History Student Textbook Grade 9

HISTORY
Student TEXTBOOK
GRADE 9
HISTORY
HISTORY
STUDENT TEXTBOOK
Student TEXTBOOK
GRADE 9
GRADE 9
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Price:ETB 167.00
HISTORY
STUDENT TEXTBOOK
GRADE 9
Writers:
Desta Roba Julla (MA)
Tesfaye Masebo Melko (MA)
Editors:
Tigab Beze Bikis (PhD) (Content Editor)
Messay Kebede Abebe (MA) (Curriculum Editor)
Girma Gezahegn Belihu (PhD) (Language Editor )
Illustrator:
Ayele Sankura Samako (MSc)
Book Designer:
Mulat Shiferaw Siyoum (MSc)
Evaluators:
Doctor Telila (MA)
Bekele Kene'a (MA)
Zegeye Woldemariam (MA)
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA HAWASSA UNIVERSITY

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA June 2022

First Published June 2022 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of
Education, under the General Education Quality Improvement Program for
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Table of Contents
Contents
U 1 NIT
The Discipline of History and Human Evolution000000000000000000000001
1.1 Meaning of Prehistory and History .......................................................................2
1.2 The Discipline of History ......................................................................................3
1.2.1 The importance of History..................................................................................4
1.2.2 Historiography and Historical interpretations.....................................................4
1.2.3 Sources of History...............................................................................................5
1.2.4 Dating in History ................................................................................................6
1.3 The Evolution of Human Beings ..........................................................................9
1.4 Theories of Human Evolution .............................................................................11
1.5 Africa and Human Evolution ..............................................................................12
1.6 The Stone Age .....................................................................................................14
2
1.7 The Emergence of States......................................................................................17
UNIT
Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500 AD ............................22
2.1 Ancient Civilizations of Africa ...........................................................................23
2.1.1 Ancient Egypt....................................................................................................23
2.1.2 Nubia.................................................................................................................25
2.2 Civilizations in Asia ...........................................................................................25
2.2.1 Mesopotamia ....................................................................................................26
2.2.2 Persia.................................................................................................................26
2.2.3 India..................................................................................................................27
2.2.4 China ...............................................................................................................28
2.3 Ancient Civilization of Latin America ...............................................................29
2.3.1 Maya ................................................................................................................29
2.3.2 Inca ...................................................................................................................30
2.3.3 Aztecs................................................................................................................30
2.4 Civilizations in Europe .......................................................................................30
2.4.1 Ancient Greek Civilization ..............................................................................31
2.4.2 Ancient Roman Civilization .............................................................................32
3
2.5 Rise and spread of Christianity ...........................................................................34
UNIT
Peoples and States in Ethiopia and the Horn to
the end of 13 C. ......................................................................................40
th
3.1 Languages, Religions and Peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn ............................... 41
3.1.1 Languages Families..........................................................................................41
3.1.2 Major Religions of Ethiopia .............................................................................44
3.1.3 Settlement Pattern of Peoples of Ethiopia ......................................................51
3.2 Pre-Aksumite States and their Geographical Setting ..........................................53
3.4 Aksumite Kingdom ............................................................................................54
3.5 Zagwe Dynasty ..................................................................................................56
4
3.6 The Sultanate Shewa ...........................................................................................59
U NIT
The Middle Ages and Early Modern World,
C. 500 to 1750s..........................................................................................65
4.1 The Middle Ages in Europe ................................................................................66
4.1.1 Dark Age...........................................................................................................66
i
History Grade 9 Student Textbook
4.1.2 Feudal Society...................................................................................................66

4.1.3 Byzantine Empire..............................................................................................67
4.2 The Middle Ages in Asia .....................................................................................69
4.2.1 The Rise and Expansion of Islam.....................................................................69
4.2.2 The Expansion of the Ottoman Empire ...........................................................70
4.2.3 Dynastic Cycle in China ..................................................................................72
4.3 Development of Early Capitalism .......................................................................72
4.4 The Age of Explorations and Discoveries ..........................................................73
4.5 The Renaissance...................................................................................................75
4.6 The Reformation .................................................................................................77
5
4.7 Industrial Revolution ..........................................................................................79
U NIT
Peoples and States of Africa to 1500.............................................84
5.1 Languages and Peoples of Africa.........................................................................85
5.2 States in North Africa ..........................................................................................88
5.3 Spread of Islam and its Impact in West Africa.....................................................89
5.4 States in Western Africa ......................................................................................90
5.5 Equatorial, Central and Eastern Africa................................................................93
5.6 Southern Africa....................................................................................................95
5.7 Africa’s Intra and Inter-continental Relations .....................................................97
5.8 Trans-Saharan trade.............................................................................................98
6
5.9 Early Contacts with the Outside World................................................................99
UNIT
Africa and the Outside World 1500- 1880s ..............................104
6.1 Contact with the Outside World ........................................................................... 105
6.2 Slavery ..............................................................................................................107
6.3 The “Legitimate” Trade.....................................................................................112
6.4 The White Settlement in South Africa...............................................................113
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6.5 European Explorers and Missionaries...............................................................116
U NIT
States, Principalities, Population Movements &
Interactions in Ethiopia 13th to Mid-16th C. ..............................120
7.1 The “Solomonic” Dynasty & the Christian Kingdom, 13th -16th C....................121
7.2 The Muslim Principalities .................................................................................124
7.3 Relationship Between the Christian Kingdom
and the Sultanate of Adal, 1520s to 1559 ..........................................................127
7.4 Political and socio-economic conditions of southern
and central states in Ethiopia .............................................................................132
7.5 Population Movements, Expansion and Integration in Ethiopia ......................135
7.6 Gada System of the Oromo ...............................................................................140
7.7 Moggasa and Guddifacha..................................................................................144
8
7.8 Egalitarian System of Governance.....................................................................145
U NIT
Political, Social and Economic Processes in Ethiopia
Mid- 16th to Mid- 19thC. ......................................................................155
8.1 Peoples and states of the Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions .... 156
8.1.1 Southern states .............................................................................................156
8.1.2 Western states ...............................................................................................167
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Table of Contents
8.1.3 Eastern States: Harar, Afar, Somali ................................................................174

8.2 Gondarine Period ..............................................................................................178
8.3 The Zemene Mesafint (The Era of Warlords)....................................................181
8.4 The Yejju Dynasty..............................................................................................183
9
8.5 The Kingdom of Shoa........................................................................................185
U NIT
The Age of Revolutions 1750s to 1815...........................................188
9.1 Industrial Capitalism in Europe .......................................................................189
9.1.1 Political, Economic, and Social Effects of Industrial Revolution0000000000000000000189
9.2 French Revolution..............................................................................................191
9.3 Napoleonic Era ..................................................................................................196
9.4 American War of Independence ........................................................................201
9.5 The Congress of Vienna ....................................................................................203
Glossary ............................................................................................................209
iii
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Unit 1 The Discipline of History and Human Evolution
Unit
THE DISCIPLINE OF HISTORY AND HUMAN EVOLUTION
Unit Introduction
This unit intends to familiarize and the emergence of states. In

you with the elementary meth- order to facilitate your learning
odology of history which helps and to make it interesting to
you to learn the subsequent units
you, major points and arguments
more successfully. Accordingly, the
are illustrated with examples and
lessons in this unit cover meaning
images. The unit closes with a
of pre-history and history, the
discipline of history, evolution summary of the main points of each
human beings, theories on the lesson, followed by review questions
origin of human beings, Africa that enable you to measure your
and human evolution, Stone Age achievements all through the unit.
Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit, learners will be able to:
• discuss the main objectives of studying history.
• evaluate the place of Africa and Ethiopia in human evolution.
🔑
• summarise the theories on the origin of state and its major features.
Key Terms
• Human Evolution
• Prehistory
• State
• History
• Chronology
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1.1 Meaning of Prehistory and History

Lesson learning outcomes
At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• define the discipline of History.
• explain the difference between prehistory and history
Brainstorming
• Discuss in group prehistory and history.
The term history, derived from the Greek word Istoria, means “inquiry” or “an account
of one’s inquiries.” History is the story of humans in the past. It tells what they did and
what happened to them. Historians are people who study and write about the human past.
They tell us that history began about 5,500 years ago when people first began to write.
However, the story of people begins in prehistory. Prehistory is the study of the distant
past. Prehistory was the time before people developed the art of writing. Archaeologists
and Anthropologists have worked to find clues about early human life.
Only a small part is studied of these events and deeds of the past. This small part, which
is studied, is also called history. Unlike prehistory, however, the subject of history
mainly deals with the past, beginning from when writing and recording started. Therefore,
historians are people who study and write about the human past.
However, the other disciplines do it in the present. Man interacts with the natural
environment to produce his primary needs, such as food, shelter, and cloth. In the
production process, human beings improved the production tools and the quality and
quantity of the produce.
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
1. How do you differentiate prehistory from history?
2. Explain the term ‘Istoria’.
3. Referring to different history books or exploring the internet, write a
half-page essay describing the relationship between man and the
natural environment and present it to your class.
History as a body of knowledge is an account of the past based on historical facts and
evidence. Historical fact refers to information or statement about the past that is known or
proven to be true. History is all about providing an interpretation of what happened, why it
happened, and how it happened based on sources. Therefore, history is both the facts of the
past and inquiry made into the past facts. Thus, history is not an opinion or novel writing.
Identifying historical facts from opinion requires critical thinking. Distinguishing between
fact and opinion is one of the most important skills you can learn from studying history. A
fact is a statement that can be proved with supporting information. On the other hand, an
opinion is what a writer believes based on his or her viewpoint. History writers can keep
their opinions with facts, but an opinion is something that cannot be proved.

1. How can you distinguish facts from opinion? Explain it by giving an
example.
1.2 The Discipline of History

• describe the importance of learning history.
• identify different sources of history.
• examine pieces of historical sources closely.
• appreciate the role of history in understanding societal development.
• discuss the level of accuracy of data obtained from other sources.
3
Brainstorming
• How can we study history?
As a body of knowledge, History is a branch of social science that deals with what human
beings did in the past. It studies changes in the development of past societies’ political,
economic, social, and cultural life.
1.2.1 The importance of History

History helps us know about the past, understand the present, and foresee future
developments. It also allows us to understand national and international issues, including
democratic principles and nationalism. History can also help us develop the necessary
skill for collecting and analysing information to reach conclusions. So, it helps us live our
lives as conscious citizens actively participating in shaping our future.
History teaches us critical skills. Studying History helps students to develop essential
research skills. History helps us understand the present better and provides a sense of
identity.
1.2.2 Historiography and Historical Interpretations
A. Historiography
Historiography is studying how knowledge of the past is attained and transmitted. The
world’s oldest written History comes from China. Archaeologists have discovered
records of Chinesee History written before 1000BC. Ancient Greek historians, notably
Herodotus and Thucydides, introduced the organized study and narration of the past. The
term’s first use is attributed to Herodotus (c. 484-425BC), who is often the “father of history.
” Thucydides wrote critically and accurately.
History emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the 19th century, first
in Europe and then other parts of the world. Leopold Von Ranke (1795-1886), the
German historian, established History as an independent discipline. Ranke is considered the
“father of modern historiography” for his effort to the scientific study of the past.
Ethiopia had an indigenous tradition of history writing. It made some changes from the
chronicle tradition in the early 20th century. History emerged as an academic discipline in
the 1960s. This decade is vital in the growth of Ethiopian historiography.
B. Historical Interpretation
What happened in the past is endless. Thus, historians select topics or problems they
desire to study. History is a systematic and objective study of the past as a field of
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discipline. It is a systematic study because historical study follows established rules,

procedures, and standards. Historians use specific basic methods in writing History. The
study of History also refers to the objective pursuit of truth. In principle, historians are
expected to avoid bias though it is difficult in practice. Historical interpretation is the process
by which we describe, analyse, evaluate, and create an explanation of past events. We base our
interpretation on primary or secondary, or both sources.
1.2.3 Sources of History
History is the study of the past supported by evidence arising from sources. Where there
are no sources, there is no history. Sources are, therefore, key to the study and writing
of History. Most commonly, historians divide sources into two broad groups. These are
primary and secondary.
Primary sources are those that are contemporary with the events under study. They are
original materials that have direct relations to the events they describe. Examples of
primary sources are Monuments, tools, ornaments, artefacts (coins, fossils,
inscriptions, weapons, utensils, and ruins of buildings), written materials (manuscripts or
handwritten materials, chronicles, diaries, letters, minutes, codes of laws, court records and
administrative files, travel documents), photographs, maps, video and audiovisual
materials.
a) b)
Figure 1.1 a) Silver Coins of Enudybis, b) Archives
Secondary sources are sources that contain information that is derived from
primary sources. In addition, they provide us with second-hand or indirect information.
Examples of secondary sources are articles, books, textbooks, biographies, oral
traditions and published stories or movies about historical events.Oral traditions are
historical sources transmitted by word of mouth from one generation to the next. Oral
data can qualify the position of primary or secondary sources based on the nature of
informants.
5
History can only be written based on data collected from the abovementioned sources.
However, whatever the source of information, it should be subjected to critical evaluation
before being used as evidence. Primary sources have to be verified for originality and
authenticity to avoid forgery. Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability
of their reconstructions. Oral data should be cross-checked with other sources such as
written documents to determine its truth; because it may lose its authenticity due to
distortion through time.

1. Explain why we bother about the past while living in the present and
anticipate what is yet to come.
2. In a group, search the importance of learning history from the internet
and present it to the class.
3. Answer the following question based on the below case study.
A case study on car accident

Assume yourself as a judge entitled to administer a traffic accident
in which a teenager was a victim and died 13 months ago. You were
provided with information about it from the following sources. The first is
the driver of the car and a passenger who was in the vehicle during the car
accident. The second is parents of whom a victim had talked to them just
before death and a police report with possible details.
A. Which ones do you believe are primary, and which is secondary
sources?
1.2.4 Dating in History

In recording the past, historians try to determine the exact time when events occurred.
That is what we call it dating. Dating is figures or numerical statements that express the
time of historical events or processes. The duration in time could be short or long. There-
fore, historians describe the period of events by using certain subdivisions or units of time.
Hence, the figurative expression expresses the exact dates on which events occurred.
For example:
• the battle of Adwa took place on March 1, 1896
• Ethiopian Renaissance Dam was initiated on April 2 2011
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Dating in history is expressed in numerical statements such as a decade, century, and

millennium. A decade refers to a period of ten years. A century is one hundred years,
whereas a millennium refers to a thousand years.
For example:
• The years from 1900 to 1909 is the first decade of the twentieth century
• The years from 1900 to 1999 is the twentieth century
• The years from 1000 to 1999 the is the second millennium
The primary purpose of dating in history is to organise past events according to their
sequence of occurrence by using calendars. This is what we call chronology. The two
widely used calendars worldwide are the Gregorian and Islamic. According to the
Gregorian calendar, time is counted forward and backwards from the time of the birth of
Jesus Christ.
The time before the birth of Christ is referred to as BC. (Before Christ), whereas the time
after the birth of Jesus Christ is expressed in AD (anno Domini), a Latin term meaning
“The Year of the Lord”.
Ethiopia uses its calendar, which began on September 11, of the Gregorian calendar. The
Ethiopian Calendar is seven to eight years behind the Gregorian calendar. The Islamic
Calendar follows the event called the Hijra to count time forwards and backwards. The
Hijra was the flight of the prophet Mohammed and his early followers from the town of
Mecca to Medina in 622AD. Hence, BH stands for the years before the Hijra, and AH
refers to the years after the Hijra.

1. Discuss in pairs and explain the difference between decade, century
and millennium.
2. Referring to a primary or secondary sources, write a paragraph about
the arrival of Christianity and Islam in Ethiopia and present it to your
class.
Historians sometimes use a timeline. A timeline is a graphic representation of events

in chronological order or periods of history. It is a horizontal or a vertical lineup of
historical events. Historical timeline enables quick visualisation and forms a clear idea of the
passage of time about events.
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In addition, the timeline shows you when and where events happened during the discus-
sion period. See the timeline below.
Figure 1.2 Historical timeline

Because of the length of time, historians organise the human past into separate periods
after identifying significant developments and giving a label to each period. This is
what we call periodisation in history. Accordingly, history is conventionally divided into
ancient, medieval and modern history.
1. Working in pairs or small groups, read the following events. Then put

them in chronological order and show it on a historical timeline.
A. Cities built on Indus valley
B. Democracy evolved
C. Pyramid Age begins
D. Rise of Chinesee Civilisation
E. Romans set up a Republic
F. Sumerians developed cuneiform
2. Explain why the Ethiopian calendar lags 7 or 8 years behind the
Gregorian calendar.
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1.3 The Evolution of Human Beings

• appraise the major theories of human evolution.
• draw a chart showing major stages of human evolution.
• debate on the theories of the origin of mankind.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about human evolution?
According to evolutionist theory, all human beings now living in the world belong to the
species Homo sapiens, which descended from a common ancestor or a genus known as
Homo. That is why it is said that humans belong to the Hominid family. Hominids are
humans and other creatures that walk upright. Although hominids family no longer exist,
we know that their representatives lived in the past. We know this from the discovery of
many fossils that represent them. All hominids are characterised by what is known as
bipedalism, i.e., walking on two feet with an upright position.
The earliest hominid to be found in Ethiopia is named Ardipithecus ramidus. It was
discovered at Aramis in the Middle Awash of the Afar Regional State. It is described by a
team of Paleontologists led by Tim White, and it is dated to around 4.4 million years ago.
This species was followed by another fossil called Australopithecus afarensis. Finally, in
1974, Donald Johanson found the oldest complete human skeleton in Ethiopia. He named
his find ‘Lucy’ after a Beatles’ song.
The second stage in early human development occurred with the appearance of Homo
erectus (“upright human being”), a species that emerged around 2 million years ago.
Homo erectus made use of larger and more varied tools. These hominids were the first to
leave Africa and move into Europe and Asia. They could do so because they learned to use
fire to keep warm in colder areas.
The three different species that belong to the genus Homo are:
• Homo habilis,
• Homo erectus and
• Homo sapiens.
Homo habilis is a handy human being and is considered the oldest human being. Fossils
of Homo habilis were found in the Omo valley in Ethiopia. Homo erectus is an upright
9
walking human who appeared about 1 million years ago. Fossils of this species were found
in the Omo Basin, Melka-Kunture, Konso – Gardula, and Middle Awash in Ethiopia.
Homo sapiens were wise human beings and very similar to modern human beings. Fossils
of this species were found in the Awash and Omo valleys and the areas near Dire Dawa.
Therefore, Ethiopia is proved to be the land where these species were discovered.
Modern Human beings (Homo sapiens sapiens) appeared about 40,000 years ago. They
are different in many ways from their ancestors. They have large brains, are bipedal and
walk upright. They think and execute complicated ideas. They use language, develop
culture, invent tools and use them effectively. They transmit knowledge from generation
to generation.
It is noteworthy that the region of Ethiopia and the Horn has sites illustrating all the three
sub-species of the Homo family that appeared in succession: Homo habilis, Homo erectus
and Homo sapiens. These successive stages marked the progressive refinement in making
tools and the mastery of the technology of making a fire that Homo erectus accomplished.
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Time and again, the hominids that have been found so far were found in Ethiopia. Thus,
these areas have continued to attract archaeologists.
Map 1.1 Hominids’ sites in Ethiopia Afar region
1.4 Theories of Human Evolution

