systems,
chips in the form-tapping process gives it an edge over tradi- machining and forming, were applied to manufacture external
tional tapping when environmental aspects are taken into ac- threads of M10 and pitch of 1.5 mm. The forming of the
count, given that there is less waste discarded in the environ- threads used a head rolling model Fette with three rolls posi-
ment in the form of chips. tioned at 120 degrees radially. On the other hand, the
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792 781

machining process used Iscar code 16 ERM AG60 inter-

changeable inserts and a R166 25 × 25 tool holder
manufactured by ISCAR. Workpieces of Ti-6Al-4V titanium
alloy with 12 mm of diameter were used to manufacture the
threads. The fixture of the workpieces had an overhang of
15 mm for both processes. To facilitate the machining of
threads, the tools were fixed in the inverted position on the
tool holder, because with the cutting edge pointing down, the
chips will fall by gravity. The standardization of the initial
diameter for both processes was based on the ISO standard
DIN 13-1 [14], as can be seen in Table 1.
The height of threads was verified using a camera assem-
bled on a profile projector. Three measures were taken at the
crest (A), middle (B), and end (C) of the threads, according to
Fig. 1. The use of the camera also enabled a visual inspection
of the thread quality.
The microhardness was measured according to the
ASTM E384-07 (2007) standard. Based on the ASTM
standard, the indentations were produced according to
the Vickers test. The measurements were carried out
using a WPM model HP 250 microhardness tester with
a square-based pyramidal indenter by applying a load of
50 grf (0.49 N) for 10 s. Figure 2 shows a schematic of
the three positions: crest, base, and center-line, where
the microhardness tests were carried out.

Fig. 1 Detail of the thread’s light

2.2 Ti-6Al-4V alloy

Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy contains additives of α and β stabi-

phases present in the alloy and the existence of grains was
lizers and a microstructure that consists of a mixture of α and
observed with well-defined boundaries with the presence of
β phases. Cylindrical workpieces of length of 15 mm and a
α phase (lighter) and β phase (darker) without hardening.
hardness of 325±11 HV were used in the experimental tests.
Figure 3 shows the scanning electron microscopy images of
Table 2 shows the chemical composition according to ASTM
the Ti-6Al-4V alloy after etching. As stated before, the α and
F136. The chemical analysis reveals that the microstructure
β phases in the titanium alloy are well defined without hard-
was in line with the ASTM standard.
ening. Thus, the SEM analysis confirms that the titanium alloy
The titanium alloy was characterized using optical and
used in the experiments had a very homogeneous
scanning electron microscopy to verify the microstructural
microstructure.
homogeneity, grain size, and intermetallic phases. The micro-
structural analysis of the alloy and the threads was carried out
using a model TM 3000 SEM manufactured by Hitachi and a
model BX51 optical microscope manufactured by Olympus.
The Ti-6Al4V alloy was etched with 2 % of hydrofluoric acid
(HF) and 10 % nitrite acid (HNO3) during 5 s to show the

Table 1 Standardization for M12 threads

Thread Pitch Primitive diameter External diameter

[mm]
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]

M12 1.5 10.854 10.994 11.732 11.968

Fig. 2 Positions of the microhardness tests
782 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792

Table 2 Ti-6Al-4V chemical composition and standardization by ASTM F136 (% mass)

Element % Mass

Al [%] V [%] Fe [%] O [%] C [%] H [%] N [%] Y [%] Ti [%]

Ti-6Al-4V 5.5 3.5 0.25 0.14 0.08 0.01 0.03 50 ppm Balance
ASTM F136 5.5–6.5 3.5–4.5 0.25 Max 0.23 Max 0.08 Max 0.012 Max 0.05 Max – –

