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A History of Mathematics: From Ancient Origins to the Modern Era

Research · May 2023

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.18860.33926

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 REDSTAR CV&M – A History of Mathematics

A History of Mathematics: From Ancient

Origins to the Modern Era
Frank Veroustraete

Last Updated: May 7th 2023

Contents
1. The beginning of mathematics: a brief history ......................................................................... 1
2. Ancient Egyptian mathematics .................................................................................................. 2
3. Babylonian mathematics ............................................................................................................ 3
4. Chinese mathematics .................................................................................................................. 4
5. Greek mathematics ..................................................................................................................... 5
6. Indian mathematics ..................................................................................................................... 6
7. Medieval Islamic mathematics ................................................................................................... 7
8. Mathematics during the European Renaissance........................................................................ 8
9. 17th and 18th century mathematics in Europe ............................................................................ 9
10. 19th century mathematics in Europe ....................................................................................... 11
11. 20th century mathematics ........................................................................................................ 12
12. The 21st century: a new era for the further development of mathematics? ......................... 12

1. The beginning of mathematics: a brief history

The origins of mathematics can be traced back to ancient times. The first evidence of
mathematical activity dates back to the period between 35,000 and 25,000 BCE in Africa. The
earliest known mathematical texts date back to the period 1900 to 1600 BC in the Old
Babylonian period of Mesopotamia.

These texts are mostly concerned with solving practical problems, such as how to divide an
inheritance among multiple heirs. However, they also contain some article problems that
require the use of simple algebra.

The study of mathematics has since then evolved and expanded to become one of the most
important and ubiquitous disciplines in the world. In the modern era, mathematics is used in a
wide variety of fields, from physics and engineering to finance, economics and the
development of mathematical models, numerical mathematics and ICT related mathematics.

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2. Ancient Egyptian mathematics

Ancient Egyptian mathematics is regarded as a cornerstone of the history of mathematics.

Much of ancient Egyptian mathematics is contained in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus,
which dates from 1650 BC. This papyrus makes references to mathematical topics such as
fractions, Pythagorean triples, and the geometry of triangles, circles, and rectangles.

The Egyptians had a sophisticated understanding of arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. They
were able to quickly solve complicated mathematical problems by calculating second and
third-order equations, as well as calculating the volume of objects like pyramids and
cylinders.

The Egyptians also made great strides in astronomical calculations. By meticulously keeping
records of the movement of the stars, they developed the first accurate calendar with a 365-
day cycle. This allowed them to plan agricultural activities much more precisely than their
predecessors.

Ancient Egyptian mathematics is credited with laying the foundations for many of the
mathematical concepts we use today. It is an essential part of the history of mathematics and
an important source of inspiration for modern mathematicians.

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3. Babylonian mathematics

The second great civilization in the history of mathematics is of Babylonian origin.

Babylonian mathematicians lived more than four millennia ago, and their influence extended
to both Egypt and Greece.

Babylonian mathematicians contributed greatly to the study of astronomy, particularly in

developing sophisticated techniques to calculate and predict the movement and orbits of the
sun, moon, and planets. Their mathematics was rooted in the concept of a number-based
system of the number 60 (for example, 60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour).

In addition, Babylonian mathematicians invented a more primitive form of algebra. They

were also able to solve polygonal area problems and could calculate square and cube roots, as
well as calculate the number [π].

Another important contribution of Babylonian mathematics was the use of fractions. While
we are familiar with the notion of a fraction today, the Babylonians were among the first to
understand how to handle them with precision.

The influence of Babylonian mathematics can still be felt today. Many of the techniques and
methods used by the Babylonians are still used in modern mathematics, and the legacy of this
great civilization continues to live on.

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4. Chinese mathematics

The fourth major civilization in the history of mathematics is ancient Chinese mathematics. It
was born out of many centuries of development and continued to evolve over six thousand
years and still counting.

Chinese mathematicians had a strong emphasis on practical applications. They developed

important disciplines in mathematics, including geometry, algebra, and trigonometry. Chinese
mathematicians were also the first to calculate the value of the number [π] to five decimal
places.

Another important invention of Chinese mathematics is the abacus, a counting frame, or a

calculating tool that has been used since ancient times and which is still used in many parts of
the world as we speak. Chinese mathematicians also developed the I-Ching, a technique for
divination, and astrological calculations. Divination is the practice of seeking knowledge of
the future or the unknown by supernatural means

The influence of Chinese mathematics can still be felt in modern mathematics. For instance,
the concept of negative numbers was first proposed by the Chinese mathematician Yang Hui

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in the 13th century. The yin-yang symbol, the symbol of duality, is also a creation of Chinese
mathematicians.

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5. Greek mathematics

Greek mathematics is the fifth and most influential branch of mathematics in the world today.
It is credited with bringing a more formal analysis and axiomatic system to the mathematics
of the ancient world.

Greek mathematicians were responsible for the introduction of many fundamental

mathematical concepts and theorems, such as the Pythagorean theorem and the Pythagorean
triangle, Euclid’s Elements, and the concept of formal proof.