There are two major opposing theories on the origin of human beings. These are the
creationist and the evolutionist (scientific) theories. The creationist view advocates the
notion that man, including all living things, was created by GOD or a supernatural being.
The scientific theory explains that all living things, including humans, result from a
gradual succession process and variation from earlier forms. This slow and natural
process is called evolution. Thus this theory is called evolutionist. This theory was
formulated by the English scientist Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882). Eventually, it was
widely accepted by the scientific communities.
11
Currently, though this theory dominates thinking about human origins in the scientific
world, a large number of people across the globe believe in the creationist view.
Figure 1.3 Stages of Human Evolution

1. What are the three sub-species of the Homo family that appeared in
succession in the Horn of Africa?
2. Explain the differences between the creationist and evolutionist
theories of Human Evolution.
3. Draw a map of Ethiopia and show the major archaeological sites.
1.5 Africa and Human Evolution

• draw a chart showing major stages of human evolution.
• show the different archaeological sites of Africa, including Ethiopia, using a
map.
The oldest Australopithecines, discovered in northern Chad in 2001, is
Sahelian chadensis. It is estimated to be between 7 and 6 million years old. Fossils of
Australopithecus ramidus, aged 4.4 million years, were discovered in the Afar region in
Ethiopia in 1994. The fossil remains of Australopithecus afarensis, also known as Lucy
(Dinkinesh), was found at Hadar in theAfar region in 1974. It is estimated to be 3.18 million years
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old. They were first described by an American scientist Donald Johanson and his colleagues.
Lucy's fossils are the most complete so far found. Australopithecus afarensis was bipedal
and appeared to have been the ancestor of human beings from among the Australopithecines.
Figure 1.4 Picture of Lucy (Dinkinesh), (adopted from World history)

Remains of Australopithecus africanus, aged 2.5 million years, were discovered in 1924 at
Taung, South Africa. The East African Rift Valley seems to have been the home of human
evolution due to its rich archaeological evidence. For instance, Fossils of Homo habilis
were found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and Lake Turkana in Kenya.
Map 1.2 Emergency of humans in East Africa and migration to other parts of the
world,(source:Glencoe-World-History)
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
1. Explore the internet or refer to historical sources and write a
half-page report explaining why East Africa is important for
studying human origin.
2. Draw a map of Africa and show the major archaeological sites.
1.6 The Stone Age

• analyse stages of the Stone Age.
• discuss the achievements during the Stone Age.
Brainstorming
• What is the Stone Age?
One of the basic distinguishing features of the human species is the ability to make tools.
The earliest tools were made of stone. In the transition from hunting and gathering to the
period of civilisation, human beings passed through several stages of development.
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These stages include the time when tools were made of stone. This period took a long
time. The Stone Age is divided into three periods: the Paleolithic Age, the Mesolithic Age,
and the Neolithic Age.
Figure 1.5 Stone tools, (adopted from Kevin Shillingiton 1995:7)
Paleolithic is Greek for “old stone,” The Paleolithic Age is also called the Old Stone Age.
The Paleolithic Age was the longest of the stone ages that began sometime around 2.6
million and lasted until about 300,000 years ago. During this period, early human beings
made the first crude stone tools known as hand – axes lived in caves and discovered fire.
They also began to use language.
The Mesolithic age (Middle Stone Age) was a transitional period between the Paleolithic
and Neolithic Ages. It lasted from 300,000 to around 45,000 years ago. Stone tools were
slightly improved and more adaptable to different uses during this age.

1. How did the making of simple tools change human life?
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The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) started around 8,000BC and lasted until about
4,000BC. A great revolution took place during this age. The Neolithic Age has brought
about the so-called Neolithic Revolution or Agricultural revolution. The real change in
the Neolithic Revolution was the shift from the hunting of animals and gathering food to
keeping animals and growing crops regularly, which we call systematic agriculture.
The Neolithic agricultural revolution had far-reaching consequences. The prerequisites
for civilisation were laid during this age. Agriculture was introduced and transformed
the lives of Neolithic people. As a result, human beings began to produce food. This was
followed by a sedentary way of life and a complex social organisation. Stone houses
were built. Religious places and granaries were constructed. New and better tools like the
hoe, the yoke, and the wheel appeared, and the use of animals in farming helped human
beings produce more food. The change had such dramatic effects that historians call it the
Neolithic Agricultural revolution. In short, the Neolithic Revolution made human beings
food producers and community dwellers.
The Neolithic revolution occurred at different times in various places. The earliest
evidence of the Neolithic comes from the Middle East some 11,000 years ago. The
major archaeological sites are found in Palestine, Mesopotamia, the Nile valley in Egypt,
Tropical Africa, the Yangtze Kiang valley in China, the Indus valley in India, and parts of
the Americas.
Map 1.3 Principal archaeological sites in Ethiopia, (source: ResearachGate.net)
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It is believed that the Neolithic age took place in parts of Ethiopia about 7000 years ago.
Then, agriculture began and among the domesticated plants were teff, dagussa, nug and
enset.
People also started making and using pottery. There are several archaeological sites in
Ethiopia that are representative of the Neolithic age. These archaeological sites are found
in Aksum, Lalibela, and near Chercher in Hararghe and Metehara.

1. Briefly describe the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic stone Ages.
2. Draw a map and show the major archaeological sites of the Neolithic
Age in Ethiopia.
3. Explain the major changes that resulted from the development of
systematic agriculture.
1.7 The Emergence of States

• identify features of the state.
• explain possible factors for the emergence of states.
• identify the major theories on the origin of the state.
Brainstorming
• Could you guess how early states emerged?
17
As discussed above, the Neolithic age led to sedentary ways of life among human
communities. Through time, these communities would become enormous. However,
human societies did exist in some simple forms of organisation before the emergence of
complex societies, i.e. state. So, a state may be defined as a politically organised body of
people occupying a defined territory with an organised legitimate government and free
from all forms of external control to exercise its sovereignty within its area of rule. It must
be noted that a state differs from a kingdom and an empire. For a state to exist, it must have
the following features: population, territory, government, sovereignty and recognition.
Regarding the emergence of states, scholars put forward different theories. One of these
theories is related to religion. As religion developed, priests appeared in early societies.
They began to play central roles in administrative spheres of society. Such early states
were known as theocratic states. They were ruled by priests.
Others say that agriculture was the major reason for the emergence of the state. As early
society was divided economically into higher and lower classes, those who produced
surplus became elites. Elites are rich people who had attained higher status in society
due to their wealth. As a result, they would have control over others, thus leading to the
emergence of the state.
Others insist that control over trade and trade routes were the principal reason for the
emergence of the state. As a result, village chiefs who controlled the trade gradually
replaced priests with the emergence of markets. In addition, these chiefs had the power of
collecting tributes and keeping the security of villages and the needs around them. This
development marked the appearance of states. War or conflict might also have occurred
when small villages combined to establish states under powerful local chiefs by force.

1. List the differences between state and society.
2. Write and explain the major theories of the origin of the state.
18
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Unit Summary
 📝
Prehistory refers
refers totothe
thelong
longperiod
periodbefore
before
people
people
invented
invented
the system
the system
of writ-
of
ing. History
writing. History
refers
refers
to all
to all
thethe
things
thingsthat
thathappened
happenedininthethehuman
humanpastpast after
after the
beginning of the art of writing. History helps us know about the past, understand
the present, and foresee future developments.
Historiography
Historiography isis studying
studyinghow howknowledge
knowledge of the past past
of the is attained and trans-
is attained and
mitted. The past signifies events that have taken place and the facts
transmitted. The past signifies events that have taken place and the facts of the of the past,
which are kept
past, which areinkept
writing. Sources
in writing. are critical
Sources to the study
are critical to theand writing
study of history.
and writing of
Most commonly, historians divide sources into two broad groups.
history. Most commonly, historians divide sources into two broad groups. These These are
primary andand
are primary secondary
secondary sources.
sources.
There are two major opposing theories on the origin of human beings. These are
There are two major opposing theories on the origin of human beings. These are
the creationist and the evolutionist theories.
the creationist and the evolutionist theories.
One of the basic distinguishing features of the human species is the ability to
One of the basic distinguishing features of the human species is the ability to
make tools. The earliest tools were made of stone. Before the technology of de-
make tools. The earliest tools were made of stone. Before the technology of
vices, human beings got their food by hunting wild animals and gathering wild
devices, human beings got their food by hunting wild animals and gathering
fruits.
wild fruits.
Human beings pass through several stages of development. These stages in-
Human
clude thebeings
time when passtools
through
were several
made of stages of development.
stone. The Thesedivided
Stone Age is further stages
include
into threetheperiods.
time whenThesetools werePaleolithic
are the made of Age,stone.the
The Stone Age
Mesolithic Ageis and
further
the
divided
Neolithicinto
Age.three periods. These are the Paleolithic Age, the Mesolithic Age
and the Neolithic Age.
19
Unit Review Questionns

❓
Part I: Write true if the statement is correct and write false if the statement is in
correct.
1. Prehistory refers to the long period before people invented the system of writing.
2. History is about everything that will happen in the human future.
3. Primary sources include original materials like manuscripts and artefacts.
4. Oral traditions are historical sources transmitted by written materials.
5. The scientific theory of human evolution argues that human being created by God.
Part II: Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.
1. The invention of_____________ is considered to be the period when human
prehistory ends.
A. Stone tools
B. Art of writing
C. Bronze wheels
D. Iron Plough
2. During which period did human beings domesticate plants and animals?
A. Mesolithic stone age
B. Middle stone age
C. Neolithic stone age
D. Palaeolithic stone age
3. In human evolution, which species appeared first?
A. Homo sapiens
B. Homo erectus
C. Homo habilis
D. Modern human
4. All of the following included under Primary sources of artefacts, except
A. chronicles
B. inscriptions
C. utensils
D. ruins of buildings
5. Which one is not a characteristic of modern human beings?
A. bi-pedal
B. large brain
C. large jaws
D. use language
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6. Which one of the following is a specific feature of state?

A. Population
B. Government
C. Definite territory
D. All of the above
Part III: Give brief answers to the following.
1. Write the main objectives of studying history.
2. Explain the place of Africa and Ethiopia in human evolution shortly.
3. Discuss the major theories of the origin of the state.
Part IV: Further Activities
1. Skim the unit and list the main key terms and concepts you have learnt. Write your
answers in your exercise book.
2. Explain the difference between facts and opinions. Give examples.
21
2
Unit
2
ANCIENT WORLD CIVILIZATIONS UP TO C. 500AD
Unit Introduction
This unit focuses on some of the In the last lesson, you will
Unit
most important civilisations of the learn about the civilisations
ancient world that developed in of Greece and Rome and their
Africa, Asia, America and Europe. achievements. The students will also
It consists of three lessons. In learn about the rise and spread of
lesson one, you will study two Christianity. Major points
old civilisations of Africa, Egypt and arguments are illus-
and Nubia and their economic, trated with examples and
social and political features and images to facilitate your learning
enduring achievements. In and make it attractive to you. The
lesson two, you will examine the unit closes with a summary of the
civilisation of Mesopotamia, India main points of each lesson, followed
and China in Asia. In lesson three, by review questions that enable
you will examine the civilisation of you to measure your achievements
Inca, Maya and Aztecs in America. of the objectives of the unit.

• explain the major ancient world civilisation with their major achievements.
• compare and contrast the ancient civilisation of Africa with the ancient world
civilisation of Asia.
• discuss how the ideas of civilisations were disseminated all over the world.
examine how ancient civilisations shaped the life of humankind.
• write about the rise and spread of Christianity into different parts of the world.
22
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🔑
Unit 2 Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500AD
Key Terms
• Pyramid • Confucianism
• Cuneiform • Democracy
• Buddhism • Republic
• Monotheism
2.1 Ancient Civilisations of Africa

• outline the major achievements of ancient African civilisation.
• analyse major achievements of ancient African civilisations.
• evaluate the impact of the ancient African civilisations on modern society.
• appreciate the ways in which ancient African civilisations shaped the life of
mankind.
• appreciate the importance of the ancient African civilisations to modern society,
as this will develop the learner’s spirit of working hard.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about ancient African civilisation?
2.1.1 Ancient Egypt

The civilisation of Ancient Egypt began at about 3000BC. It flourished in the Nile Valley.
According to tradition, Upper and Lower Egypt were unified by Menes around 3200BC.
Agriculture was the basis of the Egyptian economy. The silt from the Nile
replenished the fertility of the soil and allowed the production of large amounts of crops.
The Egyptian peasantry produced wheat and barley. Livestock also formed an integral
part of the economy. Trade was another important economic activity in the empire.
The Egyptian empire was a large state ruled by an absolute king called a pharaoh. The king
ruled Egypt through officials named Viziers. The Viziers acted as mayors, tax collectors and
judges. The pharaohs were regarded as kings and gods. He was believed to be an incarnated
god and would indeed be a god after death, watching over Egypt’s welfare. The Egyptians
were polytheists. They worshipped many gods. Ancient Egyptians believe in life after death.
The process of preserving the body is called mummification. Mummification later
developed into skilled art. As a result, ancient Egyptians also advanced in medicine.
23
Egyptian society was structured hierarchically.
Figure 2.1 Ancient Egyptian Social Hierarchy

Peasants undertook irrigational activities. They also constructed palaces, massive temples
and tombs for the Pharaohs. These tombs are known as pyramids.
Ancient Egyptians developed the art of writing known as hieroglyphics around 3000BC.
It was a combination of pictograms, ideograms, phonograms and determinatives. Next,
Egyptians introduced papyrus which was a paper-like substance.
Map 2.1 Map of ancient Egypt, showing the major cities and archaeological
sites, (source: worldhistory.org)
24
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
1. In groups, discuss the contribution of the ancient Egyptian civilisation
2.1.2 Nubia
Kush was a kingdom along the Nile River in what is now northeastern Sudan. It existed
as early as 2000 BC and lasted until about 350AD. Agriculture was an important basis for
social differentiation and stratification. The Nubians cultivated cereals, vegetables and
dates fruit. In addition, pastoralism formed another important base of the subsistence
economy. Finally, trade was another important source of wealth and power for Nubian
states. At different times, Egypt conquered and ruled lower Nubia.
Absolute kings and queens ruled the Nubian states. Nubian kings and queens were
considered like the Egyptian pharaohs as divine rulers. Nubia was also known for its
metal technology. Meroe was an important center of metal products such as gold, copper,
silver, and iron. This indicates that Meroe had a flourishing iron industry.
The Kushites conquered Egypt about the eighth century BC. Then, at about 350AD, the
Aksumite king, Ezana, invaded and destroyed Meroe.

1. Sketch a map of Africa and locate major centers of ancient Egyptian and
Nubian civilization.
2. Describe the impacts of the ancient African civilisations on modern
society.
2.2 Civilisations in Asia

• outline the major achievements of ancient Asian civilisation.
• analyse major achievements of ancient Asian civilisations.
• evaluate the impact of the ancient Asian civilisations on modern society.
• appreciate how ancient Asian civilisations shaped the life of mankind.
25
• appreciate the importance of the ancient Asian civilisations to modern

society, as this will develop the learner’s spirit of working hard.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about ancient Asia civilisation?
2.2.1 Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia included the area now eastern Syria, Southern Turkey and Most Parts of
Iraq. The earliest of the great river valley civilisations was the civilisation of Sumerian
found between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. The Sumerians began to build the first
cities in the world. Sumerians used mud bricks dried in the sun in their buildings. Large
temples of this kind were called Ziggurats (stepped towers).
Figure 2.2 The Ziggurat of Ur, (source: ResearchGate.net)

The soil of southern Mesopotamia was very fertile, and with flood control and
irrigation, large crops were possible. The Sumerian kings had divine authority. A king ruled as
representative of his city’s major god. The Sumerians were Polytheists. The plough and the
potter wheel first appeared in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians may have been
the first to use bronze. The Sumerians developed a writing system around
3200 BC. Their writing system was known as cuneiform. Cuneiform was not
an alphabet system. Instead, it was a highly complex system of ideographs.
They also developed mathematics, astronomy, medicine and metal works.
2.1.1 Persia
Persia was a land that included parts of the area now called Iran and Afghanistan. The
Persians called the region the “Land of Aryans”, from which the name Iran is coined. The
26
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Persians called their language Aryan. They established a dynasty known as the Persian
Empire, the largest empire in the ancient world.
The first Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great around 550BC, became one of
the largest empires in history, stretching from Europe’s Balkan Peninsula in the West
to India’s Indus Valley in the East. It also included parts of North Africa. They made an
important contribution to government, law and religion. They built many new roads and
developed the world’s first postal service. Their religion was known as Zoroastrianism,
founded by a prophet called Zoroaster.

1. In small groups, discuss the contribution of the ancient Mesopotamian
civilisation.
2.2.2 India
The first Indian Civilisation began in the Indus Valley in Pakistan and Western India at
about 2500BC and reached its apex at about 1500BC. The people had their counting,
measuring, weighing, and writing systems. They dug ditches and canals around the cities
to irrigate their farms. The people traded with one another and also with other civilisations
like Mesopotamia.
The Indus artisans used copper and bronze to make tools, mirrors, pots, and pans and
crafted gold ornaments. The ancient Indian society was hierarchically divided into
different sociasocia according to their work and birth; it goes back some 3,000
years.
Figure 2.3 Social hierarchy of ancient India
27
Hindu religion was developed from the beliefs of the early Indo-Aryans. Buddhism
emerged from Hinduism as a reform movement. It spread outside of India to South East
Asia, China and Japan.
2.2.3 China
The civilisation of ancient China first developed in the Yellow River Region of Northern
China in the third millennia BC. Chinesee civilisation expanded over time to present-day
China's central and southern parts. Ancient Chinesee civilisation reached its height about
3000 BC. in the Valley of Hwang Ho. The first dynasty in China was called the Shang
dynasty (c. 1700-1122BC). Its achievements included the creation of bronze vessels, war
chariots, and a writing system.
At about 1122BC., the Chon dynasty overthrew the Shang dynasty and established its
own rule over China until 256BC. As a result, Chinesee literary classics developed, and
Chinesee philosophy emerged.
Confucius (551-479BC) was the most influential and respected philosopher in
Chinesee history, and his teaching was Confucianism. Confucianism teaches the impor-
tance of a well-ordered society in which parents rule their children; men lead women and the
educated judge ordinary people. The ancient Chinesee constructed the Great Wall of
China to keep out invaders from central Asia. It extends about 7,400 Kilometers across
southern China.
Figure 2.4 The Great Wall of China, (source: arrajol.com)
28
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The Chinese developed their system of writing called logographic, which meant the use
of pictorial symbols to represent words of the Chinesee language.

1. Explore the internet or other available sources that relate to Asian
civilizations. Then, write a short report about their contributions to
human society.
2. Why did the Chinese construct the Great Wall? Is there a tradition of
constructing walls among your society? Discuss in a group.
2.3 Ancient Civilisation of Latin America

• outline the major achievements of Latin American civilisations.
• analyse major achievements of Latin American civilisations.
• evaluate the impact of the Latin American civilisations on modern society.
• appreciate how Latin American civilisations shaped the life of mankind.
• appreciate the importance of the Latin American civilisations to contemporary
society.
2.3.1 Maya
Brainstorming
• What do you know about ancient Maya civilisation?
The Maya were Native American people who developed a magnificent civilisation in
the western hemisphere before the coming of the Europeans. This civilisation was at its
peak from about 250-900AD. The Maya produced remarkable architecture, painting,
pottery, and sculpture. They made outstanding achievements in astronomy mathematics and
developed an accurate yearly calendar. They developed an advanced form of writing. The
Maya worshipped many gods and goddesses.
The Maya built tall pyramids of limestone with small temples on top. The Spanish had
captured the southern part of the area in the 16th Century. Spanish domination of the entire
29
Maya region was completed in the late 17th Century.