2.3 Design of experiments where i=1, 2, 3 (values for forming speed), j=1, 2, 3 (values
of measurement position), k=1, 2, 3 (values of diameter), and
Design of experiments (DoE) consists of a set of statistical l=1, 2, 3 (number of replicates). Yijkl is the response (out), μ is
techniques that provides a method to structure, plan, execute, the global mean of the responses for all statistical treatments,
and analyze experiments. The DoE is used to determine the and τi represents the effect of the input parameter forming
best condition of input parameters to obtain an optimal re- speed. βj represents the effect of the measurement position,
sponse [28]. The DoE approach has become essential to de- γk represents the effect of diameter, and (τβ)ij represents the
termine and examine the behavior of threading processes and effect of the interaction between τi and βj. Furthermore, (τγ)ik
to identify which factors are most significant. Table 3 shows is the effect of the interaction between τi and γk, (βγ)jk is the
the parameters and experimental levels investigated in exter- effect of the interaction between βj and γk. Finally, (τβγ)ijk is
nal thread forming. The experimental levels complied with the the effect of the interaction between τi, βj and γk, and εijkl is the
supplier’s catalogue for nonferrous materials [16]. In addition, mathematical model of the randomized error.
the study carried out by Carvalho et al. [9] about form tapping Table 4 shows that the cutting speed of 38.83 m/min was
on magnesium alloy AM60 was also used as a reference to the limit for the machining of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy while still
define the experimental levels. A complete design of experi- ensuring an acceptable finishing of the threads. Preliminary
ments (3k), for forming and cutting tapping, was applied to tests were carried out to define the upper speed limit for the
identify the main effects and the interaction of the input factors external threading of the titanium alloy. When forming speeds
on the responses. were higher than 38.83 m/min, an imperfect titanium alloy
The linear statistical model for the thread-forming process deformation was generated and the thread profiles showed a
can be defined as: format that did not comply with the ISO DIN 13 standard. The
diameter was measured in both the entry and exit of the work-
Y ijkl ¼ μ þ τ i þ β j þ γ k þ ðτβÞi j þ ðτγ Þik piece using a three-point digital micrometer with 10 μm of
accuracy.
þ ðβγ Þ jk þ ðτβγ Þi jk þ εijkl ð1Þ
The linear statistic model for the cutting threading process
is given by Eq. (2)

Y i jl ¼ μ þ τ i þ β j þ ðτβÞi j þ εi jl ð2Þ

where i=1, 2, 3 are the cutting speed values, j=1, 2, 3 are the
measurement positions, and l=1, 2, 3 are the number of rep-
licates. Υijkl is the response (out), μ is the global mean of the
responses for all statistics treatments, τi represents the effect of
the cutting speed factor, βj represents the effect of measure-
ment position, (τβ)ij represents the effect of the interaction

Table 3 Factors and levels of the form-threading process

Symbols Input parameters Levels

−1 0 +1

Fspeed Forming speed [m/min] 4.60 9.15 18.30

Mposition Measuring position Start Middle End
θi Initial diameter [mm] 10.85 11 11.15
Fig. 3 Scanning electron microscopy of Ti-6Al-4V
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792 783

Table 4 Factors and levels of the threading process by machining Table 6 Analysis of variance for formed thread

