A Handbook on SEM

Zainudin Awang - Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin

Overview of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)

Academicians, researchers, as well as postgraduate students are developing theories concerning

the relationships among certain hypothetical constructs. They are modeling their theorized
relationships with the intention to test their theoretical model with the empirical data from the
field. The example of a Theoretical Framework is given in Figure A.

The schematic diagram of the model for the study is developed based on debates in
theory and literature. One needs to come out with a theoretical framework for the study.

Figure A: The Schematic Diagram Showing the Theoretical Framework of a Study.

The schematic diagram in Figure A is converted into Amos Graphic and analyzed using
empirical data. In Amos Graphic, the rectangles represent the directly observed variables while
the ellipses represent the unobserved variables or latent constructs. The schematic diagram of
theoretical framework in Figure A is converted into Amos Graphic as shown in Figure B.

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In Figure B, the researcher determines the types of variables and constructs involved in the
model and how the study is going to measure them. The types of latent construct and variables
involved in Figure B are identified as follows:

1. Financial Position is a latent construct. This type of construct is called Formative

Construct. This construct is “formed” by four observed variables namely Company
Leverage, Annual Growth, Performance Ratio, and Company Taxation. The data for
these variables are obtained from the annual report. In this model, Financial Position is
measured directly using four observed variables. Thus, no measurement error required.

2. Risk Taking Propensity is another latent construct. This construct is called Second
Order Construct. It consists of three first order constructs or three dimensions namely
Comp1, Comp2, and Comp3. And for each first order construct, there are few second
order variables namely R11, R12, and CR13 for Comp1, R21, R22, and R23 for Comp2,
and R31, R32, and R33 for Comp3. These variables are measured using items in a
questionnaire. Thus, the measurement errors are required for every variable (Figure B).

3. Attitude towards Risk is another Second Order construct. This construct consists of two
first order constructs or two dimensions namely Att1 and Att2. The latent construct Att1
and Att2 are measured using four items in a questionnaire (St11, St12, St13, St14) and
(St21, St22, St23, St24) respectively. Thus, the measurement error is also involved for
every items being measured (Figure B).

4. Demand for Insurance is an observed variable. Sometime this variable is termed as a

directly measured variable. The value is obtained directly from secondary data. Thus, it is
represented using a rectangle and no measurement error involved.

For the sake of providing the overall picture of what to expect from the book, the
author would demonstrate the process from the beginning (theoretical framework)
until the output is obtained for analysis through Figure A, Figure B, and Figure C.

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Figure B: The schematic diagram is converted into Amos Graphic.

Figure B shows the measuring items for all constructs and variables involved in a model. In
Amos Graphic, ellipses represent latent constructs while rectangles represent the measured
variables. The measures for formative construct (Leverage, Growth, Bankruptcy, and Tax-
Consideration) have no measurement errors. While the measures for reflective constructs (R11-
R13, R21-R23, R31-R33, St11-St14, St21-St24, and Int1-Int6) have measurement errors. All
dependent variables and endogenous constructs (arrow-pointing in) must have residuals. Once
the data is obtained, the researcher would input these data into their respective variable indicated
by rectangles. The data input is made through “click and drag” procedure.

Figure C shows the output produced by Amos Graphic after data input was made and the model
was executed. The output in Figure C is ready for analysis and interpretation.

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Figure C: The Amos Graphic showing the output after the model is executed

Why One Needs to Employ SEM?

SEM is a Second Generation multivariate analysis technique developed due to some limitations
in the traditional Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) especially when dealing with latent constructs.

In the above example (Figure B), Financial Positions, Risk-Taking Propensity, Attitude
towards Risk, and Intention to Protect are latent constructs. Latent constructs are unobserved
variables. They are measured indirectly using multiple items in a questionnaire. The researchers
should switch from traditional OLS to SEM so as to keep pace with the advancement in research
methodology.
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AMOS is an acronym for Analysis of Moments Structures. This is one of the newest software
developed for Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The researchers could employ AMOS
Graphic to model and analyze the inter-relationships among latent constructs effectively,
accurately, and efficiently. More importantly, the multiple equations of inter-relationships in a
model are computed simultaneously.

Why One Should Employ Amos Graphic?

As has been said earlier, researchers could convert their theoretical framework directly into
AMOS graphic for analysis. More importantly, using Amos Graphic interface, researchers can
create path diagrams using drawing tools, rather than by writing equations or by typing
commands. Even the researchers could validate the measurement model of a latent construct
using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Once CFA is completed, the researcher could move
into modeling the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Thus, analyzing and testing the theory
using AMOS is fast, efficient, and user friendly.