2.3.2 Inca
The Inca were a South American native people. They ruled one of the largest and
richest empires in the Americas. The Inca Empire began to expand at about 1438. It
included present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. Its capital was
Cusco, in southern Peru.
The Inca were skilled in engineering and crafts. For example, they built a network of
roads. Inca craftworkers made fine artefacts from gold, silver and other materials. The
Inca also wove fine cotton and woollen cloth. Spanish forces conquered the Inca Empire
after 1532.
2.3.3 Aztecs
The Aztecs were another Native American people who ruled a powerful empire in
Mexico during the 15th and 16th centuries. The center of the Aztec civilisation was the
valley of Mexico. The Aztecs empire included many cities and towns. The largest city was the
capital Tenochtitlan, which stood on the site of present-day Mexico -City.
Agriculture formed the basis of the Aztec economy. The Aztecs worshipped
hundreds of gods and goddesses. They used a form of writing called pictographic writing.
Unfortunately, their empire was destroyed by the Spaniards in 1521.

1. What are the major achievements of ancient American civilisations?
2. What arts did the Aztecs practice?
3. When did the Spanish destroy Mayan culture?
2.4 Civilisations in Europe

• outline the major achievements of ancient European civilisation.
• analyse major achievements of European civilisations.
• evaluate the impact of the ancient European civilisations on modern society.
• appreciate how ancient European civilisations shaped the life of humankind.
30
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Brainstorming
• What comes to your mind when you hear or read the word
Greek?
2.4.1 Ancient Greek Civilisation

Ancient Greece, which emerged about 2500 years ago, was the birthplace of western
civilisation. Greeks' culture developed chiefly in small city-states called Polis. A city-state
consists of a city or town and the surrounding villages and farmland. The best-known
city-states were Athens and Sparta. The city-states never became united into a nation.
However, they all had a common language, religion and culture. The Greeks called
themselves Hellens and their land Hellas.
Greek cultural achievements were outstanding in the classical period and were the ancient
legacy to Europe and the world. Some of the accomplishments were:
• Architecture. The temple of Athena in Athens (the Parthenon) is the finest example.
• Literature and Drama. The Greeks invented drama (theatre).
• Sculptures. The Greeks made statues of gods and heroes in marble and bronze.
• History writing. The two great Greek historians were Herodotus and
Thucydides. Herodotus wrote about countries and civilisations outside Greece but
is also our best source for the Persian Wars. Thucydides wrote a good account of the
Peloponnesian War, without bias though he was Athenian.
• Medicine. Hippocrates began the tradition of modern medicine in Europe. He
identified symptoms, classified diseases and suggested sensible remedies (for
example, fresh air and a good diet).
• “Democracy”, “Psychology”, “Olympic”, and “Marathon” all have Greek origin.
• Philosophy. The two greatest philosophers of ancient Greece, who taught in
Athens, were Plato and later Aristotle. The modern philosopher Bertrand Russell
stated, “Plato and Aristotle were the most influential of all philosophers, ancient,
medieval or modern.”
31

1. Explain how the ancient Greece civilisations shaped the life of
man kind.
2. Write the Greek city state that has the most historic contribution to
the present world. List down the contributions.
2.4.2 Ancient Roman Civilisation

Brainstorming
• What have you learned about ancient Rome in your lower
grades?
The Roman civilisation was started in present-day Italy around 753BC on the hills
above the River Tiber. Ancient Rome had a significant influence on the development of
western civilisation. Roman law had become the foundation for the legal systems of most
countries in Western Europe and Latin America. Roman roads, bridges, and aqueducts
served as a model for engineering. Ancient Romans built public baths and amphitheatres
(outdoor arenas). The most famous theatre in the city of Rome was the Coliseum.
Figure 2.5 The Coliseum (oval Amphitheatre in the center of the city of Rome),
(source: Euro-royal.com)
32
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A series of kings ruled ancient Rome at the beginning. The Roman Republic was
established in 509BC after the Roman nobles overthrew the king. Two elected
officials called Consuls headed the government of the republic. A Consul served for only
a year. The Senate was the most powerful government body of the Roman Republic, and
senators served for life. The Roman Republic lasted nearly 500 years, until 27BC. The
Roman Empire was established after the republic was destroyed by the twenty years of
civil war. The empire lasted until Rome fell in 476AD.

1. How did the Romans law ensure that leaders would not place
themselves above the law? Read secondary sources and write
a half page report.
Rome expanded beyond Italy in aggressive wars. The bloodiest wars of Rome were
the repetitive Punic wars (264-146) fought against Carthage. Rome then extended its
empire, step by step, all around the Mediterranean Sea and beyond (Gaul, which is
modern France, Britain, Belgium and the Netherlands).
The main difference between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire was that the
former was a democratic society, and the latter was run only by one man. Also, the Roman
Republic was in an almost constant state of war, whereas the Roman Empire's first 200
years were relatively peaceful.
Rome left behind an important legacy, which it passed on to the world in its culture and
institutions. Some of the most important ones include the following:
• The Latin Language. Latin developed into the “Latin languages” of Europe and Latin
America.
• Latin literature, authors like Cicero, Caesar (he wrote the history of his wars) and the
poets Vergil, Horace and others.
• Roman law was revived in the European Middle Ages.
• The Julian calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar is the base for the current Gregorian
calendar.
33

1. Identify the difference between the Roman Republic and the Roman
Empire.
2. Explain the contributions of ancient Roman civilisation.
2.5 The Rise and Spread of Christianity

• describe the origin of Christianity.
• explain spread of Christianity into different parts of the world.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about the origin of Christianity?
Christianity began in Palestine in the first century AD. It was a religion based on the
teaching of Jesus Christ. Jesus was born in Bethlehem, in the Judea part of Palestine,
under the Roman Empire. The Roman governments considered the Christians as a threat
against the unity of the Empire and persecuted them. The Roman government began
persecuting Christians during the reign of Nero (AD 54–68).
34
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In 312, Emperor Constantine became a Christian and made Christianity the favoured
religion of the Roman Empire. So naturally, this made Christianity spread even faster.
In the fourth century AD, Emperor Constantine ordered religious toleration in the Edict
of Milan in 313AD. Thus, Christians gained freedom from persecution. Then, under
Theodosius the Great, who ruled from 378 to 395, the Romans adopted Christianity as
their official religion in 392AD.
Map 2.2 Spread of Chirstianity, (source: Glencoe World-History)
Christianity replaced the Roman Empire as a unifying force in Western Europe during
the Middle Ages. During the early Christian era, Rome and Constantinople competed for
religious power. The Pope or Bishop of Constantinople asserted authority over Church
affairs in the East. They also had conflicting views on Church language and rituals. These
disagreements finally created a split in the Christian Church. In 1054 the Church split
into two distinct parts the Roman Catholic Church at Rome and Greek Orthodox Church
at Constantinople. The Greek Orthodox Church was later divided into several Eastern
Orthodox churches.
The Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Churches retained separate identities
today. In 1517, a Reformation movement began, and Western Christianity was divided
into the Roman Catholic Church and Protestantism.
35

1. Explain the term monotheism.
2. Discuss the major reasons for the spread of Christianity.
36
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Unit Summary

This unit showed that Egypt had a long civilisation dating from the early 4th
millennium BC. The civilisation was divided into Pre-dynastic and Old, Middle
and New Kingdoms, during which successive Egyptian pharaohs supported by
civilian officials ruled the kingdom.
The Egyptians were polytheists; the pharaohs were themselves considered
gods. The Egyptians made important contributions in the areas of building
technology and writing. Nubia was also a vital kingdom ruled by powerful kings
and queens. Like Egypt, its economy was dependent on agriculture, pastoralism
and trade. In addition, Egypt and Nubia had influenced each other politically
and culturally. Besides its building technology, Nubia was famous for its iron
industry.
Like Egypt, Sumerian civilisation developed in the fertile regions between
the Euphrates and Tigris. Unlike Egypt, however, Sumerian civilisation was a
civilisation of warring city-states rather than one unified kingdom. The
Sumerians invented the plough, a writing system and the wheel. They were also
skilled builders of temples using mud bricks.
The unit also added to your knowledge of ancient Greece by learning about
the wars of Greece against Persia, the Peloponnesian War and Greek culture
in the classical and the Hellenistic Age. Many provincials, but not the Jews of
Palestine, felt loyalty to Rome, and later, all free males became Roman citizens.
Finally, the unit explained how Christianity rose, and its spread, especially after
Constantine made it the Roman Empire's official religion.
37

❓
correct.
1. Ancient Egypt believed in life after death.
2. Hindu religion was developed from the beliefs of the early Chinese.
3. The Chinese constructed the Great Wall of China during the Shang dynasty.
4. The Roman Republic was established in 509BC after the king overthrew nobles.
5. Christianity began in Palestine in the first century AD.
Part II: Match major achievements of world civilisation under column "A" with
peoples or areas under column "B"
A B
1. Made advanced iron tools and weapons A. Phoenicians
of bronze B. China
2. Invented the system of writing called C. Greece
cuneiform D. Egyptians
3. They developed an efficient system of E. Nubia
postal service F. Romans
4. Their government declared Christianity G. Persians
as a state religion H. Sumerians
5. Birthplace of Western Civilisation
Part III: Choose the Correct Answer from the given Alternatives for the Questions
1. Mesopotamia used sun baked clay to write whereas Egyptians used
A. Paper
B. Papyrus
C. Wall of caves
D. Stone
2. The Roman Emperor who ordered religious toleration to stop the Christians’
persecution was:
A. Theodosius
B. Herodotus
C. Nero
D. Constantine
38
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3. Which one of the following is not correct about ancient civilisation of the world?
A. It began over the world at different time.
B. Most of the ancient civilisations were found in southern hemisphere.
C. Most of them were confined near and around river valleys.
D. They had significant effect on current development.
4. Identify the wrong statement about the year 1054AD. It was:
A.When the church split into two
B. found in the 10th century
C. found in the opening of second millennium
D. found in the 11th century
5. Which one is a politico-religious creation of the ancient Egyptian civilisation?
A.Hieroglyphics
B. Papyrus
C. Pharaohs
D. Pyramids
6. The body of government that headed the Roman Republic for one year was:
A. Senators
B. Consuls
C. Senate
D. Noble
1. In group, list the important historical events that occurred during the ancient
civlizations on historical timeline. (Hint: use 1000 years intervals to draw a
timeline).
2. Draw a map of the world and mark the events you listed above.
3. Research several events on the historical timeline events from different regions and
write a short description of each event and present it to the class.
39
3
Unit
PEOPLES AND STATES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO
THE END OF 13TH C.
Unit Introduction
The Region Ethiopia and the Horn ments. It also deals with the
are referred to as the cradle of history of states that emerged in the
humankind and a place where region up to the 13th century. This
prerequisites for early civilisations period saw the emergence and
took place. These developments fall of successive dynasties in
contributed to the evolution of different parts of the region.
socio-cultural, economic, and For instance, the Zagwe dynasty
political settings. This unit briefly replaced the Aksumite dynasty in
describes languages and peoples’ northern Ethiopia in 1270AD; in
settlements and religious the mean time, in 1285AD, in
backgrounds in Ethiopia. The the southern half of Ethiopia, the
purpose is to show that Makhzumite dynasty of the Sultan-
Ethiopia is home to diverse ate of Shewa was succeeded by the
peoples and multicultural ele- Walsama dynasty of Ifat sultanate.

• differentiate the main language supper families of Ethiopia.
• list the major religions of Ethiopia.
• examine the nature of interaction among different peoples of Ethiopia to the
end of the thirteenth century.
• analyse the major achievements of the Pre Aksumite and Aksumite kingdom.
• evaluate the main political-economic, social and cultural features of peoples
and states of Ethiopia to the end of the thirteenth century.
• evaluate the success and failure of the Zaguwe Dynasty.
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🔑
Unit 3 Peoples and States in Ethiopia and the Horn to the end of 13th C.
Key Terms
• Dynasty
• Language
• Kingdom
• Religion
3.1 Languages, Religions and Peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn

3.1.1 Languages families
Ethiopia and the Horn region is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. The Horn of
Africa is inhabited by people who speak various languages and follow different religions.
In addition, there are over 80 languages with many dialects. Yet, there is a strong unity
beneath this cultural and linguistic diversity.

• analyse how language influenced Ethiopia’s relationship with neighbouring
countries.
• draw a map showing the distribution pattern of the various languages of
Ethiopia.
• show respect and tolerance to the different languages of Ethiopia.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about the major language families of
Ethiopia from your lower grade?
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Linguists classify the languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major superfamilies.
These are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan. Speakers of the Afro-Asiatic super-family are
further divided into Cushitic, Omotic and Semitic language families. The speakers of the
Nilo-Saharan super-family are also divided into Chari – Nile and Koman speaking families.
Map 3.1 The distribution of language families in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa,
(source: Encyclopaedia Britannica)
I. Afro-Asiatic Super - Family
This super-family covers the largest sector of Ethiopia’s population. It can be further
divided into three linguistic families. These are Cushitic, Semitic and Omotic.
A. Cushitic: –
The vast majority speaks Cushitic language family in terms of both areal coverage and
size of speakers. There is spillover into neighbouring countries. The Cushitic languages
have sub-divisions: North Cushitic, Central Cushitic and Eastern Cushitic.
Chart 3.1 Afro-Asiatic Language families spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn
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• In ancient times, Northern Cushitic was widely spread between the Red Sea and the
Nile Valley. North Cushitic is represented only by the Beja people's language, spoken
in what is today Northwestern Eritrea.
Central Cushitic spread during ancient times and is represented by the Bilen in
Eritrea and the Agaw languages, including Bilen, Agaw, Qimant, Himitagna and Awign in
Ethiopia.
Eastern Cushitic is both the largest and the most diverse branch of the Cushitic
family languages in Ethiopia. For this reason, it has been subdivided into Highland and
Lowland East Cushitic. People under Lowland Cushitic, for instance include: Oromo, Afar,
Somali, Konso, Gidole, Erbore, Dassenech and Saho. They are called so because most
of the speakers originally lived in the eastern lowlands of Ethiopia and the Horn. This
language family has become one of the largest in the region following population
movements in the 16th century. The speakers of Eastern Highland Cushitic people are:
Hadiya, Kambata, Tambaro, Halaba, Sidama, Gedeo, and Burji live in the highlands of
central Ethiopia. Thus, they have the collective name “Eastern Highland Cushitic”.
B. Semitic:
It is divided into Northern Semitic and Southern Semitic.
Northern Semitic – Ge'ez is an ancient language of northern Ethiopia. Ge'ez is now
confined to use in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Others are Tegra, found in the Eritrean
lowlands and Tigrigna spoken in southern Eritrea and Tigray.
Southern Semitic consists of Amharic, Argobba, Gafat (now extinct), Guraghigna, Silte,
Harari and Zay languages.
C. Omotic:
Most of the Omotic speakers live in and around the Omo River basin. In earlier times,
it had extended much further to the north. The Shinasha in the Benishangul-Gumuz
region and Anfillo in Wallaga are good examples of this movement. There are as
many as different Omotic languages spoken in Ethiopia today. Some examples of the
Omotic language-speaking peoples are Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Chara, Dawuro, Dime,
Dizi, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer, Hozo, Kachama Ganjule, Karo, Keficho,
Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolaita, Yem, Zayse
etc. Ometo includes Wolaita and Gamo among its groups, while the main Gonga is
Keficho.
Nilo - Saharan Super – Family: In Ethiopia, the Nilo-Saharan superfamily speakers
mainly live on the Ethio-Sudanese border. But some of these peoples are living in the
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Abay gorge and along the banks of the tributaries of Abay in Wallaga. This superfamily
has two families:
A. Chari-Nile: this family includes the languages of the people of Anuak Nuer, Mi'en,
Majang, Benishangul, Kunama, Mursi, Surma and Tirma.
B. Koman: includes the peoples of Gumuz, Koma, Sese, Ma'o, and Komo.
Chart 3.2 Nilo-Saharan Language families spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn
Out of the significant number of the languages of Ethiopia, few have already disappeared,
and some are close to death. This is because of the decreasing number of their speakers.
Gafat is an example of a language that has disappeared.

1. Human race originated from the same species. Debate how
language and cultural diversity of people came into existence.
2. List as many languages as possible that are spoken in your locality
and draw a chart indicating the language families and super-families
they belong to.

3. List some languages in danger of extinction in Ethiopia. Why do
languages die out, and some are in danger of extinction?
3.1.2 Major Religions of Ethiopia

Brainstorming
• What are the major religions of Ethiopia?
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Ethiopia also has religious complexity, forming a competing platform for religious beliefs
and practices. The major religions practised by diverse people of Ethiopia are indigenous
religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
• point out factors for the introduction and expansion of Christianity and Islam
in Ethiopia.
• show respect and tolerance to the various religions in Ethiopia.
1. Indigenous Religion
Indigenous religions are beliefs that are practiced only within a given culture. Since
ancient times, they have been native to the region and followed by the local people.
Sedentary settlement and agricultural development saw the emergence of priests who
conduct praying for rainfall, thanksgiving and safety from natural hazards. Farmers paid
tributes for the services of priests. They laid the foundation for indigenous religions. They
either worship or provide sacrifices to them. People of Indigenous Religion also owe
special reverence to their ancestors. Followers of traditional religions believe that their
supreme deity is the creator.
A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in one Supreme Being, but special
powers are attributed to natural phenomena considered sacred. Spiritual functionaries
officiate over rituals, propitiate divinities, and are held in a lot of respect as
intermediaries between society and spirits. For example, the Waqeffanna of the Oromo is
based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa. Waqa's power is manifested
through the spirits called Ayyana. Revered experts, Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female), have
maintained a link between the Ayyana and the believers.
An exciting feature of indigenous religion is its practices and beliefs are fused with
Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as syncretism.