Symbols Input parameters Levels ANOVA Df Sum of Mean F values P values

square square
−1 0 +1
Thread profile
Mspeed Machining speed [m/min] 19.43 29.13 38.83 Fspeed 2 0.0351 0.01755 3.41 0.040
Mposition Measuring position Start Middle End Mposition 2 0.02162 0.01081 2.10 0.132
θi 2 3.62758 1.81379 352.24 0.000
Fspeed × Mposition 4 0.00031 0.00008 0.01 1.000
between τi and βj, and εijkl is the statistical model for random-
Fspeed × θi 4 0.07399 0.0185 3.59 0.011
ized error.
Mposition × θi 4 0.00343 0.00086 0.17 0.954
Table 5 shows the factors evaluated for the microhardness
Fspeed × Mposition 8 0.00804 0.00101 0.20 0.990
response, where only the values of the measurement position × θi
were varied. This variation generated an experimental array 33 Residual error 54 0.27806 0.00515
and 32 with three replicates and a result of 81 and 27 measure- R2 93.13 %
ments for the thread forming and cutting processes, Height of thread
respectively. Fspeed 2 0.011302 0.005651 4.39 0.017
Mposition 2 0.033584 0.016792 13.04 0.000
θi 2 0.614608 0.307304 238.65 0.000
3 Results and discussions Fspeed × Mposition 4 0.007493 0.001873 1.45 0.229
Fspeed × θi 4 0.006597 0.001649 1.28 0.289
The statistical software was used to perform the design of Mposition × θi 4 0.008784 0.002196 1.71 0.162
experiment (DoE) and analysis of variance (ANOVA) tech- Fspeed × Mposition 8 0.001793 0.000224 0.17 0.994
niques. The analysis of variance was used to verify the signif- × θi
Residual error 54 0.069535 0.001288
icance of each experimental factor on the responses based on a
R2 90.77 %
confidence interval of 95 %. Tables 6 and 7 show the results
Microhardness
for the analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the formed and
Fspeed 2 5,842.7 2,921.3 24.5 0.000
machined threads, respectively. The second column indicates
Mposition 2 213.1 106.5 0.89 0.415
the degrees of freedom (df), the third column represents the
θi 2 5,746.4 2,873.2 24.09 0.000
sequential square sum (Seq SS), and the fourth column shows
the adjusted square sum (Adj SS). Furthermore, the fifth col- Fspeed × Mposition 4 2,447.5 611.9 5.13 0.001
umn exhibits the adjusted mean square (Adj MS) that is cal- Fspeed × θi 4 2,036.9 509.2 4.27 0.004
culated by dividing the sum of adjusted squares by the number Mposition × θi 4 609.4 152.3 1.28 0.290
of degrees of freedom (Adj SS/DF). Fspeed × Mposition 8 565.8 70.7 0.59 0.779
× θi
The F parameter represents the F ratio, which is calculated Residual error 54 6,440 119.3
by dividing the adjusted mean square of each factor by the R2 83.06 %
mean square error. Finally, the last column shows the P values,
which indicate the probability of the Adj MS factor and Adj
MS error having the same value, that is, the probability of each 0.05, the effects are considered significant. When the value of
factor having no influence on the diameter of the formed α is less than or equal to 0.05, there is a 95 % probability of the
thread profile. In other words, the P values indicate whether effect being significant. The R2 (Adj) value exhibited in the
the results are statistically significant. If the P value is less than ANOVA shows the proportion of the variability present in the
observations of the response variable y, which is explained by
Table 5 Factors and levels of the microhardness
the predictor variables in the regression equation. The closer
Symbols Parameters Levels the coefficient is to 1 (or of 100 %) for R2, the better the quality
of the fitted data to the equation; it is generally accepted that a
−1 0 +1 value above 70 % is acceptable [28].
Fspeed Forming speed [m/min] 4.60 9.15 18.30 The main effect is present when different values of the
Mposition Measuring position Middle Base Crest factor affect the response differently, and the interaction oc-
θi Initial diameter [mm] 10.85 11.00 11.15
curs when the variation of the average response depends on
Mspeed Machining speed [m/min] 19.43 29.13 38.83
the value of a second factor. The main effect of a factor should
Mposition Measuring position Middle Base Crest
be interpreted individually only if there is no evidence that the
factor does not interact with other factors. It should be
784 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792

Table 7 Analysis of variance for machined thread 11.9

0.802%

Mean Crest Thread diameter [mm]

ANOVA Df Sum of Mean F values P values 11.8
square square
11.7
Thread profile
5.174%
11.6
Mspeed 2 0.098935 0.049467 107.79 0.000
Mposition 2 0.027743 0.013871 30.23 0.000 11.5 0.695%
Mspeed × 4 0.003316 0.000829 1.81 0.172 Forming Speed [m/min]
Mposition 11.4 4.60
Residual error 18 0.008261 0.000459 9.15
0.638
R2 94.03 % 11.3 18.30

Height of thread profile 10.85 11.00 11.15

Mspeed 2 0.009231 0.004616 5.92 0.011 Initial diameter [mm]
Mposition 2 0.001235 0.000617 0.79 0.468 Fig. 4 Relationship between forming speed, initial diameter, and mean
Mspeed × 4 0.001164 0.000291 0.37 0.824 crest thread diameter
Mposition
Residual error 18 0.014026 0.000779 proportional behavior for each initial diameter of the work-
R2 85.39 % pieces. It can be seen that for the diameter of 10.85 mm the
Microhardness material has little bulk to be deformed and the use of a high
Mspeed 2 126 63 0.64 0.540 forming speed provides the smallest diameters of threads. On
Mposition 2 3,174.89 1,587.44 16.05 0.000 the other hand, when the bulk of material is high, for a diam-
Mspeed × 4 1,079.11 269.78 2.73 0.062 eter of 11.15 mm, for example, low forming speeds are need-
Mposition
Residual error 18 1,780 98.89
ed, such as a forming speed of 4.6 m/min. The Ti-6Al-4V
R2 91.10 %
titanium alloy has a medium ductility value because of the
aluminum in its chemical composition (about 5 %). Thus,
the perfect forming of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy needs to be
considered that, when one or more interaction effects are sig- carried out slowly to generate threads without the influence of
nificant, the factors that have interaction must be considered elastic recovery. According to Mosecker et al. [27], who stud-
and evaluated together. The results are presented using “main ied the sheet metal forming of Ti-6Al-4V, the elastic recovery
effect” and “interaction” plots. Interaction graphs are used to controls not only the local hardening but also the thickness
visualize the interaction effect of two or more experimental reduction of the material. As such, the use of low forming
factors on the response [28]. speeds and high diameter values provided a thread with a high
height due to the low local hardening. In addition, it can be
affirmed that the percentage of reduction in diameter of
3.1 Thread profile
0.802 % between the low and high forming (at 11.15 mm of
initial diameter) speeds was not relevant.
3.1.1 Formed thread

