Efficiency Maps of Electrical Machines

Amin Mahmoudi, Wen L. Soong Gianmario Pellegrino, Eric Armando

School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli
University of Adelaide, Australia Abruzzi 24, Torino, 10129 Italy
[email protected] [email protected]
[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract— This paper investigates the calculation, modelling and speed) by the efficiency at the corresponding point. The
and interpretation of efficiency maps for electrical machines. energy consumption of the traction drive can be estimated by
The efficiency maps are calculated using a finite-element based integrating the electrical input power over the driving cycle.
mapping of losses, torque and flux-linkage as a function of the Consequently, in order to improve the efficiency of a vehicle
d- and q-axis currents and speed. For modelling efficiency for a certain driving cycle, the motor maximum efficiency
maps, it is shown that a number of key loss types can be should be designed to cover its regular working area.
described in the form TmȦn. The effect of each of these losses The dashed lines in Fig. 1b show the torque-speed
on the shape of the efficiency map is then explored. It is found capability of the motor drive demonstrating its two operating
that practical efficiency maps can be approximated using a
modes: constant torque at low speeds and constant power at
series of such terms which leads to a better understanding of
the losses in the machine. The above results are validated using
high speeds.
the loss and efficiency maps of three example machines. When considering the design of motor drives, though the
efficiency of the drive is affected by both the efficiency of
I. INTRODUCTION the inverter and of the electric motor, there is generally
greater attention focused on the efficiency of the electric
A. Energy Efficiency of Traction Drives machine. This is because the efficiency of electric machines
Traction drives are the main propulsion drives for electric is normally lower than inverters and shows a greater
and hybrid vehicles and other transportation applications variability with operating point and type of machine.
such as ships and trains. They need to operate as efficiently
as possible to maximise the vehicle driving range. The
accepted means for evaluating vehicle energy efficiency is to
examine its performance over standard driving cycles. A
driving cycle is a representative vehicle velocity versus time
profile. There are different driving cycles for urban and
highway driving. Fig. 1a shows four example standard
driving cycles for vehicles.
Based on assumed vehicle characteristics, gear ratios and
control strategy, the required instantaneous electric machine
torque and speed to meet the driving cycle can be calculated
[1]. A scatter plot of these instantaneous torque and speed
requirements are plotted in Fig. 1b for one of the driving (a) four example driving cycles
cycles in Fig. 1a assuming different gearing ratios. This
example illustrates that under normal driving conditions, the
motor spends little time at its maximum output power, but
rather, most of its time at intermediate torque and speed
points.
An efficiency map for an electric machine is a contour
plot of the electrical machine efficiency on axes of torque
and speed. It describes the maximum efficiency for any
speed/torque combination and is a convenient way to
represent the motor drive over a range of operating points
defined by a driving cycle.
Using the instantaneous torque/speed operating points
shown in Fig. 1b and the efficiency map, the electrical input (b) operational points in the motor torque–speed plane
power for every operating point can be obtained by dividing Figure 1. Example driving cycles and the resultant operational points [1].
the mechanical output power (that is, the product of torque