1. Name the major Indigenous religions in your locality and tell your
classmates how they are practiced.
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A. Judaism
Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia since early times. Today it is
practiced by a community of people known as Bete-Israel (literally, house of Israel).
Until their mass exodus to Israel in the 1980s and 1990s, they used to live in northwestern
Ethiopia, to the north of Lake Tana in the provinces of Dembiya, Semen, and Wegera.
The Bete-Israel accounts of origin assert that they stem from the tribes of Israel who
arrived in Ethiopia during the Exodus in Israel. The Jews appear to have been isolated from
mainstream Jewish for at least a millennium. Despite relentless pressure from their
Christian neighbours, the Bete-Israel preserved their Judaic heritage for many centuries.
Judaism is established in the teachings of the Old Testament part of the Bible and share
common practices with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Both follow the Old Testament
practices and use Geez for liturgy. Their priests were likewise identical in dressing,
symbolism, behaviour and hierarchy. Thus, they had a greater affinity. Nevertheless, the
Bete Israel held on firmly to Judaic teachings and ceremonies. The religion was mainly
confined to northern Ethiopia. Currently, a few Judaism practitioners remain in Ethiopia.
B. Christianity
Christianity was introduced to Ethiopia around 330AD by Frumentius (also known
as Freminatos), who converted king Ezana (r.320 - 350AD) and his close associates.
Consequently, Christianity secured royal support and became the state religion that later
helped its expansion. With the coming of monks called the ‘Nine Saints’ towards the
end of the fifth century, Christianity spread more among the broad masses. Churches
were built, and monasteries were established, of which the first being the monastery of
Debre-Damo. The Bible was translated into Ge’ez, and since then, Ge’ez began to serve
as the language of the Church in Ethiopia.Ethiopia.
Figure 3.1 Aksum Tsion Mariam, (source: UNESCO site)
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The introduction of Christianity further reinforced the exposure of Aksum to the outside
world. One significant development was the long-lasting relationship between Ethiopia
and Egypt. Patriarch Atnatewos of Alexandria consecrated Freminatos as Abuna Salam,
the first bishop of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. This tradition of consecrating and
sending a bishop to Ethiopia continued until 1959 when Abune Baselios became the first
Ethiopian Patriarch. Until that year, the head of the Church was always from Egyptian.
The expansion of Christianity continued during the Zagwe period (1150-1270) and
chiefly gained fresh momentum during the Early Medieval Period (1270-1527) when
many churches and monasteries were constructed across the territories that were newly
incorporated into the Christian highland kingdom. Some churches and monasteries played
an essential role as centers of learning and launching pads for the expansion of the Church.
One was the Monasteries of Debre Bizen in Eritrea, Debre Hayq in Amhara, and Debre
Libanos in Shawa. Among the most prominent religious figures that played an outstanding
role in expanding Christianity in the Ethiopian areas outside of the traditionally Christian
regions of early medieval Ethiopia include Abba Iyesus Moa, Abba Giyorgis Zegasicha,
and Abune Tekle-Haymanot.
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Because of the works of these and other religious leaders and their disciples, Christianity
was able to spread into regions as far as Ennarya in southern Ethiopia. The expansion
of Christianity was accompanied by the development of art, literature, architecture, and
music in the country.
Map 3.2 The Expansion of Orthodox Church (13th - 16th C), (adopted from Church
and State, 1972)
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At the end of the fifteenth century, Portuguese voyages of discovery opened the way
for contacts between Catholicism and Ethiopia. From the mid-sixteenth to the early
seventeenth centuries, the Catholics, namely the Jesuits, unsuccessfully tried to
convert Ethiopian Orthodox Christians to Catholicism. In the mid-16th century, Ethiopian
rulers allowed Jesuits to preach in the country. In 1622, Susneyos publicly announced his
adherence to Catholicism, a strategy to reinforce his political power.
The Portuguese Jesuit Afonso Mendes was appointed Patriarch of Ethiopia in 1622
by Pope Urban VII and imposed changes against the former Orthodox religious
practices. These actions led to uprisings, social unrest and civil war in Gondar. It was
concluded with the expulsion of the Jesuits from the country. As a result, Susneyos was
forced to resign. His son, Emperor Fasilidas, expelled the Patriarch and the European
missionaries in 1636. This action led to the complete closure of Ethiopia to further contact with
Europeans until the early 19th century.
At the opening of the 19th century, Catholic and Protestant missionaries started
evangelisation activities in Ethiopia. The Catholic missionaries led by Giuseppe Sapeto,
Giustino De Jacobis, and Cardinal Massaja, were active. Systematic approach by trained
Protestants enabled them to win the confidence of local people. Protestant missions included
the Anglican Church Missionary Society, the Church Missionary Society of London and the
Wesleyan Methodist Society led by Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf. In the early
20th century, the Sudan Interior Mission started its work in Wolaita, Hadiya and Kambata.
However, the missionaries were forced to leave the regions due to the Italian occupation.
They returned after Italians were expelled from Ethiopia and Protestantism expanded further.
Both Catholic and protestant missionaries made use of various means to spread Christianity.
For example, they translated spiritual books into first languages; they adopted local names
for God; they established schools and medical centers for the locals and preached the faith.
Eventually, continuous and systematic indoctrinations seem to have resulted in the grafting of
new teaching on indigenous religion. As a result, large numbers of followers were attracted.
C. Islam
Islam arose in the early 7th century in the Arabian Peninsula and spread to other parts
of the world. When Prophet Mohammed began teaching Islam in Mecca, he came into
a series of conflicts with the Quraysh tribe. When the persecution against his followers
became serious, the Prophet sent a small group of his followers, including his daughter,
to the kingdom of Aksum in 615AD. Jafar Abu Talib led this first group of refugees. In
his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia, “…a king under whom none are
persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from what you are
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suffering.” As a result, the Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic
sources), gave them asylum from 615-28.
The warm reception and good attitudes of the king of Aksum towards the Muslim
refugees moved Prophet Mohammed not to conduct jihad against Ethiopia. After
returning the Muslim immigrants to Arabia safely around 628AD, the Prophet continued
to maintain closer links and exempted the kingdom of Aksum from jihad in the future.
Figure 3.2 Al-Nejashi Mosque

Islam was introduced to the Horn through peaceful means following the trade routes.
Muslim clerics and merchants served as the missionaries of Islam in the Horn of Africa.
Islam was introduced to the region through three main gateways. These were:
• the Red Sea in the north,
• the Gulf of Aden in the, east and
• the Indian Ocean in the southeast.
After the destruction of Adulis in 702AD Muslim Arabs had occupied the Dahlak
Islands. By then, Islam had already been firmly established in the Islands. Later in the tenth
century, the Muslim sultanate of Dahlak was established.
Muslim communities began to settle on the Red Sea coastal regions about the same
time. They converted much of the pastoral peoples living in the lowlands of the Red Sea
coast to Islam. But Islam failed in penetrating the interior of northern Ethiopia from the
lowlands. This was mainly because Christianity was well-established in the highland
regions since the mid-fourth century AD. Consequently, Islam was confined to lowland
regions in northern Ethiopia.
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The other direction through which Islam entered and gradually spread into the
Ethiopian interior was the port of Zeila, on the coast of the Gulf of Aden. After the
destruction of Adulis, the importance of the Zeila port began to increase. Several Arab Muslim
merchants started to come to the Horn through this port. The Zeila trade route linked
this port with the rich interior of the Horn. So, the Muslim Arab merchants used this
route to spread the religion of Islam to the interior. As a result, Islam successfully spread
into eastern Harar, Shewa and Wollo regions. Later on, Islam spread to south-central
Ethiopia's Bale, Arsi and Hadya regions. The third gateway of Islam to the Horn was
the Indian Ocean coast from where it penetrated the Somali region. Islam reached the
Somali communities through the coastal towns of Mogadishu, Brava and Merca. Arabs
and non-Arab Muslim merchants started to settle in these towns.
The introduction of Islam to the Horn of Africa was followed by the rise of a series
of Muslim sultanates or states. Generally, Islam and trade led to the emergence of
several Muslim sultanates along the trade routes deep into the interior. Islam and
Christianity have coexisted peacefully in Ethiopia. The establishment and growth of Islam
contributed to the development and enrichment of the cultures of the regions. The mosques
and Islamic centers of learning developed. The city of Harar, which flourished from the
first quarter of the 16th century, is one very good example of such an Islamic cultural
center. At the same time, Ethiopian Muslims maintained close links with Islamic centers
of Arabia, Egypt and Yemen through trade, pilgrimage, and visits for religious training.

1. List the religions in your area. Then, write a short report about the
religions you listed.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about settlement?
3.1.3 The Settlement Pattern of Peoples of Ethiopia

• discuss the settlement patterns of Ethiopian peoples.
• draw a map showing the distribution pattern of the various languages of
Ethiopia.
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Regardless of the territories they inhabit now, the people in Ethiopia have traditions that
trace their origin. The peopling of Ethiopia results from an extensive process of movement
due to pull or push factors. The shortage of resources pushes people, whereas availability
pulls. Consequently, individuals or small groups of people migrate to and from places.
Migrations were quite common in history, and almost all groups have a story of migration
as part of their story of ethnogenesis in Ethiopia. The other form of movement accounting
for the origin and settlement of the various peoples of Ethiopia was population movement.
Unlike migration, population movements involve masses of people; many organised
activities result in the intermix of multiple groups. A settlement pattern, the distribution
of peoples across the landscape, results from long historical processes in northeast Africa.
Studies indicate that environmental, socio-economic, and political processes significantly
shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of peoples in Ethiopia. In some areas, the
settlement was dense and in other areas sparse. Some people inhabited extensive highlands
and others the lowlands. Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic language speaking
peoples had occupied the area between the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west
from where they dispersed to different directions. The Cushitic speaking people have
evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the Horn, followed by Semitic
speaking peoples.
Except the Shinasha and the South Mao speaking peoples, most Omotic peoples have
inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River basin. In the west, the Nilotic
speaking peoples are largely inhabited along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border, although
some of the Chari-Nile family settled as far as Southern Omo.

1. Write a short report about the traditions of origin of your family
or community religions you listed.
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3.2 The Pre-Aksumite States and their Geographical Setting

• list down the names and achievements of the Pre Aksumite states.
• investigate the nature of the interaction between the early states of Ethiopia and
the outside world.
Punt: Punt was an ancient and historically known state in the Horn of Africa. However,
Punt's exact location and territorial limits are not well known. Historians suggest that
its territory falls in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean coastal parts of present-day Djibouti,
Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia.
According to an Egyptian hieroglyphic, the land of Punt was located south of Egypt and
had trade relations with Egypt since the third millennium BC. The trade was conducted
by land and sea routes.
Egyptian inscriptions and pictorial reliefs dating from early times indicate the objects
that punt supplied to Egypt. The land of Punt was commercially important for the
goods it provided to Egypt. These exports originated in the interior, which later became
Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. Such goods include gold undoubtedly from the Ethiopian
interior mainly in western Ethiopia. Others such as ivory, panther and other skins, myrrh
and myrrh trees, ostrich feathers, etc. were which could have come from anywhere in the
Horn. The Egyptians sent hatchets, daggers, necklaces, etc.
Other pre-Aksumite states emerged since 1000BC. These include Yeha, Hawlti-Melazo,
Addi-Seglemeni, Metera, Kaskase, Coloe, etc.
Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these centers. It
probably emerged around 1000BC as a small emporium where South Arabian merchants
and their agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros horn and other commodities coming
from the interior. The period of its prosperity (zenith) was from about 750 to 500BC.
Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry and still standing temple
and inscriptions indicate Yeha’s glory.
Hawulti Melazo: is situated to the southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets inscribed in
the rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings representing herds
of cattle have been excavated.
Damat: Damat existed just before the rise of Aksum. Its center was little to the south
of the town of Aksum. Information about this state comes from local archaeological
sources. Some of Damat’s rulers used the South Arabian political and religious title called
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Mukarib. This indicates that Damat had established external relations with South Arabia.
This can be understood from local inscriptions left by one of its rulers around the fifth
century BC. Damat used the port of Adulis on the Red Sea coast.

1. Explore from the internet or read from sources in the library and
write about the pre-Aksumite states.
2. With which part of the world did the early States of Ethiopia
interact?
3.3 Aksumite Kingdom

• explain the nature of the Ethiopian society and economy during the Aksumite
period.
• identify major factors for the rise and fall of the Aksumite Kingdom.
• analyse the socio-political, economic and cultural organisations of the states.
• investigate the nature of the interaction between the Aksum, and the outside
world.
• appreciate the place of Ethiopia among the great civilisation of the world.
As discussed above, in the pre-Aksumite period, Aksum was not the first state that emerged
in Ethiopia. The term Aksum was derived from two terms, Ak/ku means water in Agaw
and sum/shum means chief in Semitic; hence ‘chief of water’. Aksum emerged in the
first century AD with its nucleus at Aksum. Therefore, the Aksumite civilisation resulted
from the fusion of Cushitic and Semitic cultures. The City of Aksum was its political and
religious center. The city was adorned by several temples and stone monuments like the
monolithic steles of Aksum.
Economically, the Aksumites depended on plough agriculture. Aksum as a kingdom was
a powerful state with a well-demarcated social structure. The link between the king and
the people was the payment of tribute. The state also generated considerable income from
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local and external trade conducted via the port of Adulis on the Red Sea coast.
To facilitate trade, coins of bronze, silver and gold were minted. In the first three
centuries, Ge’ez evolved as a written language. Inscriptions and coins show that
Sabean and Greek languages were used in Aksume before Ge’ez. The use of the Greek
language possibly resulted from trade contact with the Greco-Roman world. Greek was the
lingua-franca of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean region by then.TheAksumites had beliefs in
indigenous religions before the introduction of Christianity in the 4th century AD and
Islam in the early 7th Islam.
Unlike many other centers of civilisations like Yeha, Mattara and Adulis, Aksum
continued to exist as the most important center of a highly developed civilisation for
several centuries. This can be attested from the ruins of Aksumite temples, iron tools,
bricks, coins, tombs and obelisk. In addition, shipbuilding technology was also well
known in the port town of Adulis. As a result, those ruins have become among the known
tourism centres in Ethiopia today.
Figure 3.3 Obelisks of Aksum, (source: UNESCO site)
Initially, Aksum was a small state. Between the fourth and sixth centuries, Aksumite kings
expanded the kingdom significantly to include territories bounded in the east beyond the
Red Sea (southern Arabia), the River Abay in the west, the northern tip of Eritrea in the
north and north Shewa in the south.
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But gradually, Aksum deteriorated. The process of decline started when the Red Sea
had come under the control of Muslim Arabs and the subsequent destruction of the port
of Adulis in 702AD. The loss of trade led to the decline of its economic, political and
military power. Internally, rebellion against king Kaleb (r.500 - 535AD) broke out. Kaleb
had once controlled South Arabia in 525AD. But the South Arabians finally expelled
Aksumite governors and soldiers from their region between 580 and 590AD. Thus,
Aksum lost its control of the other side of the Red Sea trade.
The decline continued in the following centuries, with internal political disturbances
contributing as an additional factor. Finally, unable to check the rebellions of the Beja
people from the north, Aksumite state was pushed southward to Kubar in southern Tigray,
and by the late ninth century, it took refuge in the area predominantly inhabited by the
Agaw people.

1. List the legacies of the Aksumite civilisation and discuss their
importance to the people of Ethiopia.
2. Expalin the way in which Christianity was introduced.
3.4 Zagwe Dynasty

• identify major factors for the rise and fall of the Zagwe Dynasty.
• outline the political-economic, social and cultural features of the Zagwe
Dynasty.
• investigate the nature of contact with the outside world during the Zagwe
period.
• appreciate the place of Ethiopia among the great civilisations of the world.
The Zagwe dynasty came from the local Agaw ruling class in Lasta, part of the Aksumite
Empire. The Zagwe dynasty was founded around 1150AD by Mera Tekle Haymnot. He
established a new capital at Adefa (Roha) in Lasta. The founding of the Zagwe dynasty is not
a new kingdom, but it is all about a political power shift. The economy of the Zagwe dynasty
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was based on agriculture. Trade brought additional income to the state. The Zeila port was the
main outlet during the Zagwe time. The Dahlak Islands on the Red Sea coast served as an outlet.
Map 3.3 Christian territories during Zagwe Dynasty, (adopted from Church and
State, 1972)
The Zagwe dynasty is known in Ethiopian history for its remarkable architectural
achievement. This was the technology of building the monolithic rock-hewn Churches at
Roha; later, the capital was renamed Lalibela.
The surviving pieces of evidence are the eleven rock-hewn churches constructed during
the reign of Emperor Lalibela in the first half of the thirteenth century.
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The presence of these beautiful Churches made the town of Lalibela one of the most
important centers of learning and Christian culture in Ethiopia.
Figure 3.4 Rock-hewn Churches of Lalibela
Many factors contributed to the downfall of the Zagwe dynasty. The first one was the
problem of succession to the throne among the Zagwe princes. Most of the time, they
settled this issue by force of arms. However, they could not be able to arrange a smooth
succession to the throne. Secondly, there had been strong opposition to the Zagwe kings
throughout their rule. This opposition was from the regions of Tigray and Amhara.
Particularly in Tigrai, the leading clergy members of the Churches of Aksum and Debre
Damo spread anti-Zagwe propaganda related to the legend of the Queen of Sheba and
King Solomon of Israel.
Hence, the Zagwe kings were seen as illegitimate successors of Aksum. The
intention behind this legend was the restoration of the ancient dynasty of Aksum. However,
despite the strong opposition in Tigrai, the initiative to overthrow the Zagwe came from the
Amhara region. The Amhara region was located to the south of Lasta, around
southern Wollo and northern Shawa. An Amhara chief Yekuno Amlak organised a
movement against the Zagwe rule. He defeated Yetbarek, the last Zagwe king, on the
battlefield in 1270AD.
Yekuno Amlak established a genealogy that made him a descendant of the last Aksumite
king, Dil Naod, who was deposed by the Zagwe dynasty around 1150AD. Yekuno Amlak
(r. 1270-1285) declared himself an Emperor and, at the same time, became the restorer
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of the so-called "Solomonic dynasty". Yekuno Amlak and his successors used this legend
as an ideological arm to legitimise their political power. The tradition of identifying the
Christian kings of Ethiopia with ancient Israel continued until 1974.

1. Explain the place of Ethiopia in the great civilisations of the world.
2. Write a paragraph about the similarities between the rulers of the
Aksumite and Zagwe dynasties.
3.5 The Sultanate of Shewa

• identify major factors for the rise and fall of the Sultanate of Shewa.
• analyse the socio-political, economic, and cultural organisations of the Muslim
sultanates.
• investigate the nature of the interaction between the Muslim sultanates and the
Christian highland kingdom.
The introduction of Islam to the Horn was followed by the emergence of a series of
Muslim states since the ninth century AD. The northern Ethiopian trade declined due to
the Arab control of the Red Sea and the destruction of Adulis. Thus, Zeila, on the coast of
the Gulf of Aden, emerged as a primary port for south-eastern Ethiopian trade. This port
became the most crucial gateway for Islam into the Horn of Africa. Several Muslim states
were formed along the Zeila trade route, which linked the port with the rich interior.
After the spread of Islam since the beginning of the eighth century, viable Muslim com-
munities and states had been established at many locations, especially along the main
trade routes from Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior. The first to be
established was the sultanate of Shawa in 896AD. Since the founders of this sultanate claimed
descent from the Makhzunmite clan of southern Arabia, the dynasty became known as the
Makhzunmite dynasty. Its location was in the hot lowland region on the left of the Awash
River. The ruling family of this state had an internal power struggle which later led to its
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final decline.
Ifat emerged to the south of Shewa, founded by Umar Walasma (hence the Walasma
dynasty) in 1285AD, it would have destroyed the older Makhzumite dynasty. Instead,
it became the strongest Muslim sultanate in the region. Ifat controlled a vast territory
through which the long-distance trade routes of Zeila passed. Therefore, most of the
profitable Zeila trade came under the control of Ifat. Eventually, Ifat became the
strongest rival of the Christian highland state. Since 1270 the Christian highland state had also
developed a great interest in the Zeila trade and trade routes. Therefore, the need to
control the Zeila trade became the main source of conflict between the two states.