The diameter measurements for the thread forming ranged 3.1.2 Machined thread
from 11.28 to 11.91 mm. As previously mentioned, the pa-
rameters with a P value less than or equal to 0.05 are consid- The measurement of the diameters for machining threads
ered significant. The bold P values 0.040, 0.000, and 0.011 in ranged from 11.88 to 12.14 mm. The bold P values 0.000
Table 6 show that the main factors forming speed, diameter, and 0.000 for machining speed and diameter, respectively, in
and the interaction forming speed vs. diameter were of signif- Table 7 show that these input parameters affected the measure-
icant influence on the diameter of the thread forming profile. ment of machining thread profile diameters. The value of
In this way, only the interaction forming speed vs. diameter 94.03 % for adjusted parameter R2 shows that the adjusted
was exhibited, as can be seen in Fig. 4. The value of 93 % for model was satisfactory.
the adjusted parameter R2 shows that the adjusted model was Figure 5 shows the main effect plot for machining speed on
satisfactory. the external diameter of the machined thread profile. High
The reduction of forming speed was observed to provide a cutting speed values are seen to provide high diameters for
variation of 5.174 % in the forming profile diameter consid- the machined thread profile. The increase in cutting speed
ering the initial diameters 10.85, 11.00, and 11.15 mm, at a generated a gradual increase of 1.22 % in the diameter of the
forming speed of 4.60 m/min (continuous dark line). In addi- machined profile. This is, therefore, the opposite of what hap-
tion, the variation of the forming speed values showed a pened with thread forming: the use of high speed machining
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792 785

12.08
Although the ratio of length to diameter is small, the duc-
Mean Crest Thread diameter [mm]

12.06
tility of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy was influenced by the alu-
12.04
minum in its chemical composition and a bending of the
12.02
workpiece can be generated during the process. In machining
12.00
processes such as rough turning, finishing turning, and
11.98
threading, there is a resultant force formed by three forces.
11.96
The variation in diameter is related to radial force (passive
11.94
force), and it is strongly influenced by the overhang of work-
11.92
1.22% pieces when a tailstock is not used. Furthermore, depending
11.90
on the overhang used in machining threading, errors on the
diameter can increase significantly, impairing the assembly of
19.40 29.13 38.83
Machining Speed [m/min] threads. On the other hand, as seen previously, the overhang
has no influence on the diameter in the thread-forming pro-
Fig. 5 Relationship between machining speed and mean crest thread
diameter cess, keeping the diameter constant without variation. This
could be a great advantage of thread forming when compared
provided the highest thread profiles. Considering that in ma- with machining threading.
chining a shearing of material occurs related to the time of the
process, the use of high speed machining avoids the influence 3.2 Height of thread profile
of the elastic recovery on the material during the cutting mech-
anism. Although the increase was only 1.22 % in diameter, it 3.2.1 Formed thread
should be noted that this variation is of great influence on the
accuracy of threads during assembly, because it corresponds The values for height H ranged between 0.462 and 0.858 mm
to the tolerance range in the thread of 0.146 mm. for a perfect profile height HP of 0.92 mm (HP =0.61343×P),
The increase of the diameter proportional to the increase of as can be seen in Fig. 7. P values in Table 6 show that the
machining speeds reinforces that the material has high elastic forming speed, measuring position, and initial diameter affect-
recovery because of the rapid tool movements. Considering ed significantly the height of thread forming. The value of
that in machined thread, the major effect is a cutting mecha- 90.77 % for adjusted parameter R2 shows that the adjusted
nism rather than deformation of the material, the displacement model was satisfactory for the height of thread H results.
of the tool in the axial direction during the machined thread of Figure 8 shows a plot for the main effect of the forming
Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy can be affected by a small deflection speed on the height of thread profile H. The main effects
of the material. The measured values in the start position were charts show a better view of the effects of each factor involved
higher than the values at the middle and end position. The in the analysis of variance (see Table 6). It is, therefore, pos-
percentage of the difference between the diameters at the start sible to evaluate the controllable variables, which have signif-
and end position is approximately 0.64 %, as can be seen in icant effect on the responses. Because the interactions were
Fig. 6. Thread forming has, therefore, a great advantage over not significant, only the main effects of the experimental fac-
machining threading when the external diameter is tors are displayed. The increase of forming speed from 4.60 to
considered. 9.15 m/min provided a reduction of 3.91 % in the height of
thread profile H, and from 9.15 to 18.30 m/min, it resulted in
an increase of 3.64 %, as can be seen in Fig. 8. It is observed
12.04
Mean Crest Thread diameter [mm]