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 B. Efficiency Maps of Electric Machines The following simplified machine analysis, applicable to
Permanent magnet machines are the primary type of induction (IM), surface PM (SPM) and interior PM (IPM)
traction machine used for commercial electric and hybrid machines, will be used for the loss function analysis during
passenger vehicles. This is because they offer a combination the constant-torque and constant-power operating regions.
of high torque density (small size) and high efficiency which Consider that the machine has two stator current
is difficult to surpass with other motor types. components: a flux-producing current IF and a torque-
Permanent magnet (PM) electric machines normally use producing current IT. The total stator current I = √(IT2 + IF2)
d- and q-axis current control to achieve smooth torque and with a stator resistance R, the stator copper loss is 3I2R.
control and fast dynamic response. The two key motor The main flux Φ in the machine is a function of the flux-
control variables are the d-axis stator current Id and the q- producing current IF. For induction machines it is given by
axis stator current Iq. The two main operating constraints are Φ ∝ IF, while for PM machines Φ ∝ IPM - IF where the
the machine voltage limit, set by either the inverter voltage equivalent current IPM represents the PM flux. The induced
capability or the battery voltage, and the machine current voltage in the machine V is proportional to Φ ω.
limit, set by either the inverter current capability or the motor The stator iron loss, taking only the main (fundamental)
thermal limit. flux Φ into account, is proportional to Φ2ω2 (eddy-current
The machine efficiency map is obtained by finding the loss) and Φ2ω (hysteresis loss). This ignores the armature
maximum efficiency for each torque T and speed ω reaction flux associated with the torque-producing current.
combination in the motor torque-speed plane. For example at The torque T, produced by the machine, is a function of
the desired speed, the combinations of the two control the torque-producing and the flux-producing currents: for
parameters Id and Iq, which produce the desired torque are induction machines: T ∝ Φ × IT ∝ IFIT, while for PM
examined. Then the combination is found which yields the machines T ∝ k1IT + k2IFIT (ignoring saturation effects).
highest efficiency while satisfying the machine voltage and Using this modelling approach and many simplifying
current limit. approximations for the machine control and performance, the
key loss terms of the form kmnTmȦn can be identified. These
C. Problem Statement
are summarized in Table I as a 4-4 matrix for kmn for m and n
In the context of electrical machines, efficiency maps values between 0 and 3. Both the constant torque and
have been mainly used in the drive design of electrical and constant power regions are examined for each machine. The
hybrid vehicles. For instance, efficiency maps are useful to following terms are used in the table: copper losses in the
compare the performance of different motor types [1-3]. stator (cu-s) and rotor (cu-r), iron loss (fe), magnet losses
There has however been little work done on interpreting and (mgnt) and windage losses (wdge).
modelling efficiency maps. In the constant torque region, the main copper loss term
The key novel contribution of this work is the description is k20T2 and the main iron loss term is k02ω2. Windage losses
of the power loss of the electrical machine at a given torque appear as k03ω3. In the constant power region, the key loss
T and speed Ȧ as the sum of loss terms of the form TmȦn type depends on the machine type: copper losses for the IM,
where m and n are integers. The details of the electrical iron losses for the IPM and magnet losses for the SPM.
machine modelling under constant torque and constant Fig. 2a shows a 4-4 matrix of contour plots for power
power operation is presented in Section II. Section III then loss terms kmnTmȦn as a function of torque and speed. The
describes the calculation of three example efficiency maps lower left term k00T0Ȧ0 is a constant while the left most
and Section IV examines their characteristics. Section V column represents terms related to only torque and the
describes the modelling of the calculated efficiency maps lowest row represents terms related to only speed. The top
using loss terms and Section VI describes some preliminary right plot refers to k33T3Ȧ3.
results from experimental measurements of efficiency maps. Fig. 2b shows the shape of the efficiency plots
II. THEORETICAL BASIS OF LOSS FUNCTIONS corresponding to each single loss term in Fig. 2a. The
relationship between each loss term TmȦn and the resultant
It is proposed that the power loss Ploss in an electrical efficiency map is given by,
machine can be expressed in the form,
Tω 1
Ploss (T , ω ) = ¦ k mnT mω n (1) η= = ≈ 1 − T m −1ω n −1 (3)
Tω + T ω
m n
1+ T ω
m −1 n −1

for integers m and n, and constants kmn. This concept has a for small values of Tm-1Ȧn-1. Thus the shape of the efficiency
solid physical basis. For example, consider a simple loss plots is similar to that of the loss plots one row down and one
model for a surface PM machine under maximum-torque- column left. The natural “centre” of plots is the k11TȦ plot
per-ampere operation. The no-load (eddy-current) iron loss which corresponds to a constant value of efficiency at all
is proportional to ω2. The torque is proportional to current operating points. For all the other efficiency maps in the
and hence stator copper loss is proportional to T2. Thus to a matrix, the highest efficiency is the point or line closest to
first approximation its loss can be described as, this “centre” plot. In addition, the further a given plot is from
the “centre” plot, the steeper the efficiency gradient within
Ploss (T , ω ) = k 20T 2 + k 02ω 2 (2) that plot.