1. Describe the major factors that contributed to the rise and fall of the
Sultanate of Shewa.
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Unit Summary

Ethiopia is inhabited by people who speak various languages and practice
different types of religion. Languages of Ethiopians belong to Afro - Asiatic
and Nilo -Saharan Superfamilies. Like diversity in languages, diverse religious
beliefs characterise Ethiopia.
The major religions are indigenous religion, Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam. Indigenous religions are beliefs practiced only within a given culture and
native religious ideology to the lands. Although there is continuing debate over
how and when Judaism was introduced to Ethiopia, it has been followed by a
community of people known as Bete-Israel.
It is established in the teachings of the Old Testament part of the Bible and has
similarities with Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity. Christianity was introduced
to Ethiopia in the early fourth century AD. However, Catholicism began from
the royal court in the fourth century but faced strong opposition from Ethiopian
Orthodox Church.
Protestantism was introduced to Ethiopia mainly in the early 19th century but
widely spread in the 20th century through missionary activities.
Islam was founded by Prophet Mohammed around 610AD. When the Quraysh
tribe planned to attack, many Muslim refugees arrived in Ethiopia. Islam
penetrated the interior of Ethiopia through the port of Zeila, along which
Muslim sultanates were formed, Sultanate of Shewa being the earliest.
Ethiopia's peopling and ethnocultural groups' formation resulted from a
long-drawn-out process of fission and fusion.
In the past, it used to be widely believed that Aksum was the first centralised
polity in Ethiopia and the Horn. However, there are many indications that
several principalities had emerged and declined before the emergence of
Aksum. Punt, Hawlti-Melazo, Addi-Seglemeni, Metera, Kaskase and Damat are
to mention few.
The Aksumite state derived much of its income from agriculture. However,
later on, the Red Sea trade became the primary source of income for Aksum.
Territorially, outside Africa, Aksum also expanded to bring part of the Arabian
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Peninsula under its control. 

The founding of the Zagwe dynasty marked the shift of state power from Semitic
speaking of the Aksumite rulers to the Cushitic speaking Agaw people. Thus, it is
all about political power shift but not the new Kingdom. Along the Zeila trade route,
which served as the most crucial gateway of Islam to the interior of Ethiopia, a series
of Muslim states were formed.
The first known Muslim state in the Ethiopian region was the sultanate of Shewa. It
was founded by the Makhzumite dynasty towards the end of the ninth century AD
on the eastern foothills of the Shewan plateau. Around 1285AD, Shewa was annexed
and occupied by another Muslim sultanate called Ifat.
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Part I: Match major achievements of world civilisation under column "A" with
❓
A B
1. Chari-Nile A. Ma’o
2. Semitic B. Argoba
3. Koman C. Erob
4. Omotic D. Konta
5. Cushitic E. Mursi
Part II: Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives for the questions.
1. Which state was formed first in the region of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa?
A. Punt B. Aksumite C. Damat D. Yeha
2. The people who live along Ethiopia’s western border speak the languages that belong
to_______________.
A. Chari-Nile and Koman
B. Cushitic and Semitic
C. Omotic and Koman
D. Omotic and Cushitic
3. Which one of the following is not a Cushitic language spoken in southern Ethiopia?
A. Sidama B. Hadiya C. Agaw D. Burji
4. Which language family is not predominantly spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn of
Africa?
A. Semitic B. Omotic C. Koman D. Cushitic
5. The Zagwe dynasty was known in Ethiopian history for its
A. large scale territorial expansion
B. monolithic churches
C. monopoly over the Red Sea trade
D. rivalry with Muslim Arabs
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Part III: Short Answer

1. How were Christianity and Islam introduced and expanded in Ethiopia?
2. Explore the internet and write a short report about the factors that contributed to the
decline of the Aksumite kingdom.
1. In groups, study the images in this unit (Figure 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4) and describe what
the pictures illustrate about life during that time.
2. Read aloud “chapter three, section 3.3 to your classmates”. After the reader has
finished, identify the distinctive features of Aksumite civilisation.
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4
|
Unit 4 The Middle Ages and Early Modern World, C. 500 to 1750s
Unit
THE MIDDLE AGES AND EARLY MODERN WORLD, C. 500
TO 1750S
Unit Introduction
This unit discusses major themes
and arguments are
in world history during the
illustrated with examples and
Middle Ages and the early
images to facilitate your
modern period. This unit has
learning and make it attractive
seven sections: Middle Ages in
to you. The unit closes with a
Europe, Middle Ages in Asia,
summary of the main points of each
Development of Early capitalism, the
lesson, followed by review questions
Age of Exploration, Rennaissance,
that enable you to measure your
Reformation and Industrial
achievements all through the unit.
Revolution. Major points

• identify the major characteristics of European feudal society of the medieval
period.
• examine the main features of the Byzantine Empire.
• discuss the rise and expansion of Islam during the period.
• explain the relationship between Europe and the Ottoman Turkish Empire.
• evaluate the major changes that took place during the medieval ages and the
🔑
early modern times.
Key Terms
• Feudalism
• Middle Age
• Early Modern World
• Estates
• Knights
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4.1 The Middle Ages in Europe

• describe the main features of the medieval period.
• analyse the components of medieval world civilisations.
• recognise the merits and demerits of the medieval period.
4.1.1 Dark Age

Brainstorming
• What was the Dark Age?
The “Dark Age” was a period of West European history from 500AD to 1000AD. It
was called the Dark Ages because civilisation declined in Western Europe during this
period. The Western Roman Empire was destroyed both by internal and external problems.
Internally the empire suffered division and decay. Externally it was invaded, in the 5th
Century AD, by the Anglo Saxons and Franks from the Germanic tribes, the Huns and the
Magyars from the Asiatic tribes.
The invasions brought many changes in Western Europe. The Greco-Roman
civilisation declined. The societies became rural, and cities declined. Feudalism became
the socio-economic and political order. Churches, castles and palaces were built. Bishops
and monks kept records; The Knights practiced chivalry. In addition, there was much war
among rulers and lords in Europe, and even for ordinary people, there were murders and
blood feuds. Nevertheless, by c. 1000AD, more stability was returning. Feudal society
emerged from the Dark Ages.
4.1.2 Feudal Society

As Western Europe fell apart, the number of separate powerful lords and vassals
increased. Thus, from 500 to 1500, a new socio-political system called feudalism emerged.
The ruling class was made up of kings, nobles, knights (soldiers) and the higher clergy.
The vassalage system relates a higher lord to a lower lord in feudalism. In this system, the
higher lord gave fief to the lower lord. Then, the lower lord became a vassal of the higher
one. Fief or feud is a piece of land. Thus, feudalism was a system of holding land and
providing service in exchange.
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Figure 4.1 Hierarchy of feudal society, (source: google search)
The basic units of European feudalism were Manor (villages). Manorial lord exercised
political, judicial and military power over peasants of his Manor in feudal Europe. The
mass of the feudal society was made up of peasants, craftsmen and traders. They had no
political and economic power. West European feudal society was exploitative.
During feudalism, the Church had authority over the ruling class and the ordinary people.
The Roman Catholic Church-owned land. It was responsible not only for religion but also
for education and culture.

1. Explain the term feudalism.
2. Discuss the economic and social impacts of Feudalism.
3. Compare and contrast the tribute collection of feudal European
society with the modern system. Explain the importance of tax for
the development of society.
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4.1.3 Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire was the East Roman Empire which continued after the fall of the
West Roman Empire. The capital of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople (modern
Istanbul). The official language of the Empire became Greek. The Orthodox Church was
officially separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1054. It became the national
church of the Empire and supported the emperor.
The economic base of the Empire was agriculture, trade and crafts. Byzantine
architecture made use of domes and beautifully colored glasses. The society was divided into
estates: the emperor, the higher clergy, the nobility who owned land and the peasants who
cultivated it. The Byzantine Empire was at the height of its territory and power under
Emperor Justinian (r. 527-565).
Map 4.1 Byzantine Empire, (source: Encyclopedia, Britannica)
The Seljuk Turks who began military occupation in Asia Minor in 1040AD challenged the
Byzantine Empire. This event was followed by the crusades that began in the 1090s. The
crusades waged wars of Christian Europe against Seljuk Turks to liberate Christian holy
lands. There were seven Crusades, the first of which was started in 1096. The crusades
failed to crush Muslim power in the holy lands but protected Western Europe from foreign
invasions in the east. The Byzantine Empire suffered a disastrous defeat at the Battle of
Manzikert in 1071. It lost most Asia Minor to Seljuk Turkish rulers and later to Ottoman
Turks.
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4.2 The Middle Ages in Asia

• describe the main features of the medieval period in Asia.
• explain the rise and expansion of Islam throughout the world.
Brainstorming
• How did Islam expand?
4.2.1 The Rise and Expansion of Islam

The rise of Islam in the early seventh century AD was a great event in the history of the
world. Islam began in the Arabian Peninsula with the life and teaching of the Prophet
Mohammed in Mecca around 610AD. The term Islam means “submission to the will of
Allah (God)”. Islam is worship in Allah, and those who worship Allah are called Muslims.
Islam was vehemently opposed by the Quraysh Arabs, who began to persecute
Prophet Mohammed and his followers. As a result, in 622AD Prophet Mohammed and his
followers moved from Mecca to Medina. This travel is called Hejira, and it marked the
beginning Year of the Islamic Calendar.
Figure 4.2 Kaaba, Mecca, Surrounded by pilgrims during the Hajj, Saudi
Arabia, (source: Islamic Monitor)
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The Muslim Arabs changed the Near East and Middle East countries' political, religious,
and social structures. Following the death of the Prophet, Muslims came under the Arab
Caliphates of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties in the Middle Ages. The death of the
Prophet was followed by the great Arab conquests establishing a Muslim Arab empire
from North Africa and Spain in the west to Central Asia in the east.
The Seljuk and Ottoman Turk’s military occupation in Palestine, Asia Minor, and Arabia
contributed to Islam's expansion. They spread throughout the areas under their domain
and other parts of the world.
4.2.2 The Expansion of the Ottoman Empire

The Seljuk Turks began military occupation in Palestine, Asia Minor and Arabia in 1040.
Ottoman Turks replaced the Seljuk Turks in the area by the end of the 13th C. The Ottoman
Turks were named after their chief Osman or Othman.
The Ottoman Empire was centered in what is now Turkey. Thus it was called as Ottoman
Turkish Empire. They seized Anatolia in 1336, which became their capital. At its heyday,
the empire captured Adrianople (1356) and Salonika (1387). They defeated the Serbs in
1389 and the Bulgarians in 1393. So by the 15th century, the Balkan Peninsula, including
Greece, was predominantly conquered.
The Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453, renamed it Istanbul and made it their
capital. The Ottomans conquered Syria in 1516 and Egypt in 1517. In 1529, European
forces successfully defended Vienna, the capital of Austria, from the Turkish attack.
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The Turkish expansion in Europe was ended in 1571, when European fleets defeated the
Turkish navy at the Battle of Lepanto, near Greece.
Map 4.2 The Ottoman Turkish Empire

The Ottomans formed a group of highly trained soldiers called janissaries. They spread
Islam throughout the empire. They also gained wealth from trade and controlled the trade
route from Europe to Asia. They banned European merchants from going to the Far East.
The Ottman Turkish Society was divided into four social groups: Sultan, grand viziers
(bureaucrats), janissaries (soldiers), occupational groups. The culture of the Ottoman
Empire was that of the Islamic world.

1. Explain the rise and expansion of Islam throughout the world.
2. Create a chart showing the structure of Ottoman society. List
groups in order of importance.
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4.2.3 Dynastic Cycle in China

Brainstorming
• What do you know about the dynastic cycle of China?
The Chinesee created a great civilisation in the world. This civilisation greatly impacted
other countries in East Asia, particularly Korea and Japan.
In politics, the Chinesee accepted the idea of a “dynastic cycle”. This was as practiced
in the following. When a new dynasty took power, it used to be strong, ruled well and
had the support of the people. However, when it became corrupt and weak and lost the
support of the people, it would lose the “mandate of Heaven”, meaning its authority and
legitimacy to rule China. So it would be replaced by another new dynasty, probably
founded by a rebel, and the cycle would be repeated. Nevertheless, there was a long
succession of imperial dynasties ruling China from the Qin to the Qing dynasty, which
was ended by a revolution in 1911/1912.

1. Do you think the ideas of the dynastic cycle and the “Mandate of
Heaven” encouraged rebellion in China?
4.3 Development of Early Capitalism

• explain the development of early capitalism.
• value the importance of early capitalist relations to the modern world
Brainstorming
• What do we mean by the concept of capitalist relations?
The development that distinguished capitalism from previous systems used accumulated
capital to enlarge productive capacity rather than invest in economically unproductive
enterprises, such as pyramids and cathedrals. This characteristic was encouraged by
several historical events.
Most ancient cities and towns in Europe had been ruined following the collapse of the
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Roman Empire. However, trade revived slowly, and old Roman cities were restored. The
towns were the centers of production and exchange. Merchants learned how to buy raw
materials, have workers do the manufacturing and sell finished products at the best prices.
After the discoveries, the new long-distance international trade was important, and
big profits could be made. However, trade problems were chiefly transport difficulties,
insecurity caused by war and robbery, and heavy tolls (taxes) often charged on the transit
of commodities.

1. Discuss in groups the importance of early capitalist relation.
4.4 The Age of Explorations and Discoveries

• draw a map showing the early routes of Explorations and Discoveries
Brainstorming
• What do you know about the age of exploration and
discoveries?
The age of European explorations and discoveries was in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries. The explorations were, in part, initiated by the need to bypass the Ottoman
Turkish blockade of the old long-distance trade route from Europe to the Far East.
Factors that encouraged explorations and discoveries were:
• European interest in long-distance trade and new inventions like the compass.
• In addition, the development of better maps and ships and the growing interest
in geographical knowledge fueled the idea of exploration.
• Prince Henry, the Navigator (1394-1460) of Portugal and Queen Isabella (1451-
1504) of Spain, who supported the voyages of explorers, also inspired the
exploration. They sponsored voyages for the sake of their economy,
religion and glory. Spain and Portugal were the leaders in the exploration and
discoveries in the 15th and 16th centuries. They were closely followed by
Holland, Britain, France and Russia.
Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama discovered a new sea route to India and the Far East
in 1498. Christopher Columbus was the first European explorer to reach America in 1492
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while he was in service of Spain. Unfortunately, Columbus died without knowing that he
had found new lands. The land found came to be known as America from the name of an
Italian mapmaker called Amerigo Vespucci. The newly “discovered” areas also became
known as the “New World”. The Portuguese, Ferdinand Magellan, circumnavigated the
world between 1519 and 1522 in the service of Spain. The newly discovered lands were
later conquered and became colonies of European powers.
Map 4.3 European Voyages of Discoveries

1. Map (4.3) above shows Magellan’s route from Spain to the
Philippines. If the voyage took about 20 months, how many miles
each day, on average, did Magellan travel? (Hint: Search the
internet or refer to library about the exact distance from Spain to
the Philippines in miles)
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There are economic impacts of the age of exploration and discoveries.

Economically, Europeans gained huge profits from local trade networks, which enhanced the
globalising process. Moreover, with the subs quent colonial conquest, the voyages
promoted the faster development of capitalism.

1. Why did the European rulers sponsor early explorers? Discuss their
motives in a group
4.5 The Renaissance

• compare and contrast the ideals of the renaissance on today’s world thinking.
Brainstorming
• What is Renaissance? Where does this idea come from?
Renaissance was an intellectual movement. The word renaissance indicates the “rebirth”
of learning. It began in the 14th century and ended in the 17th century. Renaissance began
in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, mainly to England, France, Germany, Spain and
Holland.
First, Renaissance Italy was essentially an urban society. Second, the Renaissance was
an age of recovery from the disasters of the fourteenth century. This revival affected both
politics and art. Third, a new view of human beings emerged as people in the Italian
Renaissance began to emphasise individual ability.
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The Renaissance had the following characteristics:

• The study of ancient Rome and Greek languages, literature, arts and the use of
reason.
• The support of freedom of thought and questioning mind.
• The use of the vernacular, or the national language such as the Italian and the
English language rather than Latin in writing.
Chart 4.1 Five characteristics of renaissance art that changed the

world forever (source: theartist.me)
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The outstanding persons of the Renaissance produced great works of literature,

painting, sculpture, architecture and science. In literature: Divine Comedy was
written by Italian Dante Alighieri; Utopia by Englishman Thomas More; Don Quixote
by the Spaniard Cervantes; Holy Bible was translated into German by Martin Luther and
various great plays by Englishman William Shakespeare. In arts: Italian Leonardo da Vinci
painted Last Supper and Monalisa; Italian Michael Angelo painted the Creation of Adam
and made statues of David, Moses and the Virgin & the dead Christ. In science, the
Belgian Vesalius studied human anatomy. The Polish Nicholas Copernicus declared that
the earth revolved around the sun. Previously, it was thought that planets revolved around
the earth.
The Renaissance had a profound influence on the development of modern society
culture, and since it is a natural extension of both, artistic expression. The Renaissance
influence in the world brought about a new focus on humanism and, as a result, a subsequent
turning away from the dominant ideas put forth by the church. The dawning recognition of
human potential and scientific inquiry shaped the course of world history and still influences
contemporary societies' culture today.

1. Discuss the contributions of the renaissance to humankind?
2. How did the Renaissancedid influence the modern world?
4.6 The Reformation

• compare and contrast the ideals of reformation with today’s world thinking.
Brainstorming
• What is Reformation? Where does this idea come from?
The Reformation was a religious movement that led to the emergence of Protestantism
from the Catholic Church at the beginning of the 16th century. It began in Germany led by
Martin Luther in 1517. The causes were: social, political, religious and economic. Look
at the cause of the Reformation in the chart below.
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Chart 4.2 Causes of Reformation
The Protestant reformers supported the principles of capitalism, individualism and

nation-states. They established various Protestant Churches. For instance: French
protestant Jean Calvin, who lived in Switzerland, established a Calvinist protestant church
in Switzerland. The Calvinist followers in French were called Huguenots. The Scottish
John Knox found his type of Calvinist Protestantism called Presbyterian in 1560. King
Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth I separated the English Protestant Church from the
Roman Catholic Church in England. Nevertheless, the English Protestants managed to
establish a national church which came to be called Anglican Church.
Protestantism enforced the Catholic Church into Counter-Reformation. The Catholic
Church carried out the (Catholic) Counter-Reformation to reform itself in response to the
Protestant challenge of the time. A missionary organisation called the Society of Jesus
was formed in Spain by Ignatius Loyola in 1534 to reform Catholics in America, Asia
and Africa. The members of the society were called Jesuits, were active in the Americas.
Anti-Catholics were attacked and even were killed. The peasants’ wars of Germany against
Catholics were fought between 1524 and 1525. Reformation played an essential role in
the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648). The Peace of Westphalia ended the war in Germany
in 1648.
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
1. Why did Protestant revolt against the Roman Catholics?
2. How did the Peace of Westphalia impact the Roman Empire? Relate
this idea to contemporary society and discuss on the importance of
settling disputes by peaceful means.
4.7 Industrial Revolution

• define industrial revolution.
• list the contributions of the industrial revolution to the modern world.
Brainstorming
• What is industrialisation?
The term Industrial revolution means the invention and use of machine in place of hard
labour. Machine now did work done previously by hand with simple tools and equipment.
Europe saw a shift from an economy based on farming and handicrafts to an economy
based on manufacturing by machine in factories. It began in Great Britain in the 1780s and
took several decades to spread to other Western nations.
The machine of the Industrial Revolution was operated by a new form of power known
as steam power, replacing the early wind and water power. Savry (1698) and Newcomer
(c.1705-1711). James Watt (1782-84) improved the steam engines and adopted them for
operating all kinds of machinery, including machine in factories.
Then the steam power was applied to transport, the first steamboat on the rivers and then
steamships at sea. Finally, steam power was used to land transport in the form of railways.
The first railways locomotive was built in 1804.
By the mid-nineteenth century, Great Britain had become the world’s first and richest
industrial nation. Its cotton industry alone in 1850 was equal in size to the industries of all
other European countries combined.
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The Industrial Revolution spread to the rest of Europe at different times and speeds. First
to be industrialised in continental Europe were Belgium, France, and German.
Map 4.4 Expansion of industrial Revolution, (source: Encyclopedia, Britannica)
The Industrial Revolution also occurred in the United States in 1800. Britain was the
leading industrial nation in the early and mid-nineteenth century, but countries like the
United States eventually surpassed Britain in industrial production.