12.03
12.02
12.01
12.00
11.99

11.98
11.97 0.64%
11.96
11.95

End Middle Start

Measuring Position
Fig. 6 Relationship between measuring position and mean crest thread
diameter Fig. 7 Perfect profile height Hp and height H
786 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792

0.67 influence of elastic recovery. According to the results obtained

in this work, this assertion can be applied equally to the
Mean Height of Thread - H [mm]

0.665
forming of external threads in the Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy.
0.66 The measuring position directly affects the height of the
thread H. When the measuring point is changed from crest
0.655
to base, the height of the thread is reduced from 0.687 to
0.65 0.638 mm, representing a gradual decrease of 7.66 %. This
3.91% 3.64% behavior confirms the influence of the measuring position on
0.645 the response of H, as can be seen in Fig. 9. The difference
0.64
occurred due to the time of contact between the roller and the
workpiece, which is of influence on the deformation and the
4.60 9.15 18.30
Forming Speed [m/min]
flow of the material during the generation of the thread.
Usually, the rolling system should deform the entire length
Fig. 8 Relationship between forming speed and mean height of thread H
of the thread in order to reduce the effect at the end of the
thread, where the deformation is higher, providing lower di-
that lower forming speeds showed linearity with the mean ameters. However, it should be taken into account that the
values for height of thread profile H, and they were roughly length of the thread is greater than the length of the roll.
similar. Thus, a specific strategy in thread forming should be
To achieve a good profile produced by deformation of the employed to provide a complete deformation of the thread
material, forming speeds must be in the range of 4.6 to 18.3 m/ profile throughout its length to ensure the accuracy of
min. This statement correlates with ISO DIN 13-1 [14] for the assembly.
forming of standard M12 metric thread with pitch of 1.5 mm. The increase of initial diameter provides a significant in-
The height of the M12 thread should have a standardized crease of 35.96 % in the height of thread profile H, as can be
height of thread profile of 0.8819 mm. Based on this, the seen in Fig. 10. The elastic recovery of the material was high,
minimum error of the profile’s height was 3 %, considering represented by two straight lines with different gradients, the
the profile height of 0.858 mm (forming speed of 4.60 mm/ greater being between 11.00 and 11.15 mm. The type of thread
min, initial diameter of 11.15 mm, and first point measuring). in triangle format provides less material for the formation of
Stéphan et al. [33] also achieved good internal M8 thread large diameters.
profiles when using large volumes of material. An initial di- However, the use of large diameters to provide compacting
ameter lower than the one recommended by the tool’s supplier of the material can be compromised by elastic recovery.
provided a perfect thread profile. Unlike what was expected, the more the volume of material
In addition, the correct height of the thread profile based on used to fill the thread profile was, the higher was the elastic
the DIN 13 standard was obtained with low forming speeds, recovery of the Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy. Considering the
which provide the necessary time to deform the material with results, therefore, using a high initial diameter (11.15 mm)
low influence of the elastic recovery and high initial diameter was a good strategy to generate perfect thread profiles provid-
due to the great bulk of material that generated the most com- ing the best filling of the thread, in addition to using a forming
plete thread profile. Fromentin et al. [18] studied the forming speed of 4.60 m/min to avoid elastic recovery.
tapping of C70 carbon steel, and the forming speed used was
14 m/min at a nominal diameter (recommended by the tool’s
0.69
supplier). According to the authors, the rise in temperature
Mean Height of Thread - H [mm]

leads to the thermal softening of the work material, which is

0.68
beneficial in form-tapping operations. It can, therefore, be
concluded that the increase in diameter was proportional to 0.67
the height of the thread profile. The use of a high initial diam-
eter in the external thread can be a good solution to generate 0.66
better filling of the thread profile.
The use of high forming speeds are recommended for fer- 0.65
7.66%
rous materials because the heat generated during the process is
associated with a temperature rise and this is responsible for 0.64

the deformation of the material and generation of excellent End Middle Start
thread profiles [18]. On the other hand, low forming speeds Measuring position
in nonferrous material avoid not only a significant increase of Fig. 9 Relationship between measuring position and mean height of
thermally induced stresses and shape distortions but also the thread H
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792 787

0.8
3.3 Analysis of microhardness
Mean Height of Thread - H [mm]