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 III. FINITE-ELEMENT CALCULATION OF
TABLE I. PREDICTED ANALYTICAL LOSS FUNCTIONS EFFICIENCY MAPS
Induction A. Three Example 50-kW, 12-kr/min Machine Designs
Constant Torque Constant Power
T 3 Three example machines designed for a traction
T2 cu-s cu-r fe cu-s/r application are compared. An induction motor (IM), interior
T cu-s fe fe cu-r cu-s permanent magnet motor (IPM) and surface permanent
1 cu-s fe wdge fe wdge magnet (SPM) motor design for the same 50-kW, 12-kr/min
1 Ȧ Ȧ2 Ȧ3 1 Ȧ Ȧ2 Ȧ3 electric traction application were considered [7]. Their
Interior PM cross-sections are shown in Fig. 3. All machines have the
Constant Torque Constant Power same stack length and stator outer diameter. The key
T3 parameters of the motors are reported in Table II.
T2 cu-s fe fe cu-s Finite-element analysis was used to predict their
T cu-s performance characteristics [7], including the maximum
1 fe fe wdge cu/fe fe wdge torque versus speed capability envelope and the contour plots
1 Ȧ Ȧ2 Ȧ3 1 Ȧ Ȧ2 Ȧ3 of the minimum loss and maximum efficiency for any torque
Surface PM versus speed operating point within this envelope.
Constant Torque Constant Power
T3
T2 cu-s mgnt cu-s mgnt
T
1 fe fe wdge cu/fe mgnt wdge
1 Ȧ Ȧ2 Ȧ3 1 Ȧ Ȧ2 Ȧ3

Figure 3. Cross-sections of the three machines [7]

TABLE II. SPECIFICATIONS OF THREE 50-KW, 12 KR/MIN MOTORS

IM IPM SPM
Key Dimensions
- stator outer diameter 216 mm
- airgap length 0.7 mm
- stack length 170 mm
Design Parameters
- poles 4 4 4
- stator slots 48 48 6
- slots per pole per phase (SPP) 4 4 0.5
- copper slot fill (copper/slot area) 40% 40% 40%
Mechanical Parameters
(a) loss contours - continuous torque at 3.2 kW loss 110 Nm 160 Nm 130 Nm
- rated speed at continuous torque 4.0 kr/min 3.8 kr/min 3.8 kr/min
- overload torque capability 210 Nm 210 Nm 150 Nm
Electrical Parameters
- rated voltage (rms line) 212 V 212 V 212 V
- back-emf at 12 krpm (20°C) - 0.98 pu 3.12 pu
- characteristic current (rms 150°C) - 145 A 136 A
- stator resistance (150°C) 27mΩ 27mΩ 21mΩ

B. Finite-Element Evaluation of Iron Loss Maps

The operating loss maps were calculated at constant
speed using the Magnet/Infolytica finite-element package
over the expected Id, Iq operating range of each machine. The
loss maps of the IPM machine are shown in Fig. 4 evaluated
at 3,500 r/min (733 Hz).
The loss model utilized by the FEA software is of the
form:
(b) efficiency contours ‫ݏݏ݋ܮ‬Ȁ݇݃ ൌ ‫ܭ‬௛ ݂ ఈ ‫ܤ‬ఉ ൅ ‫ܭ‬௘ ݂ ଶ ‫ܤ‬ଶ (4)
Figure 2. Contour plots of power loss (a) and efficiency (b) on axes of
torque versus speed for loss terms of the form kmnTmȦn where m and n are where f [Hz] is the frequency, B [T] is the peak of flux
each between 0 and 3. density and coefficients Kh, α and β account for hysteresis

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 Figure 5. Flux linkage maps for the IPM motor.