1. Who built the first steam locomotive?
2. Imagine that you have just heard about one of the industrial
innovations during the Industrial Revolution, perhaps the process of
making cloth, but you do not understand it. Write a letter of inquiry to
the near by weavers (visit it with the help of your teacher).
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Unit Summary

The Dark Ages were followed by feudal society in Europe when the Catholic
Church and feudal lords-controlled land and people and therefore had power.
The economy was dominated by agriculture with low but rising productivity.
At the same time, the Byzantine Empire, an Orthodox imperial autocracy,
continued in part of Europe and Western Asia. It fell to the Ottoman Turks in
1453.
Islam arose in the Arabian Peninsula when the Arabs accepted the monotheist
revelations of the Prophet Mohammed. Following the death of the Prophet, the
Arabs expanded to create a great and powerful empire and civilisation under the
Umayyad and then Abbasid Caliphs.
The Ottoman Sultanate continued this Islamic civilisation, and the Ottoman
Empire was a superpower of the time.
Far away in China, the Chinesee created their distinct civilisation. It was an
imperial autocracy administered by officials who were highly educated
Confucian scholars. Basic to Chinesee understanding of history were the
concepts of the dynastic cycle and the "mandate of Heaven".
In the early modern period, the mass of Europe's population lived in
extreme poverty. These towns were the center of production and exchange. The
crusades contributed to the revival of trade in the Middle Ages. City-states were the
political, economic, and social life centres in Renaissance Italy. Martin
Luther's religious reforms led to the emergence of Protestantism. The Discoveries
enhanced the pace of globalisation among the world community.
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❓
correct.
1. The Calvinist followers in French were called Presbyterian.
2. The Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453 and renamed it Istanbul.
3. The Byzantine Empire was the East Roman Empire, which continued after the fall of
the West Roman Empire.
4. In the Discoveries, the Spanish were interested in conquest and plunder.
A B
1. Qin. A. Monalisa
2. Leonardo da Vinci B. Istanbul.
3. Knights C. First Chinesee imperial dynasty
4. Constantinople D. Medieval European soldiers
5. Polytheism E. Arabia before Islam
Part III: Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives for the questions.
1.The Byzantine Empire was:
A. an autocracy B. a theocracy C. a democracy D. an oligarchy
2. In 1453, the Ottoman Turks captured
A. Constantinople B. London C. Paris D. Hungary
3. Under the emperor, imperial China was administered by
A. Confucian priests. B. elected councils C. Feudal lords D. civilian officials
4. In Britain, the followers of Protestants established their church during Reformation
known as:
A. Lutherans B. Jesuits C. Presbyterian D. Anglican
5. Which one of the following factors did not contribute to making Great Britain the
starting place of the Industrial Revolution?
A. presence of abundant natural resources
B. large labour force to work in the new factories
C. The readiness of Britain to invest in the new industrial machine
D. None of the above
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6. Which of the following explorers discovered America in 1492?

A.Vasco Da Gama
B. Christopher Columbus
C. Ferdinad Magellan
D. Henry the Navigator
Part IV. Fill in the blank spaces with the correct word or words.
1.The infantry of the Ottoman army were the ____________________.
2. The ‘Dark Age’ was a period of West European history from _________ to________.
3. The two leading European nations in exploration and discoveries during the 15th and
16th Century were ______ and ________.
4. Reformation was a religious movement that led to the separation of Protestant from the
Catholic church at the beginning of the 16th century by __________________.
Part V: Further Activity
1. Discuss in groups the impact of Industrial Revolution on European women.
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5
Unit
PEOPLES AND STATES OF AFRICA TO 1500
Unit Introduction
This unit deals with the civilisations. Apart from these

linguistic classifications of peoples of peoples and states, several
Africa. In unit two, you have learnt civilisations were flourished
about ancient Egypt, Kush and in different parts of the
Carthage. The civilisation of these continent. In this unit, we shall
peoples and states is discussed as briefly discuss the civilisations
part of ancient and classical world of these peoples and states.

• outline the major economic, cultural, social and political developments in
pre-colonial Africa.
• describe the peoples and language families of Africa.
• analyse inter-connections and inter-dependence among Africans as a result of
trade, population movements and wars.
• evaluate the factors for the rise and decline of various empires in Africa to the
beginning of the 16th Century.
• explain the origin of Islam and the role it played during the expansion of the
🔑
West African Empires.
Key Terms
• Pre-colonial
• People
• Empire
• State
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Unit 5 Peoples and States of Africa to 1500
5.1 Languages and Peoples of Africa

• describe languages and peoples of Africa.
• appreciate the diversity of the languages of Africa.
Brainstorming
• What is a native language? Discuss in a group.
Africa is a vast continent inhabited by people who speak various languages. Linguists
have stated that over 1000 diverse and interrelated languages are currently spoken all
over the continent. Languages that belong to the same group share certain vocabulary or
words. Linguists describe the degree of the relationships among these languages. Based
on this, they classify the peoples of Africa into the speakers of four super-families of
languages. These are Congo-Kordofanian, Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan and Khoisan.
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Chart 5.1 Super Families of African Languages
The speakers of the Afro-Asiatic super-family live in northern Africa, the Sahara, the
Horn of Africa and around Lake Chad. This super-family is divided into six sub-groups:
Berber, Chadic, Coptic (Ancient Egyptian), Cushitic, Omotic and Semitic. The Semitic
language sub-group is spoken mainly in the Horn of Africa. The Omotic sub-family is
spoken only in Ethiopia. The Cushitic branch extends from the Red Sea coast, through the
Horn of Africa, and into central Kenya and Tanzania.
Based on rough estimates, the Niger-Congo super-family has the most significant
number of speakers, followed by the Asiatic Super –Family. This super-family has two
main branches: Niger-Congo and Kordofanian. Niger-Congo covers much of West Africa
and all of Bantu Africa. Bantu speakers live across much of sub-Saharan Africa. There
are over 450 languages that are grouped in the Bantu family. Kiswahili, one of the most
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widely spoken African languages and a mixture of African and Arab cultures, belongs to
the Bantu language group. Kordofanian languages are spoken in a small area in the Nuba
hills, south of the Republic of Sudan.
Nilo- Saharan Super-Family is the third majority in terms of the number of speakers
and is divided into six subgroups: Chari-Nile, Songhay, Saharan, Meban, Koman and Fur.
Khoisan Super-Family has two subgroups: the Khoikhoi and the San. The
speakers of these languages live in and around the Kalahari Desert of northern South Africa,
Southwestern Botswana and Namibia.
Map 5. 1 Distribution of the four-language superfamilies of Africa,

(source: Wikimedia Commons)
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Not all languages spoken in Africa are native to the continent. For instance, many
people in northern Africa speak the Arabic language. This language was brought to
Africa by the Muslim Arabs between the seventh and eleventh centuries. Afterwards, the
European colonial powers brought their languages to their respective colonies of Africa.

Case study: living along the border
The Horn of Africa is inhabited by peoples who speak various
languages. Above all, living along the border allows people to interact
with other people of diverse cultures and languages. For example, in
this region, a girl named Neima lives in Moyale, along the Ethio-Kenyan
border. Due to her exposure to various languages, Neima can communicate in
Afan-Oromo, Amharic, Somali, Swahili, and English. In addition to school,
she participates in local trade activities to earn a living. Based on the case
study above, answer the following questions.
1. How many languages does she speak?
2. Draw the chart that shows the SuperFamilies of African Languages and
show families where the languages she speaks belong.
3. Are all languages native to the continent of Africa?
5.2 States in North Africa

• explain the Mamluk Egypt.
• discuss the Funj Kingdom.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about states in North Africa?
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A) Mamluk Egypt
The Fatimid rulers used soldiers called Mamluks and declared Egyptian independence
from the rule of Baghdad in 969 AD. The Mamluks were of Turkish origin. They gradually
became military commanders and took power militarily. They founded their dynasty that
ruled Egypt from 1250 to 1517. After that, they expanded into Palestine, Syria, Europe
and Asia. Besides, Egypt, under the Mamluk, witnessed critical economic developments.
During the rule of the Mamluks, Ethio- Egyptian relations was full of conflicts.
However, the Ethiopian ruler, Zera Yacob (r. 1434 - 1468), tried to create smooth relations.
But their relation short-lived. The Mamluk power started to decline because of corruption,
the decline in agricultural productivity, cattle plague and drought. Firearms helped the
Ottoman Turks to defeat the Mamluk force in Palestine, and they occupied Egypt in 1517.
B) The Funj Sultanate
The Funj sultanate was established in 1504 by cattle keeping nomads in
northeast Africa- in the present-day Republic of Sudan. The Funj established their
Sultanate in 1504 with its capital at Sennar. Like Mamluks, the Funj sultanate fought
against the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia due to rivalry over trade routes. As a
result, the army of King Susenyos destroyed them in about 1620. However, the Funj
Sultanate continued to exist until Muhammed Ali of Egypt conquered it in the 1820s.

1. Explain the reasons for the rise and fall of Mamluk Egypt and Funj
Sultanate.
5.3 Spread of Islam and its mpact in West Africa

• explain the origin of Islam and the role it played during the expansion of the
West African Empire.
• recognise the role of Islam in the expansion of the various empires in West
Africa to develop the respect of the religions in the society.
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Brainstorming
• What do you know about the religions in West Africa?
After the birth of Islam early in the 7th century, the Muslim Arabs conquered Egypt
in 642AD. Later in the century, they went on from Egypt to the rest of North Africa.
By the end of the century, the Arab empire had reached Morocco and even conquered
southern Spain. After politico-religious rivalries in the 11th century, there was a revival of
Islam in North Africa, accompanied by a further wave of Arab immigration. This was also
followed by the expansion of the West African Empires.
Islam promoted trade between West Africa and the Mediterranean. The religion
developed and widened the trans-Saharan Caravan trade. The work enriched the West
African and the Muslim traders. Muslims from North Africa came and settled in the
commercial centers. Islam in Africa has also linked together diverse peoples through
better cultural understanding and a spirit of cooperation and commonwealth.
The historical impact of Islam upon trade, particularly in West Africa, significantly
increased the wealth of African people and helped the rise of great African empires. The
coming of Islam to Africa facilitated the rise of political empires that encouraged trade
and wealth. Islam was also more attractive to kings because of its concept of the caliph's
combined political power with religious authority.
1. Discuss the impacts of Islam when it spread into West Africa.


5.4 States in Western Africa
• write the origin, rise and fall of various empires of West Africa.
• appreciate the achievements of the African kings towards the rise of various
empires in West Africa.
• recognise the role of Islam in the expansion of the various empires in West
Africa to develop the respect of the religions in the society.
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Brainstorming
• Explain different empires that existed in West Africa in the
ancient period.
Many states and kingdoms were flourished in western Africa. More than ten modern
African nations, including Mali, Guinea, and Senegal, have a geographical connection to
the three medieval African empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhay.
A) Ghana
The Ancient Ghana Empire was located in parts of what are now called Mauritania, Mali
and Senegal. It was founded by the Soninke people in the fourth century AD and reached
the height of its power at about 1000AD. Ghana relied on Trans - the Saharan trade, and
its rulers were able to build a vast empire. However, the rise of Islam was the main factor
for the greatness and decline of Ghana. Ancient Ghana came to an end in 1076 when the
Islamic Empire of Almoravids invaded and captured its capital, Kumbi Saleh.
Map 5.2 Empires of West Africa, (source: ReasearchGate.net)
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B) Mali
Mali emerged after the fall of Ghana. Sundiata Keita founded the Mali Empire of the
Mandinka people. The Mali Empire had many profound cultural influences on West
Africa that allowed the spread of its language, laws and customs along the Niger
River. The greatest king of Mali was Mansa Musa (1312-1337), who made a pilgrimage to
Mecca. During his time, Islam expanded in the Empire vastly.
Figure 5.1 Cartoon of Mans Musa (source: historyhustle.com)
Mali was famous for its Islamic studies. Timbuktu, the capital of Mali, became one of the
most important Islamic learning and culture centers.
After Mansa Musa, there was no king as powerful as he was. The great kingdom of Mali
weakened due to inefficient leadership and attacks from the neighbouring peoples, such
as Tuareg. Although Mali fell, another advanced African kingdom took its place, the
Kingdom of Songhai.
C) Songhai
The Songhai people established the Empire named after their name, with its capital at
Gao. The Songhai people had been subject to Ghana and then to Mali at various times.
However, towards the end of the 14th century, they threw off the over-lordship of Mali.
The Empire extended from the central area of today's Nigeria to the Atlantic coast.
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Songhai became powerful by controlling the Trans-Sahara trade. The Songhai had trading
connections with the Berbers. Its kings accepted Islam early in the 11th century. Their
prosperity grew as gold began to come from the forest region. The Empire ended in 1591
when a Moroccan army defeated Songhai in the battle of Tondibi.
D) The Kingdoms Kanem-Bornu
There were many other kingdoms in the grassland region of Africa. One of these was
Kanem-Bornu. The ruling family was a Muslim dynasty. Trade was important for
Kanem's greatness. Kanem's army kept the trade routes safe and collected taxes from
traders. After Bornu became a province of Kanem, the Empire was often called
Kanem-Bornu. Kanem-Bornu probably began to decline because trade centers shifted
from inland routes to the Atlantic coast of West Africa.
E) The Hausa States
The Hausa city-states emerged in Nigeria between 1000 and 1200AD. The people were
both pastoralists and farmers. These city-states were Kano, Katsina, Zazzau (Zaria),
Gobir, Kebbi, Rano and Zamfara. The economy of the Hausa city-states was based on
agriculture and the trans-Saharan trade. Hausa cities were noted for their leather goods,
craft technology and textiles. The most famous of them was the walled city of Kano. Islam
spread to Hausa land from Kanem-Bornu.
1. List the major empires of West Africa?


2. Why were the West African empires so powerful?
5.5 Equatorial, Central and Eastern Africa

• analyse the nature of relationships among the different regions of Africa.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about the kingdom of Kongo and Swahili
states?
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In eastern Africa, a variety of states and small societies emerged. Islam strongly
influenced many of them. Some became extremely wealthy as a result of trade.
Beginning in the 1st millennium BC, new peoples migrated into eastern Africa from the
west. Farming peoples who spoke dialects of the Bantu family began to move from the
region of the Niger River into East Africa and the Congo River basin. They moved slowly,
not as invading hordes but as small communities.
A) Kongo
The Kingdom of Kongo was located on the lower bank of the Zaire River. Bantu people
founded it in the late 14th century. The people were hunters and warriors. They were also
clever smiths. Apart from agriculture, trade played an important role in the kingdom's
economy. The explorers reached the Kongo in 1482 and 1491. Missionaries who were
converted to Catholicism arrived having such footsteps. The Portuguese colonised the
kingdom.
B) Swahili city-states
About 2000 years ago, Bantu speaking people established small village settlements
along the coast of the Indian ocean. After the rise of Islam, the region received a great
impetus from Muslim Arabic speaking merchants who married into local ruling families.
Subsequently, the language and culture were developed distinctly African but with
Islamic and Arabic influences. These mixed Bantu-Arab stocks their language called
Swahili, meaning "coasters" in Arabic. Swahili is now a common language in East African
countries.
The Swahili civilisation is an example of cultural diffusion formed from the
interaction between Arabic, Persian and Bantu traditions. There were several important
coastal commercial centers called Swahili city-states. Among the most important and
influential coastal cities or ports were Mogadishu (in Somalia), Malindi and Mombasa
(in Kenya), Zanzibar and Kilwa (in Tanzania), Brava Pate, Pemba and Sofala. The most
famous and imposing was Kilwa, situated on a small island. Kilwa became the main
center of the East African gold and ivory trade.
Wealthy Muslim elites ruled the Swahili cities. Evidence suggests that their
commercial relations with Arabia, the Persians, Indian and Chinesee existed long before the
Portuguese arrival in the area. From the very beginning, the Portuguese aimed to destroy
the growing power of Muslims in East Africa. Impressed by east Africa's gold and ivory
trade, the Portuguese established a trading fort at Sofala in 1505.
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
1. How is Swahili an example of cultural diffusion? Discuss in a group.
5.6 Southern Africa

• describe the different kingdoms of Southern Africa.
• explain the nature of the southern African people.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about Great Zimbabwe, the Khoi - Khoi
and the San people?
In the southern half of the African continent, states were formed more slowly than in
the north. However, these independent villages gradually consolidated in some parts of
southern Africa, starting in the eleventh century. Out of these groupings came the first
states.
A) Zimbabwe
The founders of Great Zimbabwe were the Bantu speaking people of Shona who began
their rule about AD 1000. They built Great Zimbabwe. In the thirteenth or fourteenth
century, stone houses and walls were built in Great Zimbabwe. Great Zimbabwe was a
medieval African city known for its large circular wall and tower. It was part of a wealthy
African trading empire that controlled much of the East African coast from the 11th to the
15th centuries.
With an economy based on cattle husbandry, crop cultivation, and the trade of gold on
the coast of the Indian Ocean, Great Zimbabwe was the heart of a thriving trading empire
from the 11th to the 15th centuries.
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Zimbabwe's namesake is a Shona (Bantu) word meaning "stone houses."
Figure 5.2 Ruins of Great Zimbabwe (adopted from Kevin Shillingiton,1995:148-150)

It maintained trade relations with the Swahili states. Great-Zimbabwe was known for
its gold mines. After 1450AD, the Rozwi clan kings of the Shona people established the
empire called Mwene Mutapa. However, later on, the Portuguese conquered Mwene
Mutapa in the late sixteenth century.
B) The Khoi - Khoi
Initially, the Khoi- Khoi people were hunters. Since 1000AD., however, they made a
change from the hunting way of life to that of sheep and cattle breeding. Beginning
from 1300AD, the Khoi - Khoi expanded from present-day Botswana. They were
well-established in southern Africa by the fifteenth century. However, after the Dutch
settlers landed in South Africa in the mid-seventeenth century, the Khoi-Khoi people were
driven out of their land to the Kalahari Desert. As a result, the Europeans called them
Hottentots.
C) The San
Before they were driven out of their land by the European settlers, the San lived in parts
of present-day Angola and Namibia. Europeans called them Bushmen. The San lived by
hunting and gathering. Men hunted animals with bows and poison-tipped arrows. The
Dutch farmers pushed the San to the Kalahari Desert, where they still lived as hunters.
The San have yellowish-brown skin and tightly coiled black hair. They speak Khoisan
languages, which are characterised by clicking sounds.