A few of the most notable Greek mathematicians are:

- Euclid (ca.325 BC). Is considered to be one of the most influential ancient mathematicians,
Euclid is the founder of the influential "Elements of Mathematics" and is oftentimes referred
to as the "father of geometry". The "Project Gutenberg" archive (https://www.gutenberg.org)
is an important source of a more detailed description of the work of Euclid.

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- Apollonius of Perga (ca. 262 BC). Is known for his work on conic sections, ellipses and
parabolas, as well as his generalization of the Pythagorean theorem.

- Archimedes of Syracuse (ca. 287 BC-212 BC). Is a mathematician of ancient Greece. He

made numerous groundbreaking developments in the fields of mathematics, natural sciences
and engineering. He is best known for the "Archimedes Principle", the law of levers and the
"Archimedes theorem".

- Pythagoras ( ca. 570 BC-40 BC). Is the supposed founder of the "Rule of Pythagoras
Theorem". Pythagoras theorem states that “In a right-angled triangle, the square of the
hypotenuse side is equal to the sum of squares of the other two sides“. The sides of this
triangle have been named Perpendicular, Base and Hypotenuse.

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6. Indian mathematics

Indian mathematics dates back to the Vedic period of the Indian history. Indian
mathematicians were a major source of mathematical knowledge. The influence of Indian
mathematics extended to various countries, particularly in the areas of Algebra and
Trigonometry.

The Indian mathematician, Aryabhata, was one of the earliest recorded mathematicians in
Indian history. He is credited with developing the concept of the sine and cosine rules. He
also made an important contribution to number theory and algebra with the solved cubic
equations equation and the area of a triangle.

Indian mathematics also contributed to the development of zero and the decimal system. The
Indian mathematician Bhaskara developed the concept of proof by contradiction. He also

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developed some fundamental algorithms. Similarly, Brahmagupta made important

contributions to mathematics through his writings on number theory, algebra and other topics.

Indian mathematics also contributed to the modern-day calculus as developed by Isaac

Newton and Gottfried von Leibniz. Indian mathematicians including Madhava and Nilakantha
initiated the development of modern calculus.

Indian mathematics also made contributions to the field of computational geometry. The
Indian mathematician Mahāvīra developed the theorem which states that the area of a cyclic
quadrilateral is equal to the sum of the areas of a triangle on each side of the quadrilateral.

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7. Medieval Islamic mathematics

Medieval Islamic mathematics made a quite significant contribution to mathematics. One of

the prominent figures of this period was Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi. He developed the concept of
number systems and algebra building on the principles of Euclidean geometry.

The Islamic mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khowarizmi developed the basis of
algebra, which is still in use today. He is also responsible for introducing the concept of
reduction which is used in solving linear and quadratic equations.

Many other Islamic mathematicians followed in the footsteps of al-Khowarizmi, and

developed other concepts such as the sine and cosine rules.

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Also, during this period, Islamic mathematicians developed the concept of optimization. For
example, the development of the zero-sum game and the concept of a Nash equilibrium by
Nashid al-Majid.

Finally, Islamic mathematicians also developed the concept of Boolean algebra, a system that
has been used in many fields such as medicine and engineering. This system has found
applications in computer science and even artificial intelligence (AI).

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8. Mathematics during the European Renaissance

One of the most influential periods for mathematics was during the Western European
Renaissance period. This era saw the development of some of the most significant
mathematical advancements.

The Renaissance was a period of intellectual freedom, and this era saw the development of
humanities such as philosophy, literature, and art. This period also had a profound impact on
mathematics.

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One of the most influential contributors to mathematics during the Renaissance was François
Viète. He developed the concept of algebraic equations and geometric problems,
revolutionizing mathematics. His work created the fundamentals for the development of
calculus, and his contributions to mathematics are still seen today.

Mathematicians such as Pierre de Fermat and René Descartes extended Viète's

groundbreaking work and further developed the beginnings of calculus.

Descartes is also credited for the development of the field of analytic geometry. He developed
a system where geometric ideas could be expressed in terms of the coordinates of a two-
dimensional plane. This system allowed mathematicians to work with algebraic equations
formally defining geometric shapes.

Other mathematicians such as Jean de Beaune and Blaise Pascal developed the foundations of
probability theory. Pascal, in particular, is credited with the development of the theory of
probability, as well as his contribution to the development of mechanical calculators.

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9. 17th and 18th century mathematics in Europe

The 1700s and 1800s saw a period of significant mathematical activity. Many mathematicians
of this era expanded on the revolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and developed even more
influential theorems and equations.

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One example of a mathematician who contributed greatly to the discipline in this period was
Leonhard Euler. He was a Swiss mathematician known for his work in astronomy, calculus,
number theory, and graph theory. He was able to solve equations and problems with
remarkable accuracy and was able to develop some of the most influential equations of
mathematics. Euler contributed greatly to the development of calculus and graph theory and
also wrote an influential treatise on the calculus of variations.