D. Determination of Rotor Bar Loss of the IM

The loss in the rotor bars is evaluated using the method
described in [10]. The set of steady-state rotor bar currents
corresponding to a chosen set of Id, Iq stator components is
found via a three-step static FEA procedure. The loss in the
rotor cage is evaluated using the calculated bar currents,
assuming an average rotor temperature of 180°C. The end
Figure 4. Loss maps calculated at 3,500 rpm for the IPM machine over connections are represented as additional lumped resistances
the id, iq domain. Pc stands for eddy current loss and Ph for hysteresis loss. which are calculated analytically according to the shape and
dimensions of the end rings. By using this method the rotor
and anomalous loss, while Ke characterizes the eddy current bar loss can be mapped throughout the Id, Iq domain in a
loss component [8]. The coefficients come from a curve fit similar fashion as was done for the core loss in Fig. 4.
of data loss curves provided by the steel manufacturer for
tests under sinusoidal excitation. For the M250-35A steel E. Merging of Loss Data into Loss and Efficiency Maps
grade considered they are: Ke = 3.15 × 10-5, Kh = 0.00778 , α The flux linkage maps are FEA calculated,
= 1.231 and β = 1.79.
Harmonic fields and rotational excitation effects are ɉௗ ൌ ɉௗ ൫݅ௗǡ ݅௤ ൯
ቊ (6)
taken into account in the iron loss calculations [8]. The ɉ௤ ൌ ɉ௤ ൫݅ௗǡ ݅௤ ൯
finite-element package decomposes the local flux density
waveforms into single harmonics and then superimposes the and Fig. 5 shows the IPM machine results. The torque map
respective loss contributions according to (4). versus Id, Iq is also available from FEA, or it can evaluated
The 3,500 rpm loss results in Fig. 4 can be scaled with off-line as the external product of the current and flux
speed (fundamental frequency) by application of (4). The linkage vectors in dq components.
four loss components (Ph stands for modified hysteresis, Pe Based on the above calculation method, the torque and
stands for eddy currents) are scaled with speed as follows, loss maps over the Id, Iq domain and at each speed are
available for the three machines. Therefore, the combinations
ఈ
ܲ௛ǡ௦௧௔௧ ൫݅ௗǡ ݅௤ ൯ ൌ ܲ௛ǡ௦௧௔௧ǡ଴ ൫݅ௗǡ ݅௤ ൯ ȉ ቀ೙೙బቁ (5a) of Id, Iq minimizing loss for each target torque and
ఈ mechanical speed can be found through Matlab
ܲ௛ǡ௥௢௧ ൫݅ௗǡ ݅௤ ൯ ൌ ܲ௛ǡ௥௢௧ǡ଴ ൫݅ௗǡ ݅௤ ൯ ȉ ቀ೙೙బቁ (5b) manipulation, and from these the control trajectories for
ଶ maximum efficiency are plotted in the Id, Iq plane. Voltage
ܲ௘ǡ௦௧௔௧ ൫݅ௗǡ ݅௤ ൯ ൌ ܲ௘ǡ௦௧௔௧ǡ଴ ൫݅ௗǡ ݅௤ ൯ ȉ ቀ೙೙బቁ (5c) and current limits are easily imposed during this off-line
ଶ manipulation. The power loss and efficiency maps reported
ܲ௘ǡ௥௢௧ ൫݅ௗǡ ݅௤ ൯ ൌ ܲ௘ǡ௥௢௧ǡ଴ ൫݅ௗǡ ݅௤ ൯ ȉ ቀ೙೙బቁ (5d) in Fig. 6 for the three machine examples are a result of the
procedure described in this section. They all refer to the same
The subscript “0” stands for the reference speed
power converter size, i.e. the same voltage and current limits.
conditions which in this case is 3,500 r/min.
C. Permanent Magnet Eddy-Current Loss IV. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The PM loss is negligible in the IPM machine but is Fig. 6 shows the power loss contours and the efficiency
substantial in the SPM machine. In both cases, the magnets maps for the three motors in both the torque-speed and the
are considered as solid pieces of infinite length (i.e. a 2D power-speed planes. The torque-speed plane plots highlights
model). For loss reduction, each pole is segmented into five the machine performance in the constant torque region while
tangential segments and ten axial segments. The effect of the power-speed plots highlight the constant power
axial segmentation is analysed off-line using a reduction performance.
factor according to the shape of the final PM pieces. This To help understand these curves, Fig. 7 shows the stator
final shape is 16 mm (tangentially) by 17 mm (axially). copper loss and current versus torque characteristics at
Based on this, the magnet loss is estimated at 40% of the standstill and Fig. 8 shows the no-load loss versus speed
value calculated by the 2D model [9]. characteristics. These represent the axis intercepts of the
torque versus speed power loss contour plots.