The conversion of a research framework into AMOS Graphic will be illustrated using the
following example. The theoretical framework in Figure 1 consists of four constructs namely
Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO), Marketing Orientation (MO), Organizational Innovation (OI),
and Business Performance (BP). Construct EO and MO have two sub-constructs each. The sub-
constructs are measured using certain number of items. Meanwhile, Construct OI and BP are
measured using five items and four items respectively. An example of a researcher’s theoretical
framework and the corresponding hypotheses is given in Figure 1.

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Figure 1: The theoretical framework showing the hypotheses to be tested empirically in the study

The framework in Figure 1 indicates several hypotheses to be tested in the study. Hypotheses H1,
H2, H3, and H5 are testing for causal effects. Hypothesis H4 is intended to test the mediation
effects; while another hypothesis namely H6 is testing the moderation effect in the model. The
procedure for hypothesis testing would be made easy in SEM using AMOS Graphic. The
researcher only needs to convert the theoretical model into AMOS Graphic. Once converted, the
inter-relationship among constructs could be analyzed.

Now, let see how the theoretical framework in Figure 1 is converted into AMOS Graphic as
shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2: The research framework converted into AMOS Graphic.

H1 Entrepreneurial Orientation has positive and significant effect on Marketing Orientation

H2 Entrepreneurial Orientation has positive and significant effect on Organizational Innovation

H3 Entrepreneurial Orientation has positive and significant effect on Business Performance

H4 Marketing Orientation has positive and significant effect on Organizational Innovation

H5 Marketing Orientation has positive and significant effect on Business Performance

H6 Organizational Innovation has positive and significant effect on Business Performance

H7 Marketing Orientation mediates the relationship between Entrepreneurial Orientation and

Business Performance

H8 Organizational Innovation mediates the relationship beyween Marketing Orientation and Business
Performance

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Figure 3: The Amos Graphic showing the output after the model is executed

AMOS Graphic could find models that best fit data at hand
The researcher should take advantage from the results of previous researches by specifying
constraints on a certain parameter in the model. Researchers can fit multiple models in a single
analysis. Amos Graphic examines every pair of the models where one model can be obtained by
placing parameter restrictions on the other. Amos could also identify the pair of redundant items
in a measurement model which jeopardize the fitness of the model. The researcher could either
constrain a pair of redundant items in a measurement model, or delete the item altogether from
the model in order to improve the fitness of the model.

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Examples where AMOS Graphic is employed in research:

Now let’s go through some practical examples to familiarize how AMOS Graphic is being
employed to model and analyze research problems. Do not worry if you found the applications to
be too difficult for you to understand at this stage because we will go back to basic and begin our
journey from ground zero beginning chapter 1.

1) In the field of psychological research — AMOS Graphic could be employed to model and
evaluate the role of medical counseling in helping the healing process of patients undergoing
treatment in a hospital.

The above objective could be modeled using AMOS Graphic as shown in Figure 3.

In Figure 3, the amount of medication administered is an independent variable. Note - The

independent variable is the variable that can be manipulated by the researcher. The degree of
wellness is a dependent variable since it is the outcome of independent variable. The medical
counseling is a moderator variable. The study is intended to evaluate the moderation effects
of medical counseling in the relationship between amount of medication administered by
the doctor and the degree of wellness experienced by the patients. Both variables (amount of
medication and degree of wellness) are directly measured.

In the model (Figure 3), the degree of wellness could also be latent construct if it is measured
through a set of questionnaire given to the patients to measure their perceived wellness.

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All variables involved in the

model are directly observed

Figure 3: Modeling the moderator variable “counseling intervention” in the relationship

between Amount of Medication and Degree of Wellness.

2) In the field of medical and healthcare research — AMOS Graphic could be employed to
determine the influence of Corporate Image of drugs manufacturers and Cost of Medicines
on the doctors’ Willingness to Prescribe generic drugs to their patients.

The above problem is modeled in AMOS Graphic as shown in Figure 4. In the study, the
Manufacturer Image and Willingness to Prescribe are latent constructs measured through a
set of questionnaire, while the Cost of Medicine is a directly measured variable. The directly
measured variable is also termed as an observed variable.

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Manufacturer Image and

Willingness to Prescribe are
latent constructs

Cost of Medicine is a directly

measured variable

Figure 4: Modeling the causal effects of Manufacturer Image and Cost of Medicine on
Doctors’ Willingness to Prescribe.