0.75
3.3.1 Formed thread

0.7 The hardness tests were carried out to support the evidence of
hardening due to the strain of the material. The microhardness
0.65 in thread forming ranged from 303 to 385. The main factors
forming speed, initial diameter, and the interactions between
0.6 the forming speed vs. diameter and forming speed vs. measur-
35.96%
ing position affected the microhardness (see Table 6).
Figure 12 shows the interaction of the values forming
10.85 11.00 11.15
Initial diameter [mm]
speed vs. diameter considering the diameter of the forming
thread. The variation of the forming speed values showed a
Fig. 10 Relationship between initial diameter and mean height of
thread H separate behavior for each initial diameter on the workpieces.
A peak for diameter of 11.00 mm can be observed in Fig. 12
3.2.2 Machined thread when the forming speed of 9.15 mm/min was applied. The
increase in forming speed generated a variation of 4.60 %,
The values for height ranged between 0.913 and 1.055 mm. 5.86 %, and 3.46 % in the hardness HV for the forming speeds
Figure 11 shows the effect of machining speed on the thread’s of 4.60, 9.15, and 18.30 m/min, respectively. The highest mi-
height compared with the HP value, which affected the height crohardness obtained was 355 HV, but with the initial diame-
of thread (see Table 7). The intermediate machining speed ter of 11.00 mm.
value of 29.13 m/min showed the greatest thread profile Considering the height of thread H and the diameter of the
heights. The percentage difference between the heights of thread, the best group of parameters were, therefore, the
the threads in the range of 19.40 to 29.13 m/min and 29.13 forming speed 4.6 m/min and diameter of 11.15 mm, accord-
to 38.83 m/min were 4.25 % and 3.50 %, respectively. For the ing to the previous results. However, according to Fig. 12, the
machining of thread profiles, the ideal cutting speed was ob- maximum microhardness was 340 HV when these parameters
served to be close to 29.13 m/min. This is the opposite to what are taken into account. Although the microhardness of the
happened to the thread diameter variation: the height of the thread is directly related to the strength of screw, it should
thread H was higher when the medium cutting speed was be kept in mind that the physical dimensions of the thread
applied (29.13 m/min). should be considered according to the DIN ISO 13 standard.
Thus, the use of cutting speeds between 29.13 and 38.83 m/ In addition, the use of high forming speeds initially provides a
min provides not only higher external diameters but also hardening of the material, but then a softening of the material
higher thread height H. Considering the variation of these occurs because of the heat generated, decreasing the hardness.
parameters, it can be affirmed that higher diameters are re- Although the forming speed of 9.6 m/min had generated
sponsible for assemblies with better accuracy and higher the highest value for microhardness, as can be seen in Fig. 12,
thread heights considering the H value. This can provide more the variation of microhardness based on the initial diameter
resistance in the thread when the screw is subjected to tensile was only 5.86 %. As such, the low forming speed (4.6 m/min)
stresses.
355
Initial diameter [mm]
1.04 350 10.85
Mean for Microhardness [Hv]
Mean Height of Thread - H [mm]

11.00
1.03 345 11.15
4.60%
340 5.86%
1.02 3.50%

4.25% 335

1.01
330

1.00 325
3.46%
320
0.99
4.60 9.15 18.30
19.40 29.13 38.83 Forming Speed [m/min]
Machining Speed [m/min]
Fig. 12 Relationship between forming speed, initial diameter and mean
Fig. 11 Relationship between cutting speed and mean height of thread H for microhardness
788 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792