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 Loss (T, ω)
Loss (P, ω)
Efficiency (T, ω)
Efficiency (P, ω) IM IPM SPM

Figure 6. The efficiency map shapes and their associated loss contours of the IM, IPM and SPM machines in the torque-speed and power-speed planes,
under common voltage and current limits: 212 V (rms line), 255 A (rms)

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 (a) Stator (and rotor) copper loss vs torque at standstill.

(a) IM

(b) Stator current vs torque at standstill

Figure 7. Power loss and current versus torque at standstill

Figure 8. Loss vs speed at no-load (b) IPM

The copper loss versus torque curves in Fig. 7a show that

below 120 Nm, the SPM has the lowest copper loss and at
higher torques the IPM has the lowest copper loss. The IM
generally has the highest copper loss versus torque curve.
The torque versus current curves in Fig. 7b show that the
three machines have generally linear current versus torque
characteristics over most of the operating range implying a
dominant copper loss term of the form k20T2. The IM and
IPM designs have a non-linear region at low current and the
SPM design is non-linear at high currents.
The no-load power loss versus torque curves in Fig. 8
include iron losses and magnet losses where appropriate and
have the general form k02ω2. The SPM has the highest no-
load loss, which at maximum speed is comparable to its
copper loss at its continuous torque capability. This is due to (c) SPM
a combination of the high magnet loss and the large stator
current needed to field-weaken the large back-emf voltage Figure 9. Contour plot loss breakdowns for the IM, IPM and SPM
(over three times rated voltage) at this speed. The IPM no- machines.
load loss at maximum speed is small (150 W) due to its
relatively low back-emf voltage and the induction machine The power loss contours plotted on the torque versus
also has nearly zero electromagnetic losses. Note that speed and power versus speed plots in Fig. 6 can now be
bearing and windage losses are not included in this analysis. examined. It is also useful to refer to the loss breakdowns in
Fig. 9 for the three machines which show contour plots of the
stator iron and copper losses along with the different types of
rotor losses plotted on axes of torque versus speed.