3) In the field of social science — AMOS Graphic could be employed to determine the effects
of respondents’ Socio-Economic Status (SES) on their Stress and Health Condition.

The above problem could be modeled in AMOS Graphic as shown in Figure 5. In the model
(Figure 5), SES is an independent latent construct measured using three variables namely
education, occupation, and income. Another latent construct namely stress is measured using
eight items in a questionnaire. The other latent construct namely health is measured using
two sub-constructs namely mental health (5 items) and physical health (5 items).

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Stress is a reflective
first order construct
SES is a formative
construct

Health is a reflective second

order construct measured by
mental and physical health

Figure 5: Modeling the effects of SES on Health with Stress as a mediator construct

4) In the field of educational research — AMOS Graphic could be employed to evaluate how
infrastructure facilities, academic facilities, academic instructors, and program schedules are
influencing students’ academic performance in a university.

The above problem is modeled in Figure 6. In the model, the variable student academic
performance is a latent construct. This construct is measured using three variables namely
individual performance (observed score), group performance (observed score), and final
examination (observed score). In this case, the academic performance is called a formative
construct since it is formed by the observed score instead of the items in a questionnaire.

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Academic Performance is
a Formative Construct

Figure 6: Modeling the multiple regression equations with latent constructs

5) In the field of academic research – AMOS Graphic could be employed to assess how
Students’ Satisfaction mediates the relationship between University Reputation and the
Loyalty of outgoing undergraduates to continue into postgraduate study. Figure 7 illustrate
how the Students’ Satisfaction construct is modeled as a mediator in the relationship between
University Reputation and Students Loyalty.

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University Reputation and

Students Loyalty are
Second Order constructs

Main construct is University Reputation. Sub-

constructs are Faculties, programs, and Collaboration.

Main construct is Students Loyalty. Sub-constructs are

Repurchase and Recommend

Figure 7: Modeling the Students’ Loyalty towards a university

6) In the field of market research — AMOS Graphic could be employed to model the effects
of firm’s Corporate Reputation on the Competitiveness of its products in the market.

Corporate Reputation is a second order construct. It is measured through three first order
constructs namely Company reputation, Product Reputation, and Personnel Reputation.

In the above model - Main domain is Corporate Reputation. Sub-Domains are Company,
Product, and Personnel. All sub domains are measured using questionnaires.

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Corporate Reputation is a
second order construct. Its first
order constructs are Company,
product, and Personnel

Figure 8: Modeling the effect of Corporate Reputation on the Competitiveness of its product in
the market.

7) In the field of institutional research — AMOS Graphic is employed to study the

significance of Organizational Climate in a workplace as a moderator in the relationship
between Employees’ Job Satisfaction and their Work Commitment.

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Independent Construct Dependent Construct

Moderator

Figure 9: Modeling the Organizational Climate as a moderator in the relationship between

“Job Satisfaction and Work Commitment”

In Figure 9, the construct Organizational Climate is a moderator in the Job Satisfaction and
Work Commitment relationship.

However, in Figure 10, the same construct Organizational Climate could also be used as a
mediator in the same study (Refer to Figure 10).

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Mediator

Independent Construct Dependent Construct

Figure 10: Modeling the Organizational Climate as a mediator linking employees’ Job
Satisfaction and their Work Commitment.

As opposed to the model in Figure 9, in Figure 10 the Organizational Climate is modeled as a

mediator that links the relationship between Job Satisfaction and Work Commitment.

After going through some research examples where AMOS Graphic is employed to model the stated
research framework, now we begin our learning process on SEM using AMOS Graphic in Chapter 1.