and high initial diameter (11.15 mm) should also be consid- for M8 threads. Similar results were found by Carvalho et al.
ered for microhardness. Therefore, it is possible to ensure a [9] in the form tapping of magnesium alloy AM60.
hardening of the material that may generate an increased re-
sistance, while maintaining the formed threads within the stan- 3.3.2 Machined thread
dard patterns.
Figure 13 shows the interaction effect for forming speed vs. The microhardness in the machining threading ranged from
measuring position of the mean values of microindentation 304 to 370 HV. The main factor measuring position was sig-
HV. The increase in forming speed generated a decrease of nificant, exhibiting a P value of 0.000 (Table 7). The value of
5.33 % and 4.15 % in the hardness HV in the crest and base of 81.10 % for adjusted parameter R2 shows that the adjusted
the thread, respectively. The percentage difference of the mi- model was satisfactory for the results obtained.
crohardness between the highest and lowest forming speed in Figure 14 shows the main effect of the measuring position
the middle region was approximately 10.59 %. The mi- on the microhardness for the threading process by machining.
crohardness values were greater in the thread’s central The microhardness in the thread’s crest was lower than in the
region. For the lowest forming speed (4.60 m/min), the middle and base. The microhardness values in the middle and
middle of the thread was the region with the highest base were roughly similar. The percentage difference between
microhardness. On the other hand, the forming speeds the microhardness of the crest region and the middle region
of 9.15 and 18.30 m/min showed a trend in which high was 16.7 % due to the structural rearrangement of the material
forming speeds generated lower microhardness in all generated by the cutting tool. In machining threading, material
regions of the thread. removal occurs in a triangular shape and the crest is not influ-
However, high forming speeds were not ideal for the hard- enced by the process because no material is removed in this
ening of the material and did not reduce the microhardness in region. The cutting tool tends to influence and increase the
the middle and crest of the workpiece. The highest microhard- hardening of material at the lateral and base of the thread
ness values in the middle of the thread profile occurred due to profile due to the cutting mechanism.
the displacement of the material from the base to the crest in
both sides of the thread profile. This phenomenon occurs due
to the incompressibility of the material that is forced between 3.4 Microstructural analysis of the thread
the two wedges with shaped threads of the screw during the
generation of the thread profile [33]. The deformation of the material during the thread-forming
The base of the thread profile was the second region with process can be analyzed according to the metallographic char-
high hardness due to the hardening of grains. The crest in the acteristics of the material. The objective is to evaluate the
external threading did not show a hardening as good as the one metallurgical aspects and failures that could arise from the
demonstrated by Carvalho et al. [9]. Despite being similar to heating of the workpieces or from the hardening of the mate-
the internal threads, the thread-forming mechanism for exter- rial. Fromentin et al. [19] and Henderer and von Turkovich
nal threads presented in this work is of great influence on the [20] analyzed these variables and concluded that the harden-
elastic recovery, avoiding a complete fill of the thread, mainly ing caused by the forming during the threading process is
in the crest. Stéphan et al. [33] support that the reduction of beneficial, increasing the hardness of the thread profile region.
initial diameter of 0.1 mm generates complete thread profiles However, in these studies, the authors did not analyze the
tensile strength and deformation of the threaded profile in the
350
360
2.66%
Measuring position
Mean for Microhardness [Hv]

Mean for Microhardness [Hv]

Base 345
350
Crest
1.82%
Middle 340
4.15%
340
335

330 2.14%
10.59%
330
7.16% 7.02%
320 5.33%
325

4.60 9.15 18.30 Middle Base Crest

Forming Speed [m/min] Measuring Position
Fig. 13 Relationship between forming speed, measuring position and Fig. 14 Relationship between measuring position and mean for
mean for microhardness microhardness
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792 789

axial direction, to which threaded parts are subjected more affected by the forming tool because of the low bulk of mate-
frequently in the assembly of industrial components. rial. A visual analysis reveals that there is no tearing of the
Figure 15a shows the optical microscopy of the forming material generating a surface with higher roughness values.
threads for the initial diameter of 11.00 mm and 9.15 m/min, The forming process generated a better surface roughness than
which showed higher packing according to the results for the machining process.
hardness. Figure 17a shows the microstructure of a machined thread
A hardening of grains in the microstructure can be consid- for the cutting speed of 29.13 m/min. The speed was not a
ered, which is a characteristic of forming threads. According significant parameter for the microhardness of the machining
to Emuge-Franken [16], a visible strain of the material struc- thread process, and no variation of the initial diameter oc-
ture can occur in forming threads, as can be observed in curred. The uniformity of the microstructure of the material
Fig. 15. This is due to the deformation in the base of the thread can be observed, without the presence of hardening of the
as well as near the crest of the thread and is a result of the grains. The machined threads showed a more complete
hardening of the material. Thus, this phenomenon causes a and perfect profile than the formed threads. This situa-
reduction of the so-called notching effect of the material, in- tion is confirmed because the profile of the machined
creasing its resistance when subjected to dynamic loads. threads was more similar to the standard profile than the
Figure 15b shows the microscopy of the forming thread for formed thread profile.
the diameter of 11.15 mm and forming speed of 9.15 m/min. However, the machined profile showed burr formation on-
Figure 16a shows the microscopy of the forming thread ly on one side of the thread profile: the region of contact
diameter of 10.85 mm and forming speed of 9.15 m/min. between the tool’s flank and the workpiece. In addition, the
Figures 16 and 17 show that less packing of threads occurred chip formation generates Poisson-type burrs because of the
for the diameter of 10.85 mm and the forming speed of ductility of aluminum in the Ti-6Al-4V alloy. In addition, the
9.15 m/min because of the low bulk of material deformed radii at the base of the thread profile in formed threads were
for the lowest initial diameters. In addition, the highest value 0.36 mm, and in machined threads, they were of 0.2 mm.
for H was obtained using the initial diameter of 11.15 and Generally, greater radii provide more resistance against crack
forming speed of 9.15 m/min. formation and these kinds of geometries are easier to
However, the thread crest geometry did not provide a stan- manufacture.
dardized profile according to the ISO standard DIN 13-1 [14] According to Shigley et al. [32], if the radius of curvature in
because the dimension of the crest became wider than recom- the notch tip is very small, or if there is no radius, the stress
mended by the standard. Nevertheless, despite the height of level is very high. Sharp corners are especially critical for
the thread being lower than recommended, the thread profile components submitted to axial efforts such as internal threads.
showed the same conditions for mechanical strength as the In addition, external threads are also submitted to axial and
standardized and machined profile based on the microhard- torsion forces simultaneously. Thus, machined threads
ness information. The range of microhardness for machining showed a more complete profile, closer to the standardized
and forming threads was the same, and this condition shows thread profile. In all machined threads, however, burrs were
that both thread profiles have similar mechanical resistance. formed and they require a deburring process after the
Figure 16b shows a typical surface finishing of the thread threading process. On the other hand, forming threads do not
profiles by forming. The feed rate marks were generated dur- reach a high value for H as specified in the standard profile
ing the preparation to define the exact diameter of the work- according to DIN 13 (1999), but they have a profile with no
piece. The forming process provides a good finishing without burrs and rounder corners that can avoid injury to operators
burrs or marks of the tool. The crest of the thread was not and a final deburring process.