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 The standstill copper loss curves in Fig. 7a correspond to
the y-axis intercept and the no-load loss curves in Fig. 8
correspond to the x-axis intercept of the torrque versus speed
plots in Fig. 6. The differences in the no-looad loss is clearly
evident with the no-load loss being lower tthan 200 W over
the entire speed range for IM and IPM dessigns while being
much larger for the SPM design.
In the constant torque region of the torqque-speed curves
in Fig. 6, corresponding to speeds of approxximately 3 kr/min
or less, the power loss is dominated by coppper losses and the
contours would ideally be horizontal in a ssimilar fashion to
the stator copper loss plots in Fig. 9. In practice, speed- ng terms of the form kmnTmωn
(a) curve fit of power loss contour plot usin
Ploss= -0.002 + 0.175 Ȧ – 0.065 T + 0.181 Ȧ2 + 0.577 TȦ + 0.697 T2 + 0.443 Ȧ3
related losses such as iron and magnet loosses cause these – 0.542 TȦ2 – 1.043 T2Ȧ + 0.942 T3 pu
contours to slope downwards. The steepnesss of the slope of
these contours corresponds to the ratio of tthe speed-related
losses to the copper losses. Thus for the SPM M the contours at
2 kr/min slope downwards more att low torques,
corresponding to low copper loss, than at high torques where
the copper loss is much larger.
In the constant power region of the pow wer-speed curves
in Fig. 6, that is between about 4 to 12 kr//min, the IM has
almost horizontal power loss contours. Thhat is, the power
loss is proportional to output power and not greatly affected
by speed. This implies the dominant power loss components (b) curve fitted efficiency map (c)) actual (FEA) efficiency map
in Fig. 9a (the stator and rotor copper losses)) are proportional Figure 10. SPM curve fitted loss functtion and efficiency maps.
to output power. From Fig. 9b, the IPM power loss in this
region is mainly due to stator copper and iron losses. The m n
§T · §ω ·
contours in Fig. 6 are fairly horizontal bbut have a small Ploss (T , ω ) = ¦ k mn ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ pu (7)
downwards slope, again implying a speed-reelated power loss. © Tb ¹ © ω b ¹
This could be partly due to the extra copper losses associated
where the base torque Tb is 250 Nm m, the base speed ωb is 12
with field-weakening. The SPM has almosst vertical power
kr/min and the base power is equal to t the maximum loss of 8
loss contours near the x-axis which impliees that the speed-
kW.
dependent losses are much larger than the ppower-dependent
Fig. 10 uses terms where m and n have values of up to 3
losses in this region. From Fig. 9c these aare mainly due to
to predict the loss behaviour of the surface PM machine and
stator iron and magnet losses.
hence model its associated efficien ncy map. Fig. 10a shows
Now consider the efficiency plots in tthe power versus
the curve-fitted loss contours (coloreed lines) versus the actual
speed plane in Fig. 6. For the IM, the nnearly horizontal
(FEA) loss contours (black lines). The loss function model
power loss contours in the constant powerr region result in
agrees well with that from FEA oveer a wide range but there
matching horizontal efficiency contours. It has a rectangular
are some discrepancies in the low w and high loss values
peak efficiency (94%) region correspondinng to medium to
mainly at light loading or low speeds. Similarly, the
high speeds and medium output power. The IPM has a
efficiency map from the modelled loss function (Fig. 10b)
slightly higher peak efficiency (96%) annd its efficiency
shows a reasonable match with the FEAF result (Fig. 10c).
contours match the slope of the power loss contours. It has a
All the machines discussed in this
t paper operate in two
more triangular-shaped peak efficiency regioon corresponding
main regions in the torque-speed pllane: constant torque and
to medium speeds and output powers. The S SPM has a similar
constant power. It is logical to con nsider the two operating
peak efficiency to the IPM but the high speed-dependent
regions separately as the control an nd hence performance of
losses results in a smaller tear-drop-shhaped maximum
the machine is quite different. Thiss is evident from the loss
efficiency region. This occurs at low to meedium speeds and
plot for the IPM machine in Fig. 6 where there is a definite
medium output powers.
change in the shape of the contours ini the two regions.
V. MODELLING USING LOSS FU
UNCTIONS Therefore, the curve-fitted losss for the interior PM
machine is performed based on seeparate curve fits for the
This section investigates the curve fitting of the constant torque and for the constantt power operating regions
calculated loss plots PL(Tm,ωn) in Fig. 6 uusing the sum of of the loss plot. The curve fitting based
b on single function
terms of the form kmnTmωn to examinne its ability to over the whole operating region n is also performed to
reproduce both the loss and efficiency pplots. The curve compare the results. Fig. 11a is thee two-function curve loss
fitting is performed for the SPM and IPM mmachines. (color lines) against the actual loss (black lines). Figs. 11b-d
Normalised loss terms of the following form are used in compare the efficiency maps of the interior
i PM machine
the curve fitting,