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1. Abdullahi, M. S., Awang, Z., Abubakar, A., Umar, K., Umar, M. B., Khalid, S. S., & Abubakar, L.
S. The Influence of Training on Business Success in Nigeria: Case of Registered Small and
Medium Scale Enterprises (SMEs) in Kano State, Nigeria.
2. Abdullahi, M. S., Ghazali, P. L., Awang, Z., Mohd Tahir, I., Ali, M., & Salim, N. A. (2015). The
Effect of Finance, Infrastructure and Training on the Performance of Small and Medium Scale
Enterprises (SMEs) in Nigeria. International Journal of Business and Technopreneurship, 5(3),
421-452.
3. Afthanorhan, A., Ahmad, N., & Sabri, A. (2015). A parametric approach using z-test for comparing
2 means to multi-group analysis in partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-
SEM). British Journal of Applied Science & Technology, 6(2), 194.
4. Afthanorhan, A., Ahmad, S., & Safee, S. (2014). Moderated mediation using covariance-based
structural equation modeling with amos graphic: volunteerism program. Advances In Natural And
Applied Sciences, 8(8), 108-116.
5. Afthanorhan, A., Aimran, A. N., & Ahmad, S. (2015). Permutation Test, Non-parametric, and
Confidence Set Approaches to Multi Group Analysis for Comparing 2 Groups Using Partial Least
Square Structural Equation Modeling (Pls-Sem). International Journal of Mathematics and
Statistics Studies, 3(4), 18-34.
6. Afthanorhan, A., Awang, Z., & Fazella, S. (2017). Developing the patients' loyalty model for
medical tourism industry: the case of Malaysia. International Journal of Society Systems
Science, 9(2), 139-164.
7. Afthanorhan, A., Awang, Z., & Fazella, S. (2017). Perception of Tourism Impact and Support
Tourism Development in Terengganu, Malaysia. Social Sciences, 6(3), 106.
8. Afthanorhan, A., Awang, Z., & Mamat, M. (2016). A comparative study between GSCA-SEM and
PLS-SEM. MJ Journal on Statistics and Probability, 1(1), 63-72.
9. Afthanorhan, A., Nazim, A., & Ahmad, S. (2014). A parametric approach to partial least square
structural equation modeling of multigroup analysis (PLS-MGA). International Journal of
Economic, Commerce, and Management, 2(10), 15.
10. Afthanorhan, W. M. A. B. W. (2013). A comparison of partial least square structural equation
modeling (PLS-SEM) and covariance based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) for
confirmatory factor analysis. International Journal of Engineering Science and Innovative
Technology, 2(5), 198-205.
11. Afthanorhan, W. M. A. B. W. (2014). Hierarchical component using reflective-formative
measurement model in partial least square structural equation modeling (Pls-Sem). International
Journal of Mathematics, 2(2), 33-49.
12. Afthanorhan, W. M. A. B. W., & Ahmad, S. (2013). Modelling a high reliability and validity by using
confirmatory factor analysis on five latent construct: Volunteerism program. International
Research Journal Advanced Engineer and Scientific Technology (IRJAEST), 1(1), 7.
13. Afthanorhan, W. M. A. B. W., & Ahmad, S. (2013). Modelling The Multigroup Moderator-Mediator
On Motivation Among Youth In Higher Education Institution Towards Volunteerism
Program. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research (IJSER), 4(7), 5.
14. Afthanorhan, W. M. A. B. W., & Ahmad, S. (2013). Modelling the multimediator on motivation
among youth in higher education institution towards volunteerism program. Mathematical Theory
and Modeling, 3(7), 64-70.
15. Afthanorhan, W. M. A. B. W., & Ahmad, S. (2014). Path analysis in covariance-based structural
equation modeling with Amos 18.0. European Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 2(10).
16. Afthanorhan, W. M. A. B. W., Ahmad, S., & Mamat, I. (2014). Pooled Confirmatory Factor
Analysis (PCFA) using structural equation modeling on volunteerism program: A step by step
approach. International Journal of Asian Social Science, 4(5), 642-653.
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17. Afthanorhan, W. M. A. W. (2014). Modeling The Multiple Indirect Effect Among Latent Constructs
By Using Structural Equation Modeling: Volunteerism Program. International Journal of Advances
in Applied Sciences, 3(1), 25-32.
18. Ahmad, S., & Afthanorhan, W. M. A. B. W. (2014). The importance-performance matrix analysis
in partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) with smartpls 2.0 M3. International
Journal of Mathematics Research, 3(1), 1.
19. Ahmad, S., Safee, S., & Afthanorhan, W. M. A. W. (2014). Learning styles towards mathematics
achievements among higher education students. Global Journal of Mathematical Analysis, 2(2),
50-57.
20. Aimran, A. N., Afthanorhan, W. M. A. W., & Razali, N. H. M. (2015). Moderated Mediation Using
Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM).
21. Aimran, A. N., Ahmad, S., & Afthanorhan, A. (2016). Confirming the Mediation Effect of A
Structural Model By Using Bootstrap Approach: A Case Study of Malaysian 8th Grade Students’
Mathematics Achievement. International Journal of Business, Economics and Management, 3(4),
44-51.
22. Aimran, A. N., Ahmad, S., Afthanorhan, A., & Awang, Z. (2017, August). The development of
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Publishing.
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modeling. In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 1842, No. 1, p. 030001). AIP Publishing.
24. Asri, M. A. M., Ahmad, S., & Afthanorhan, A. (2015). Algorithmic Modelling of Boosted
Regression Trees’ on Environment’s Big Data. Statistics.
25. Asyraf, W. M. (2014). Improving Energy Conservation using six sigma methodology at faculty of
computer and mathematical sciences (FSKM), universiti teknologi mara (UiTM), SHAH
ALAM. Asian Journal of Economic Modelling, 2(1), 52-68.
26. Awang, Z. (2007). The influence of service quality and corporate image on students' loyalty in
higher education (Doctoral dissertation, Fakulti Pengurusan Ekonomi).
27. Awang, Z. (2010). Analyzing the Effects of Corporate Reputation on the Competitiveness of
Telecommunication Industry using the Structural Equation Modelling: The Case of Kelantan.
In Proceedings of the Regional Conference on Statistical Sciences, Malaysia Institute of
Statistics, Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences, University Technology, MARA
(UTM), Malaysia (pp. 283-396).
28. Awang, Z. (2010). The Importance of corporate image in the marketing of university postgraduate
programs. Asian Journal of University Education, 6(1), 13-28.
29. Awang, Z. (2012). Research methodology and data analysis. Penerbit Universiti Teknologi MARA
Press.
30. Awang, Z. (2015). SEM made simple: A gentle approach to learning Structural Equation
Modeling. MPWS Rich Publication.
31. Awang, Z. H. (2010). Research Methodology for Business and Social Science. Pusat Penerbitan
Universiti, Universiti Teknologi MARA.
32. Awang, Z. H., & Jusoff, K. (2009). The effects of corporate reputation on the competitiveness of
Malaysian telecommunication service providers. International Journal of Business and
Management, 4(5), 173.
33. Awang, Z., Afthanorhan, A., & Mamat, M. (2016). The Likert scale analysis using parametric
based Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Computational Methods in Social Sciences, 4(1), 13.