1. Discuss the kingdom of Great Zimbabwe.
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5.7 Africa’s Intra and Inter-continental Relations

• describe the Intra Relations among African states.
• show the major Inter-continental Relations of Africa.
Brainstorming
• What are Intra and Inter-continental Relations?
Intercontinental relation occurs between two or more continents, while

intracontinental occurs within a continent. People who lived north and south of the Sahara
Desert had a long history of irregular contact before developing the trans-Saharan trade
route. Trade between these peoples became better organised after the introduction of the
camel. The trans-Saharan caravan trade began regularly beginning in the fourth century as an
expanded version of the pre-existing intra- and inter-regional trade among peoples of
various regions in Africa. The trans-Saharan trade contributed to developing strong
economic and political systems on both sides of the Sahara. The spread of Islam in
tropical Africa further strengthened the relationship with the peoples of North Africa.
The Arabs traded with societies in North and East Africa. Trade contacts facilitated
the exchange of ideas. The exploration and subsequent contact with European powers
contributed to the ever-changing Africa. The outcome of Afro-European contact during
the exploration era was the opening of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.

1. Discuss on Africa’s Intra-continental Relations
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5.8 Trans-Saharan Trade

• evaluate the impacts of the slave trade on Africa.
• indicate routes of the Trans Saharan trade by sketching a map.
• evaluate the impact of the slave trade on Africa’s development.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about the Sahara Desert and the trade
route that passes through it?
As mentioned earlier, people across the African continent are diverse. Nevertheless, there
are also some things that African peoples share in common. The trans-Saharan trade can
be a good example. We do not know when the trans-Saharan trade exactly began. Two
important trade routes connected west and west-central Africa with north-central and
north-west Africa. They linked the major ancient and medieval states of West Africa. The
other route crossed the central Sahara and connected North Africa with the kingdom of
Kanem. A sub-branch linked West Africa and Egypt. The trade routes across the desert also
connected Africa with the outside world.
Map 5.3 Trans-Saharan trade routes, (source: assets.sutori.com)
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The trans-Saharan trade network played a key role in the movement of people,
materials and ideas. The important traded items of the trans-Saharan trade were gold
from the regions of West Africa and salt mined in northwest Africa. In addition, enslaved
people became important trade goods after the emergence of the Arabs in the 7th century
AD.
The trans-Saharan trade contributed to developing robust economic and political
systems on both sides of the Sahara. For example, the great West African empires of
Ghana, Mali and Songhai became powerful because they could control the trans-Saharan
trade route. In addition, the trade facilitated the spread of Islam and Islamization in West
and West-Central Africa.

1. Show trade routes of the Trans Saharan by sketching a map.
5.9 Early Contacts with the Outside World
Brainstorming
• What do you know about Arabs, Spain and Portuguese and
their relations with Africa?
Due to the accessibility of the East African coast, there was wide spread interaction
between it and the people from the outside world. The early contacts were mainly with
Arabs, Greeks, Persians, Romans, Chinesee, Indians, Spain and Portuguese.
What is Europe's perception of Africa? Europeans created an image of Africa that was the
perverse opposite of Europe's. By comparison with and in contrast to this image, Europe's
general superiority would be self-evident. Europe's idea of itself was thus predicated on
its image of Africa.
Since the mid-fifteenth century, the turn of global events brought Africa closer to the rest
of the world. Europeans, especially Portugal and Spain, were determined to dominate
international trade. To this end, both countries sponsored navigators. The exploration and
subsequent contact with European powers enormously contributed to the ever-changing
African economy, culture, language, politics, and environment.
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The outcome of Afro-European contact during the exploration era was the opening of the
Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.

1. Why did Europeans consider Africans uncivilised? Discuss in groups.
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Unit Summary

Africa is a vast continent inhabited by peoples who speak various languages that
belong to Niger-Congo, Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan and Khoisan.
Indeed, all languages spoken in Africa are not native to the continent. Arabic,
English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese are a few.
Before 1500AD, several historical developments took place in different parts
of Africa. Consequently, some big Islamic empires were established in the
northern African region.
In North Africa, Egypt became great under the Turkish origin Mamluk rule,
who founded their dynasty that ruled Egypt from 1250 to 1517. However, the
Funj state was a loosely united sultanate and continued to exist until Egypt
conquered it in the 1820s. During Mamluks, Ethio- Egyptian relations was full of
conflicts. Like Mamluks, the Fuji sultanate fought against the Christian kingdom of
Ethiopia due to rivalry over trade routes.
After politico-religious rivalries in the 11th century, there was a revival of
Islam in North Africa. This was also followed by the expansion of the West
African Empires. By controlling the Trans -Saharan trade, several small states
grew into powerful empires in western Africa: Ancient Ghana, Mali, Songhay,
Hausa States and Kanem Bornu. In southern Africa, the civilisation in great
Zimbabwe was of a high standard. After 1450AD, the Rozwi clan kings of the
Shona people established an empire called MweneMutapa.
Nevertheless, the Portuguese conquered Mwene Mutapa in the late sixteenth
century. The trans-Saharan trade contributed to developing robust economic and
political systems on both sides of the Sahara. The spread of Islam in tropical
Africa further strengthened the relationship with the peoples of North Africa.
Africa has maintained relations with the outside world since ancient times.
The most important link was trading. Next, the introduction of Christianity and
Islam to Africa shaped Africa’s relations with the outside world. Europeans,
especially Portugal and Spain, were determined to dominate Africa. Most of the
kingdoms and empires of Africa came to an end in the sixteenth century, which
was also when the Atlantic slave trade began.
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❓
correct.
1. All languages spoken in Africa are native to the continent.
2. Egypt became great under the Turkish Mamluk rule, who founded their dynasty
from 1250 to 1517.
3. By controlling the Trans -Saharan trade, several small states in the Saharan region
grew into powerful empires.
4. Britain and France were the first countries determined to dominate Africa.
Part II: Match items under column A with those under B
A B
1. Mansa Musa A. The first phase of the Atlantic
2. Kano slave trade
3. Mwene Mutapa B. Hausa city-state
4. Khoisan C. King of Mali Empire

D. King of Songhai empire
E. Language spoken by the Khoi-
Khoi and San people
F. Great Zimbabwe
Part III: Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.
1. Which of the following was the main factor that contributed to the greatness of
Ghana?
A. The trans-Saharan trade
B. Agricultural wealth
C. Tax income from conquered peoples
D. The trans -Atlantic trade
2. Who ruled Egypt between 969 and 1171?
A. Fatimids
B. Ottoman Turks
C. Mamluks
D. the British
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3. Which European country reached the Congo first?

A. Belgium
B. Spain
C. Portugal
D. Germany
4. Since 1000AD the Khoi-Khoi mainly practiced:
A. hunting and gathering
B. cattle breading
C. farming
D. fishing
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6
Unit
AFRICA AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD 1500- 1880S
Unit Introduction
This unit presents Africa’s (Origin, Phases and
Contact with the outside world, Effects). Lastly, it explores the
mainly contacts along the
"Legitimate" trade, White
Western and Central
Settlement in South
African coasts with European
powers. It also discusses Slavery and Africa and European Explorers and
Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Missionaries.

• evaluate the nature of the relationship between African and European during
the period.
• analyse the political, social and economic impacts of the Trans-Atlantic Slave
Trade.
• examine the living conditions of African people during the Trans- Atlantic and
the Trans- Saharan slave trade.
• compare and contrast the consequences of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa
🔑
• explain the motives of white settlers in southern Africa during the period.
Key Terms
• Legitimate commerce
• Voyages
• Commodities
• Exploration
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Unit 6 Africa and the Outside World 1500- 1880s
6.1 Contact with the Outside World

• outline the nature of African and European relations.
Brainstorming
• What do you think about African relations with the rest of the
world?
Portugal was the European country that established early contacts with the coastal regions
of West Africa. When the Portuguese first sailed out on their voyages of exploration along
the West African coast, reaching India was their distant objective.
Their immediate goal was to bypass Muslim North Africa and gain direct access to the
gold producing region of West Africa. This endowed the Portuguese with the major source
of national wealth. Once this is achieved, the wealth would provide them with further
exploration and discoveries.
Map 6. 1 European Relations (Portuguese and Spaniards) with Africa in the coastal
regions, (source: slideplayer.com)
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Henry the Navigator, the Portuguese prince, sponsored Portuguese exploration of

Africa mainly driven by two desires: spreading Christianity and establishing Africa as a
mainstay of Christianity against the Ottoman Empire. Portugal also had an objective to
create commercial links with Africa.
In addition, the conquest of territory in Africa also meant that the Portuguese could use
African gold to finance travel along this new trade route. Getting safe passage through
Africa could also open the entire Indian Ocean to direct Portuguese trade.
Ceuta- was the first step forward in Portuguese expansion across the Atlantic coast in
1415. King João, I (John I) and his sons organised an expedition to conquer Ceuta that
lay across the Straits of Gibraltar on the coast of North Africa, specifically in today’s
Morocco. The Portuguese stayed in this part of Morocco from 1415 to 1769, a long period
of constant war, since the Portuguese presence was not accepted.
Finally, in 1432, the Portuguese reached Cape Bajador, further southwest of Ceuta in
Morocco, on the shores of the Atlantic Coast. Similarly, a Portuguese explorer named
Nuno Trisatao reached Cape Blanc, further south along the Atlantic coast, in 1441.
Senegambia - Portuguese arrived on the shores of Sierra Leon in 1460 and stayed there
until their gradual decline as leaders in world exploration in the 16th Century. In West
Africa, Senegambia was one of the earliest regions affected by European trade.
Senegambia state also provided enslaved people for European purchase for roughly a
century; perhaps a third of all enslaved Africans exported during the sixteenth Century
came from Senegambia.
Gold Coast: In the course of exploration of the west coast of Africa, the Portuguese
encountered various African kingdoms. One of such kingdoms was Ghana (Gold Coast).
Some controlled substantial deposits of gold in the soil, salt, enslaved people, and others.
In 1482, the Portuguese built their first permanent trading post known as the Castle of
Elmina on the western coast of present-day Ghana.
This fortress was constructed to protect Portuguese trade from European competitors,
and hostile Africans still stand. However, the intensive contact of the Gold Coast with
Europeans also led to the importation. In addition, it spread American crops, notably
maise and cassava.
The success of these crops in West and Central Africa is believed to have contributed to
population growth in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, other European powers soon followed in
its footsteps; adventurers such as Dutch, English, and the French joined the competition
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for overseas trade. However, the principal early struggle was between the Dutch and the
Portuguese. With the loss of Elmina in 1642 to the Dutch, the Portuguese left the Gold
Coast permanently.

1. Why did Henry bother to give financial and material support to the
Portuguese voyagers?
6.2 Slavery
• explain the factors that led to the development and decline of the Trans-Atlantic
slave trade.
• describe the economic activities of Africans during the Trans-Atlantic and slave
trade period.
• explain how the slave trade affected the African economy.
• analyse the living conditions of African people during the Trans- Atlantic and
the Trans- Saharan slave trade.
• sketch a map to indicate the Trans- Atlantic and the Trans- Saharan trade routes.
• explain the political and economic influences of other continents on Africa
during the period.
• crciticise the crime against humanity committed during the slave trade.
Brainstorming
• What is slavery and slave trade?
Traffic in slaves was not new. It has a long history in Africa, Europe and Asia. In the
fifteenth century, it continued at a fairly steady level. The primary market for enslaved
Africans was Southwest Asia, where most enslaved people were used as domestic
servants. Captives from Nubia were transported down the Nile to Egypt in ancient
Pharaonic times. Some were also transported across the Sahara to North Africa in Roman
times. In contrast, others were sent out of northeast Africa to labour in the Persian Gulf
and Indian states. All of these numbers seem small when compared with the Trans-Atlan-
tic Slave Trade.
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Most often, slavery is manifested in the lives of those categorised as servants, serfs,
apprentices, or slaves. For example, in the ancient civilisations of Europe, Asia and
Africa, persons defined as slaves were distinct social groups whose lives were routinely
controlled by others. The expansion of long-distance trade and many of the early kings of
Mali and Songhai and other states promoted the use of slave labour in agriculture.
In Benin's West- African state, for example, large numbers of slaves were used in
agriculture. These slaves, who were the private property of their owners, were symbolized
wealth and prosperity.
Map 6.2 Trans Saharan Slave Trade, (source: en.wikipedia.org)
Therefore, the expansion of the slave market in the century before the transatlantic trade
took off was as much a function of local politics as it was of economics. It is important to
note that long before the transatlantic slave trade, enslaved Africans were being sold across
the Sahara and transported to the Mediterranean by land and sea routes to Asia Minor.
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
1. Why did Africans engage in slave trade?
• Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

The discovery of America in 1492 laid the background for the beginning of the Atlantic
slave trade. Europeans established in America large plantations and minefields. Then they
needed labourers to work on the plantations and gold mines.
Figure 6.1 Slaves at work on sugar plantation in the West Indies, (adopted from
Kevin Shillingiton, 1995:179)
These Europeans enslaved the Native American Indians, whom they called Red
Indians. Nevertheless, most American Indians died of diseases imported from Europeans
and harsh treatment. So, the Portuguese and the Spaniards began transporting white slaves
from Europe. However, the white enslaved people were unable to resist the hardships of
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the tropical climate. Thus, the Europeans began transporting the black people from West
Africa as slaves from the fifteenth century to the opening of the 19th century AD.
Figure 6.2 Captives waiting for transportation, (adopted from Kevin Shillingiton,
1995:176)
The transatlantic slave trade is also called triangular trade, for it connected three
continents: Africa, America and Europe. Africa is the source of human labour. Slaves
were taken to America and the Caribbean regions. With the African slave labour, they
produced sugarcane, tobacco, coffee and the like. The raw materials produced on American
plantations were exported to Europe, where they were manufactured as finished products
for sale. Such goods as cotton, alcoholic drinks, firearms and metal wares were taken from
Western Europe to Africa. These goods were exchanged for slaves. So, the whole process
formed the triangular shape.
Then, the enslaved Africans were taken across the Atlantic to the Americas. There, they
were sold to the plantation owners in exchange for sugar, tobacco and other products.
Finally, these goods were taken back to Europe and sold at high prices.
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The transatlantic slave trade began in West Africa within three important circumstances.
• The first was the fragmentation of large, indigenous political states (Ghana,
Mali and Songhai).
• The second was the region's growing importance as a source of slaves.
• The third was the endemic conflict between the small coastal states in the region
and their willingness to cooperate with European traders in exchanging slaves
for arms.
Map 6.3 Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, (source: Khan Academy)
The Atlantic slave trade passed through three different phases. The first phase was known
as the Piratic slave trade. It began in the fifteenth century and continued up to the 1580s.
In this phase, the traders were individual merchants, adventurers, navigators or common
sea robbers. The second phase was known as the monopolistic slave trade. It began in
the 1580s. In this phase, the trade was conducted by monopolistic slave-trading compa-
nies. These companies were officially supported by their governments. Armed forces also
supported them. At this stage, the slave-hunting ground was widened, the volume of trade
increased, and the companies collected huge profits. The second phase was the Triangular
Trade because the trade connected three continents. The third phase was known as free
trade. It began in the 1690s. In this phase, several individual traders joined the slave trade.
There was fierce competition between the individual traders and the former companies.
The transatlantic slave trade impacted Africa in many ways: Economically, it under-
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mined African craft technology and agriculture. In addition, the slave trade reallocated
labour away from agriculture and industrial work. As a result, the African working force
(youngsters) was exported to America and the Caribbean regions. In contrast, the
Triangular trade helped the west European nations to accumulate a huge amount of wealth. The
accumulated wealth led to the industrialization of Western Europe in the nineteenth
century.
Politically, it threw black Africa into confusion and insecurity. It also discouraged political
development and encouraged violence. Constant wars, in turn, destroyed African states.
Socially, the slave trade undermined the morality and dignity of Africans. The Triangular
trade caused great human suffering and horrors on Africans. Enslaved people were never
treated as human beings but as properties. The Triangular trade also depopulated Africa of
its productive young men and women. It also had tragic effects on the lives of individual
victims and their families. Historical records indicate that more than 12 million native
Africans were enslaved and deported out of the African continent.
1. Which part of Africa was the greatest source of slaves? Why?


6.3 The “Legitimate” Trade

• explain the political and economic influences of other continents on Africa
during the period.
Brainstorming
• What are legitimacy and legitimate trade?
For two or three centuries, the slave trade dominated trade along the West African coast.
It disrupted and distorted African developments. Local agricultural production was often
disrupted by violence and warfare. Thus, as Europeans gradually outlawed the slave trade,
they found West Africa the fertile field for “legitimate commerce”. The term “legitimate
trade” refers to the trade-in commodities between Africans and the European merchants.
It was a trade where African raw materials, especially cash crops, were exchanged for
European goods.
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During the first half of the 19th century, a range of West African commodities supplanted
the export of captives. Such commodities included palm produce, rubber, cotton, skin,
cocoa and others.
For example, exports included gum Arabic from Senegal, groundnuts from Guinea and
palm oil from most coastal forest zones. These products were in high demand in Europe
due to the industrial revolution.
Thus, the development of West Africa’s export trade in raw materials did not
provide African states with any real opportunities to develop their economic strength and
Independence.
Generally, legitimate trade was the trade conducted after the abolition of the slave trade
in Africa. People now started the free trading system in which Africans had to produce
for their own. However, the people from abroad came and traded the crops and other
resources of Africa. The following were the effect of legitimate trade in Africa:
• It led to the intensive exploitation of African natural resources such as minerals
crops.
• It stimulated the colonialism of the African continent.
• The spread of Christianity religion led to an unequal trading system.
1. What were the consequences of “legitimate” commerce on Africa?