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 design and the lower value corresp ponds to the IPM design.
Positive values which are greater thant +0.3 are highlighted
(in bold) as significant. It is interesting to note that there are
some terms with large negative co-eefficients e.g. for the SPM
design, -1.043 for T2ω.
For the SPM, the most significaant loss terms were of the
form T2, T3, Tω and ω3. For the IPM, I the most significant
terms were of the form T, T3 T2ω an nd Tω2. It was found that
losses with coefficients m + n > 3 do o not have much effect on
the losses of these permanent magneet machines.
(a) two-function curve fitted losses (b) FEA efficiency map
Table IV compares the normalised coefficients of the two
loss functions used to model the intterior PM machine in the
constant torque and constant power operating regions. In the
constant torque region the terms T2 and Tω2 were most
significant and in the constant poweer region the terms T, T3,
T2ω, Tω2 and ω2 were the most sign nificant.
VI. THOR EXPERIMENTAL EFFICIENCY TESTING
Experimental loss and efficiency
y results are not available
for the three 50 kW machines exam mined in this paper. It is
(d) curve fittted efficiency map thus planned to collect detailed exxperimental results from
(c) curve fitted efficiency map
single function loss two ffunction loss another traction machine. The mach hine called Thor is a 7.5
kW IPM machine designed for a sm mall electric vehicle [11].
Figure 11. IPM curve fitted loss function and effficiency maps
Its cross-section is shown in Fig. 12 and it uses a three-
TABLE III. NORMALISED LOSS COEFFICIENTS FFOR SPM AND IPM
barrier design with ferrite magnets. It has a stator outer
MACHINES USING SINGLE FUNCTION MODELING. UPPEER VALUES FOR SPM, diameter of 170 mm and a stack lenggth of 120 mm.
LOWER VALUES FOR IPM. The experimental test arrangemment is shown in Fig. 13.
0.942
Two identical Thor motors are con nnected back-to-back for
T3 0.339 the performance testing. Presently y no torque transducer is
0.697 -1.043 available on the test arrangement so the torque is estimated
T2 0.103 1.071 based on the commanded currents.
-0.065 0.577 -0.542 Fig. 14 shows the preliminary measured efficiency plot
T 0.470 -1.022 0.5334 hape to that of the 50 kW
for the machine. It has a similar sh
-0.002 0.175 0.1881 0.443 IPM machine in Fig. 6 but has a slightly lower peak
1 -0.033 0.239 -0.334 0.171 efficiency of 94% versus 96% but also a somewhat broader
SPM region for the peak efficiency.
IPM
1 Ȧ Ȧ2 Ȧ3

TABLE IV. NORMALISED LOSS COEFFICIENTS FFOR IPM MACHINE

USING TWO FUNCTION MODELING. UPPER VALUE S FOR CONSTANT
TORQUE, LOWER VALUES FOR CONSTANT POWER.

0.084
T3 1.008
0.640 -0.034
T2 -0.944 1.466
0.175 -0.028 0.8000
T 0.958 -1.547 0.7228
-0.004 0.117 -0.3116 0.131
1 0.103 -0.647 1.2000 -0.626
const. torque
const. power
1 Ȧ Ȧ2 Ȧ3
Figure 12. Sketch of the Thor machine cross-section. The actual rotor flux
barriers are modified slightly to house the rectangular ferrite magnet blocks
based on FEA, single function curve-fitted, and two function
curve-fitted, respectively. It is seen that tthe two function
curve-fit provides a much better match with the actual
efficiency map.
Table III lists the normalised coefficientts of the kmnTmȦn
curve fit model for both surface and interiior PM machines
when a single function is used to model thee entire operating
range. For each cell, the upper value corresppond to the SPM

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 REFERENCES
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Figure 13. Experimental setup: two identical Thor motors are connected alternators,” Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 42,
pp. 536-544, 2006.
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VII. CONCLUSIONS
This paper has examined the calculation, modeling and
interpretation of efficiency maps of electrical machines for
example induction, interior permanent magnet and surface
permanent magnet machines. The efficiency maps are
calculated using an extensive finite-element based mapping
of losses, torque and flux-linkage as a function of the d- and
q-axis currents and speed.
The key results from this paper are as follows:
• it is shown that the power loss of a machine operating at
a given torque T and speed ω can be represented as the
sum of terms of the form kmnTmωn where m and n are
integers;
• each of the above loss terms affects the shape of the total
loss as a function of T and ω, and the shape of this total
loss map determines the shape of the efficiency map;
• the most important loss terms can be estimated by
analysis of the electrical machine and its control, and are
different in the constant torque and field-weakening
operating regions;
• curve fitting the loss map in the constant torque and
constant power operating regions can be used to identify
the major loss terms in the machine.

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