Another example is Joseph-Louis Lagrange. He was an Italian mathematician who primarily

focused on the field of calculus. He developed the Lagrange identity and Lagrange number
systems and wrote influential books on the calculus of variations. He is credited with
developing the calculus of finite differences and differential equations.

The 1800s also saw the emergence of the field of abstract algebra. This concept was
developed by mathematicians such as Augustin-Louis Cauchy and Évariste Galois and was
used to solve equations and problems of an abstract nature. Abstract algebra would eventually
become one of the most influential developments of mathematics and would have popular
applications in a variety of scientific fields.

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10. 19th century mathematics in Europe

The 19th century saw mathematics develop into an even more advanced and popular field.
Many of the significant developments of early mathematics were expanded upon.
Mathematics also began to be taught at universities, gradually increasing its popularity with
students and academics.

Rene Descartes is considered to be one of the most influential mathematicians of the 19 th

century. He was a French mathematician whose research focused on algebraic geometry and
analytical geometry. Descartes used a mathematical coordinate system to represent geometric
figures. This Cartesian coordinate system is widely used in mathematics, as we speak.

Georg Cantor was another influential mathematician of this period. He was a German
mathematician who is credited with developing the field of set theory. He used sets of
numbers and numbers to define mathematics. Cantor is also credited with developing the
concept of infinity, which is now a cornerstone of modern mathematics.

The 19th century also saw the development of the field of mathematical analysis, which was
led by mathematicians like Karl Weierstrass and Sofia Kovalevskaya. This field focused on
analyzing and solving mathematical equations. Weierstrass was also the first mathematician
to develop the concept of a function.

Overall, the 19th century was a period of great progress for mathematics, with revolutions in
the fields of set theory, analysis, and calculus shaping the field for centuries to come.

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11. 20th century mathematics

The 20th century was a period of great progress in mathematics and technology. Mathematics
became an ever-expanding field due to advances in computer technology. Throughout the
century, mathematics had a huge impact on society, allowing for inventions such as
computers, the internet, and cellphone technology.

The 20th century saw major developments in the field of algebra, which is the study of
equations and operations. Mathematicians like David Hilbert and Emmy Noether were
pioneers in the field, introducing new techniques and methods, still used today. They also
contributed to the development of abstract algebra, focussing on the study of mathematical
objects, such as groups and rings.

Calculus was also heavily studied throughout the 20 th century, giving birth to new fields such
as real analysis and differential equations. Scientists like Stephen Hawking, Robert A. M.
Sternberg, Carl Gauss, and Isaac Newton all contributed to the development of these fields.

Chance and probability also made significant progress during the 20 th century.
Mathematicians like Andrei Kolmogorov and Alan Turing developed new techniques to
analyze and assess risk, allowing for the successful management of decision-making
processes. Alan Turing also developed one of the first electronic computers, which he used to
decode the German military 'enigma' code.

Overall, 20th century mathematics has had a profound impact on society. It can even be stated
that current knowledge in mathematics has been made possible, due to the advances made
during mathematics during this 20 th century.

12. The 21st century: a new era for the further development of mathematics?

The 21st century started with a big leap forward for mathematics. As during the previous
century, the 21st century has seen major technological advances allowing mathematics to
reach new heights. This century has already seen massive advances in the fields of algebra,
calculus, chance, and probability all thanks to massive progress in computer technology.

Thanks to advancements such as AI, deep learning and neuroscience, mathematicians are
better prepared than ever to tackle complex problems. Fields such as graph theory and
network analysis are growing in popularity and mathematicians are using algorithms and data
mining techniques to produce practical solutions to real-world problems.

The 21stcentury has also seen a surge in the popularity of mathematics tournaments and
competitions as well as intellect-based gaming. Such competitions are now regularly held

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across the world and hundreds of students take part in them. This has allowed students to hone
their mathematical skills and gain knowledge that they can put to work in their real lives.

Overall, the 21st century is already a revolutionary time for mathematics and its scope for
innovation is larger than ever before. We have already seen advancements in fields such as AI
and machine learning and it is only a matter of time before we see more impressive leaps
ahead in the field of mathematics, advanced statistics and big dataset analysis.

Just to mark the advance made with regard to the number [π], the current record now stands at
about 31.4 trillion digits, thousands of times more than the Chudnovskys’ home-brewed
supercomputer managed. It was calculated by a Google employee over 121 days using a
freely available program called y-cruncher and verified with another 48 hours of number-
crunching sessions. The calculation took up about as much storage space as the entire digital
database of the Library of Congress. Emma Haruka Iwao, the woman that established the new
record, has been calculating [π] on computers since she was a child!

Iwao’s feat of calculation increased humanity’s collective knowledge of the digits of [π] by
about 40%. The previous record stood at over 22 trillion digits, worked out after 105 days of
computation on a Dell server, also using y-cruncher. That program, which uses both the
Ramanujan and Chudnovsky formulas, has been used to find record numbers of digits of not
only [π], but also of other endless, irrational numbers, including e, log2, the golden ratio and
others!

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