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34. Awang, Z., Afthanorhan, A., Mohamad, M., & Asri, M. A. M. (2015). An evaluation of
measurement model for medical tourism research: the confirmatory factor analysis
approach. International Journal of Tourism Policy, 6(1), 29-45.
35. Awang, Z., Afthanorhan, W. M. A. W., & Asri, M. A. M. (2015). Parametric and non parametric
approach in structural equation modeling (SEM): The application of bootstrapping. Modern
Applied Science, 9(9), 58.
36. Awang, Z., Ahmad, J. H., & Zin, N. M. (2010). Modelling job satisfaction and work commitment
among lecturers: A case of UiTM Kelantan. Journal of Statistical Modeling and Analytics, 1(2), 45-
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37. Awang, Z., Che Mat, M. A., & Asat, S. H. (2005). The Myth and Reality of Service Quality: The
Gaps Analysis.
38. Awang, Z., Mamat, W., Fauzi, W., & Yusof, Z. (2006). Service quality performance students'
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39. Aziz, M. I., Afthanorhan, A., & Awang, Z. (2016). Talent development model for a career in
Islamic banking institutions: A SEM approach. Cogent Business & Management, 3(1), 1186259.
40. Bakar, A. A., & Afthanorhan, A. (2016). Confirmatory Factor Analysis on Family Communication
Patterns Measurement. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 219, 33-40.
41. Bakar, A. A., Samsudin, Z., & Afthanorhan, A. (2016). Re-examining Family Communication
Pattern: The Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Journal of Business and Social Review in Emerging
Economies, 2(2), 101-108.
42. Ibrahim, M. D., Salleh, F., & Awang, Z. (2011). The Effects of Financial Factors on Takaful
Demand in Malaysia Journal of.
43. Ibrahim, Y., Awang, Z., & Yusof, Y. (2016). Environmental management practices in the tourism
industry in Malaysia. Man In India, 96(12), 5241-5252.
44. Kashif, M., Awang, Z., Walsh, J., & Altaf, U. (2015). I’m loving it but hating US: understanding
consumer emotions and perceived service quality of US fast food brands. British Food
Journal, 117(9), 2344-2360.
45. Kashif, M., Kashif, M., Braganca, E., Braganca, E., Awang, Z., Awang, Z., ... & Cyril De Run, E.
(2017). You abuse but I will stay: The combined effects of job stress, customer abuse, and
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47. Latif, S. A., Bidin, Y. H., & Awang, Z. (2013). Towards the Realization of Green Cities: The
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51. Latif, S. A., Omar, M. S., Bidin, Y. H., & Awang, Z. (2013). Role of environmental knowledge in
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