Fig. 15 Microstructure of forming thread for diameter of 11.00 mm and cutting speed of 9.15 m/min (a) and diameter of 11.15 mm and cutting speed of
9.15 m/min (b) (zoom of 50×)
790 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792

Fig. 16 Forming thread for diameter of 10.85 mm and cutting speed of 9.15 m/min (zoom of 50×) a microstructure, b surface finishing of the thread

Figure 17b shows the typical surface finishing of the thread initial diameter of the workpieces were the most signifi-
profiles by the machining process. Contrary to the thread pro- cant factors.
file in the forming process, the machining threading generated & Considering the forming speed, there is an ideal midpoint
a worst finish. A visual analysis reveals that the surface rough- where the inertia of deformation causes the best hardening
ness was much higher than in the thread-forming process. of the grains and provides a better filling of the thread
Machining processes cause a tearing on the surface of the profiles. The variation of forming speed produced a dif-
materials, which sometimes require a posterior machining ferent characteristic of the thread profile for each initial
process, such as grinding or polishing, depending on the qual- diameter of the workpieces.
ity specifications of the product. According to Figs. 16b and & The increase of the diameters of the forming thread profile
17b, thread forming provides a high-quality finishing of the occurred as a result of a reduction of the forming speed
surface when compared with machining threading. and increase of the initial diameter.
Furthermore, the burr generated in machining threading was & The percentage difference of the deformed diameter be-
formed along the entire thread profile, requiring that a tween the high and low forming speeds was not signifi-
deburring process be performed as mentioned previously. cant. The smaller diameters of workpieces showed the
best thread profiles with an increase of the fill rate due to
the high forming speed.
4 Conclusions & The initial diameter is the most relevant factor for the fill
of the thread profile. The high elastic recovery of the ma-
The present study investigated the variations of forming terial can be confirmed in large diameters where no reduc-
speed, machining speed, initial diameter, and measuring posi- tion of the diameter of the thread can be observed.
tion in the forming and machining processes of external & It can also be noted that the thread-forming process should
threads. Based on the experimental results and subsequent be optimized considering the difference generated in the
analysis, the following conclusions can be drawn. value H for the height of the thread profile at the start,
middle, and end measuring positions. On the other hand,
& When considering the diameter and height H in the exter- the hardening of the grains can improve the quality of the
nal thread-forming process, the forming speed and the thread profile, which results in stronger threads. The

Fig. 17 Machining thread for cutting speed of 29.13 m/min (zoom of 50×) (a) microstructure, (b) surface finishing of the thread
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792 791

forming speed and initial diameter were the most signifi- 12. Dias LD, Brandão LC, Ribeiro Filho SLM, Coelho RT (2014)
Processing of threads on a magnesium alloy using a special process.
cant factors for the microhardness response.
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