6.4 The White Settlement in South Africa

• explain the motives of white settlers in south Africa during the period.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about white settlers in Southern Africa?
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The Boers settlement in South Africa

In 1652, the Dutch trading company established a tiny permanent settlement on the
southern shores of South Africa to regulate the trade with the Khoisan. In 1657, Van
Riebeck, the company commander, released some of the soldiers from their contracts and
allowed them to set up their own business as Boers (farmers). The Boers were provided
with enslaved West Africans. The Boers’ settlement on Khoisan grazing land directly led
to the first Khoi-Dutch war in 1659. In this violent armed conflict, the Khoisan managed
to unite and drove the Boers back to their former position at the coast. In the Second
Khoi-Dutch war of 1673-77, the natives could not win over the Dutch.
The Khoisan also withdrew into the interior, beyond the boundaries of the Boers
colony. Several groups of Khoisan were able to achieve some degree of independence by
moving extreme north and south of the Orange River. Losing their economic and political
independence to the Boers, the Khoisan agreed to collaborate and work for the Boers as
herdsmen and hunters. They, therefore, retained some access to land. Orphaned Khoisan
children were an additional source of labour for the Boers.
As a result of the Dutch success, the Khoisan lost their material resources, political rights,
language, and other aspects of their cultural identity. As a result, they began to adopt the
Dutch language and culture. They even served as Boer commanders against their people
and the Xhosa in some cases.
Through contacts and minor conflicts in the first decade of the 18th century, the actual
violence between the Xhosa and the trek Boers began as the settlers moved into the fertile
grazing land of Zuurveld in the 1770s. The Xhosa had more population than the Khoisan
and a closely-knit social organisation. They were, therefore, a formidable opposition to
the colonists. The violent conflicts between the Trek Boers and the Xhosa began in 1779
and continued for a century. It is estimated that nine frontier wars took place during this
time. Nevertheless, coming from a strong warrior tradition, the Xhosa held onto most of
Zuurveld until the early 19th century.
In 1795, the British government seized the Cape Colony from the Dutch settlers for
strategic purposes. While the Dutch occupied the Cape with establishing a fresh station
for their crew members, the British occupied it to prevent its falling to the hands of the
French.
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The occupation of the Cape by the British caused resulted in the 1830s and 1840s great
movement of the Dutch-speaking colonists and Boers northwards.
Map 6.4 White Settlers in South Africa, (adopted from Facing History)
From1818-19, the British also cleared the Xhosa from the Zuurveld area and pushed them
further back beyond the Keiskama River. The strength of the white settlers in the newly
conquered area of the Xhosa grew in 1829 with the settlement of 500 British immigrants.
In the sixth war (1834-35), the British pushed the Xhosa west of the Kei River. However,
to the disgust of the Boers, the British handed back the territory between Keiskama and
Kei Rivers to the Xhosa and abolished slavery in its cape colony. The Boers, who used
slave labour, were irritated by the British policy, which favoured the natives.
The Boers left the cape area in 1835 and moved to the north in what is known as the Great
trek for the following reasons:
• as a reaction to the law that gave native Africans and the coloured freedom
• as a sign of opposition to the new ideas of equality between blacks and whites.
In the late 1830s, several thousand Boer families and their servants trekked northwards
from the Eastern Cape.
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
1. What were the motives of the white settlers in South Africa?
6.5 European Explorers and Missionaries

• describe the political and economic influences of other continents on Africa
during the period.
Brainstorming
• Explain what you remember from your lower grades about
European explorers and missionaries in Africa.
Despite centuries of coastal trading contacts, Europeans were still incredibly ignorant of
• Africa,
• its peoples,
• and history.
The movement for the abolition of the slave trade provided the stimulus for a revival of
European interest in Africa. Between the 1780s and 1870s, many European explorers
travelled to the heart of Africa in an attempt to rectify their ignorance of the continent.
European explorers to Africa, before the 1850s, were usually portrayed by historians as
motivated by a spirit of pure, unbiased and scientific enquiry. Many of them might have
seen themselves in that light. Others were attracted by the sense of adventure, desire
for fame or both. However, the motive of those who financed the journeys praised their
discoveries and devotedly read their books were the chance of more significant trading
profit in the future. Of course, much of Africa remained to be mapped, but European
explorers were generally direct agents of colonial expansion.
Roman Catholic Christian missionaries from Portugal closely followed the early
Portuguese coastal penetration of tropical Africa. In the late 15th and early 16th
centuries, Catholic missionaries were sent to Africa to convert several African rulers. These
rulers, it was hoped, would become valuable allies of the Portuguese. Nevertheless, when
African rulers realized the strong political motivation behind their presence, the
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missionaries’ initiative was doomed to fail. Portuguese missionaries were expelled or even
killed in one African state after another. This was mainly because they and their handful of
converts offered a direct challenge to the established political and religious order.
African rulers were interested in contact with Europeans, but they wanted new trading
openings, technical assistance and firearms. They did not want fresh ideas that threatened
the traditional religious basis of their authority. As a result, Portuguese missionaries made
little headway in Benin. Their attempt to convert the Oba (ruler of Edo People of Benin)
was abandoned in the early 16th century. Greater success was achieved in Kongo, where
a Christian convert became king in 1506.
In Ethiopia, missionaries of the newly founded Jesuit order followed hot on the heels of
Portuguese military assistance to Galadewos in the early 1540s. However, they had little
success in converting Ethiopian Orthodox Christian to the Roman Catholic version of the
faith. Then, in the mid-17th century, they were expelled for political interference.
Looking back from the 18th century, it was clear that European Christianity, as a vehicle
for religious and cultural change, had virtually no impact on the peoples of Sub-Saharan
Africa. Nevertheless, during the 19th century, many European Christian societies sent their
missionaries to Africa. Among them, the most important were the British based Anglican
Church Missionary Society. It was prominent in Sierra Leone; the Wesleyan Methodist
Missionary Society and the London Missionary Society. It had bases and schools along
the West African coastal region; the London Missionary Society initially worked mainly
in South Africa. Protestant missions also came from France, Germany, Holland and the
United States. French Catholic mission followed later in the century.
1. What were the motives of the European Explorers in Africa?


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Unit Summary

Portugal was the European country that established early contacts with the
coastal regions of West Africa. When the Portuguese first sailed out on their
voyages of exploration along the West African coast, reaching India was their
distant objective.
Their immediate goal was to bypass Muslim North Africa and gain direct access
to the gold producing region of West Africa. The transatlantic slave trade began
within three important circumstances in West Africa.
• The first was the fragmentation of large, indigenous political states,
particularly those with large armies such as Ghana, Mali and Songhai.
• The second was the region's growing importance as a source of enslaved
people for the caravan traffic across the Sahara into the Mediterranean and
Levant.
• The third was the conflict between the small coastal states in the region and
their willingness to cooperate with European traders in exchanging slaves for
arms.
Finally, however, Europeans gradually outlawed the slave trade; they found
West Africa the fertile field for "legitimate commerce".
In 1652, the Dutch trading company established a tiny permanent settlement on
the southern shores of South Africa.
The purpose was to regulate the trade with the Khoisan and have fresh fruit
and vegetables for their ships. They also wanted to provide a hospital for sick
sailors; later, this paved the way for white settlement in South Africa.
Roman Catholic Christian missionaries from Portugal closely followed the
early Portuguese coastal penetration of tropical Africa. In the late 15th and
early 16th centuries, Catholic missionaries were sent to Africa to convert many
African rulers. In several cases, Christian missionaries played a significant role
in promoting and shaping the advent of European colonialism.
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Part I: Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.
❓
1. What was the Triangular Trade?
A. The journey made by slave ships
B. A slave ships
C. The importing of goods from Africa to Britain
D. A slave trade connecting three continents
2. What did slave ships carry to Africa?
A. African slaves
B. Cloth and guns
C. British slave
D. Raw materials
3. What goods did slave ships carry on their way from America to Britain?
A. Weapons
B. Cloth
C. Sugar
D. Slave
4. How were slaves captured in Africa?
A. White slavers raided inland to capture new slaves
B. White Europeans fought wars against African Kingdoms
C. Most slaves were sold by other Africans
D. All of the above
5. What happened to slaves when they arrived in the Caribbean?
A. They were put up for auction
B. They were immediately sent to work
C. They were sent to a slave factory
D. They were sent back to their countries
6. Where was the Slave Coast?
A. North Africa
B. West Africa
C. East Africa
D. The Caribbean
Part II: Short Answer
1. Discuss briefly the consequences of the Trans- Atlantic Slave Trade.
2. What is “legitimate” commerce? Discuss briefly.
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7
Unit
STATES, PRINCIPALITIES, POPULATION MOVEMENTS
AND INTERACTIONS IN ETHIOPIA, 13th - MID-16th C.
Unit Introduction
This unit deals with states, prin- section, you will learn about
cipalities, population movements the societies and states in the
and interactions in Ethiopia during central and southern parts of
the 13th to mid-16th centuries. The the country in the period. In
first section deals with the “Solo- the fifth section, you will learn
monic” Dynasty's “restoration”. In about the population movements
the second section, you will learn of Afar, Somali, Argobba and the
about Muslim sultanates such as Oromo. In the sixth section, you
Ifat, Fatigar, Dawaro, Dara, Bali, will learn about the Oromo Gadaa
Hadya, Arbabini, Sharka, and Adal. system. In the seventh section,
In the third section, you will you will learn about the Oromo
learn about conflicts between the adoption system. Finally, in the
Christian kingdoms and the eighth section, you will learn about
Sultanate of Adal. In the fourth the egalitarian system of governance.

• examine the major characteristics of Peoples, States and Principalities in
Ethiopia from 13th to 16th centuries.
• explain the major population movement, expansion, and integration in
Ethiopia.
• identify the features of the relationship between the Christina kingdom and the
Muslim Sultanates.
• discuss the Oromo Gadaa system.
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Unit 7 States, Principalities, Population Movements and Interactions in Ethiopia, 13th - Mid-16th C.
Key Terms
• Adoption
• Restoration
• Integration
• Dynasty
• Egalitarian
• Abba Gadaa
7.1 The “Solomonic” Dynasty & the Christian Kingdom, 13th -16th
Centuries
• outline factors that led to the restoration of “Solomonic” Dynasty.
• analyse social, economic, and political features of the Christian kingdom.
• sketch the major political, economic, social, and cultural features of the
Christian kingdom.
Brainstorming
• What comes to your mind when you read or hear about “Sol-
omonic” Dynasty?
The founder of this dynasty was a local ruler in Amhara called Yekuno-Amlak. Yekuno
Amlak claimed to be the descendant of the Aksumite kings. Accordingly, he founded the
so-called "Solomonic" dynasty, using the legend of Queen of Sheba and King Solomon.
This dynasty, which came to power in 1270, called itself "Solomonic". Yekuno Amlak
and his followers took this dynastic name to justify their legitimacy by claiming that the
Zagwe rulers were illegitimate.
Similarly, the name "Solomonic" is placed in quotation marks because the claim of descent
from King Solomon of Israel is legendary and cannot be historically proven. However, the
claim was elaborated in the Kibre Negest ("Glory of Kings") in the 14th century. The Kibre
Negest claims that the Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of Menilek I, son
of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from
Yikuno Amlak to Emperor Haile Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.
In 1270, when it came to power, the Christian Kingdom was confined to the territory of
Southern Eretria, Tigray, Lasta and the northern part of Shewa. From this area, Yekuno
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Amlak and his successors, such as Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), began to expand the dynasty's
territory. Its territorial limits covered the ancient highland provinces of Aksum and Zagwe
in the north. It also covered the regions of Gondar and eastern Gojjam in the northwest,
Bizamo and Damot in the southwest, the Gurage lands and the Omotic populations of
Wolaita and Gamo in the south and Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, Hadiya and Bali in the east and
southeast. Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who embarked on a wider and
rapid territorial expansion policy.
Their main motives of expansion were economic and political, i.e., to control the trade
routes and territorial seizures. The control over the Zeila trade route helped Yekuno
Amlak strengthen his economic power. In turn, the economic strength helped him to
organize and sustain a strong army. As a result, the Christian Kingdom controlled
extensive territories during the reign of Emperor Amde-Tsion. The period also
witnessed the expansion of trade, leading to the flow of commodities to the coast. This
economic and military strength contributed much to his success in defeating his opponents and
expanding his kingdom.
Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in 1285, political instability caused
constant power struggles among his sons and grandsons for succession.
The succession problem seems to have been partly resolved in 1300 during the reign
of Widim-Ra'ad (r. 1299-1314) following the establishment of a ‘royal prison’ at
Amba-Gishen located in present-day southern Wollo. According to the rule, all-male
members of the royal family were confined at the Amba Gishen. Loyal soldiers to the
reigning monarch guarded the royal prison. When the monarch died, court dignitaries
would send an army to the royal prison to escort the designated successor and put him on
the throne. This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad
Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540.
From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval monarchs had no
permanent capital like Aksum or Lalibela. Instead, they ruled over the vast territory
through mobile courts for two centuries. Initially, the centre of the “restored” dynasty was
in today’s South Wollo around Lake Haiq.
Then, however, it gradually shifted southward to the districts of Menz, Tegulet, Bulga in
northern Shawa, and finally, to the regions dominated by the great height of the Yerer and
Zequalla in eastern Shawa. The need to get daily food supplies and firewood for such a
great number of court officials, soldiers and servants necessitated the use of mobile camps.
Initially, military motives prompted the Ethiopian ruling elite to change their capitals
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from fixed to mobile settlements. These mobile capitals were adapted in several ways:
• They moved to food supply areas rather than supplies being moved to the capital.
• They impoverished their current hinterlands.
• The political integration of Ethiopia came eventually to depend on a mobile
center of the polity.
These three factors not only represented adaptations to nomadic capitals but, in turn, made
stabilisation of capitals difficult. In other words, the very adaptations to the wandering
capitals themselves had a feedback effect on the pattern of movement. They, therefore,
contributed to a continuation of capital movement.
The physical environment of medieval cities was not pleasant. The cities were often
dirty and smelled of animal and human waste. Air pollution was also a fact of life. Even
worse, pollution came from the burning of firewood. Cities were also unable to stop water
pollution, especially from animal slaughtering. Such tradition of the medieval period
brought about deforestation because trees were cut down for daily requirements of the
camp dwellers. As a result, the camp sites and surroundings were abandoned.

1. Explain why the Christian Kingdom used mobile capitals from 13th to
16th centuries. Browse the internet or refer to other sources.
2. Describe where the capital cities tend to be located during the medieval
period and discuss why they appeared there.
To effectively administer over this vast territory, the Christian Kingdom consolidated
a feudal system of administration known as the gult system. Under this system, state
officials were guaranteed the right to collect tribute from the local peasantry (called the
gult right). Gult right was a right given to an official to share the produce of the peasantry.
An official given this right by the state was known as bale-gult or gult owner.
Peasants were given to him based on his rank in the state hierarchy. The bale-gult enjoyed
several political and economic privileges over the peasants under him. He had the right to
collect tributes in kind and use them to maintain himself and his family. He could also use
the labour of peasants under him for different purposes. Moreover, he could recruit a local
army and command them in wars during the period of local or national crises.
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In return for all these privileges, the bale-gult was responsible for maintaining law and
order in his area. So, this system immensely helped simplify administering the vast
Christian empire by dividing it into smaller units. It also enabled the Christian kingdom
to maintain a large territorial army, which the kingdom used to bring Muslims and other
states under its control.
A rist right is a claim to the hereditary ownership of land. Rist right was a communal
birthright to land. The state provided them with security, whereas the peasants were
obliged to pay tribute or gibber to the state. Gult right was given to a state official in return
for his service to the state. So, it was a medieval substitute for salary. It lasted as long as
the official remained loyal to the state. It was not hereditary. For an extended period, the
gult system remained a predominant feature of Ethiopian feudalism.
Like the Zagwe rulers, the kings of the new “Solomonic” dynasty maintained the
political and cultural traditions of Aksum. They continued to expand Christianity in
different directions. The rulers exercised both political and religious powers at the same
time. The Church-state relationship became very strong and almost reached its peak
during this period. The Christian highland rulers also continued Zagwe’s tradition of
foreign relations with Egypt and the Middle East. They also extended these relations to
Europe, but closer ties were established with Portugal and Spain from European countries.

1. Describe the major features of the Christian kingdom of 13th to 16th cen
turies.
2. Debate whether the “Solomonic” Dynasty was a legend or a historically
proven fact.
7.2 The Muslim Principalities

• explain the historical relationship between the Muslim states and the Christian
kingdom.
• identify the contributions of trade routes in linking the states and peoples in
Ethiopia and the Horn.
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Brainstorming
• What are the reasons for the rise of the Muslim Sultanate in
Ethiopia?
The establishment of several Muslim sultanates along the long-distance trade routes
followed the introduction of Islam to Ethiopia and the Horn. Along the Zeila trade route,
which served as the most important gateway of Islam to the interior of Ethiopia, a series
of Muslim states were formed. Some of these Muslim sultanates of the region were Ifat,
Fatigar, Dawaro, Dara, Bali, Hadya, Arbabini, Sharka, and Adal.
Map 7.1 Muslim states and trade routes in the Ethiopian, 14th and 15th centuries
(Source: Church and State)
Towards the mid- 13th century, a Muslim Sultanate of Ifat emerged to the south of Shewa.
Its founder was Umar Walasma and hence the Walasma Dynasty. In 1285AD, it destroyed
the older Makhzumite dynasty and became the strongest Muslim Sultanate in the region.
Moreover, Ifat controlled a vast territory through which the long-distance trade routes
of Zeila. Therefore, most of the profitable Zeila trade came under the control of Ifat.
Eventually, Ifat became the strongest rival of the Christian highland state.
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Since 1270, the Christian highland state also developed a great interest in the Zeila trade
and trade routes. Therefore, they need to control the Zeila trade to become the primary
source of conflict between the two states. Frequent skirmishes between the two finally
resulted in the defeat of Ifat by the Christian forces of Amde Seyon in 1332AD.
There were several other small Muslim Sultanates to the south, east and north of the Ifat.
The Sultanates of Fatagar emerged around the middle of the 13th century. The Sultanate
was situated south of the present-day Bulga around Shenkora.
Dawaro was located between the middle Awash River and upper Wabe-Shebele.
Further, Bali’s location was in the rich area south of the Wabe-Shebele. We do not know
when Bali emerged as a state. Dara probably existed between Dawaro and Bali states.
Whereas, Arbabini was located between Dawaro and Hadiya, about which we know very
little. Hadiya was located to the west of the Dawaro and Bali. We do not know when the
Sultanate comes to power. However, the Sultanate was mentioned for the first time during
the reign of Amde Seyon. Sharaka was located in the present territory of Arsi.
Similarly, there is no tangible evidence of when the Sultanate emerged as a state.
However, from the 14th century onwards, it existed as a tributary to the Christian
kingdom until the first quarter of the 16th century. Trade was one of the significant factors that
resulted in the rise and development of those states. Trade served as a significant source
of livelihood. It acted as a major agent that resulted in the formation of Muslim sultanates.
However, it remained a major source of conflict between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim
sultanates. After its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of campaigns against its
neighbouring sultanates, extending its hegemony over these areas. It also resisted the
expansion of the Christian Kingdom.
One branch of the Walasma family realized that Ifat was becoming an easy target to the
Christian Kingdom due to its location. So, it moved further to the south-eastern lowlands
and established a new and vigorous Muslim Sultanate of Adal in the highland districts
around Harar in 1367. One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade
routes and became a centre of resistance against the Christian Kingdom until the second
half of the sixteenth century was the Sultanate of Adal. The first centre of this extended
Walasma Dynasty was at a place called Dakar, located in the southeast of Harar. The
Walasma family consolidated its power in the new centre and began another phase of
military campaigns against the frontiers of the Christian Kingdom. As a result, in 1520,
the centre of Adal was changed to the city of Harar. The defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543
and the Oromo population movement and expansion forced the Sultanate to change its
capital to Awsa in 1576/7, which is in the present Afar region.
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
1. Mention the trade routes that linked different states and peoples in
Ethiopia and the Horn.
7.3 Relationship Between the Christian Kingdom and the

Sultanate of Adal, 1520s-1559
• criticise how conflicts between the Christian kingdom and Muslim sultanates
are presented as if they were religious ones.
• analyse the relationship between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim
Sultanates as well as the other States.
• acknowledge the contributions of trade routes in linking the states and peoples
in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about the relationship between the Chris-
tian kingdom and Muslim sultanates?
The primary source of conflict among peoples and states in Ethiopia and the Horn of
Africa was the desire to monopolize long-distance trade. Long-distance trade was a source
of great wealth. It also served as a link among the peoples of Ethiopia. The desire for
territorial expansion was also another source of rivalry among the peoples and states of
the Ethiopian region. Therefore, the desire for the monopoly of long-distance trade and
territorial expansion proved to be sources for inter-state conflicts.
The revival of long-distance trade caused competition and struggle for control over the
trade routes between the Christian kingdoms and the Muslim principalities. This was
followed by a series of wars, depicted as wars for religious supremacy in historical
accounts of Christian and Muslim clerics. While maladministration and exploitation
of the periphery made military mobilization possible, religion provided ideological
justification for the wars. However, the interest in controlling trade routes lay at the heart
of the conflict that continued for two centuries. The war culminated in the years from 1529
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to 1543.
In the beginning, the Zeila trade route was under the control of the Muslim states,
mainly Ifat. However, in 1332 Ifat was defeated by the Christian kingdom and lost its
independence. Thus monopoly over the route went to Amde Seyon. To regain their
independence and control over the Zeila trade route Haqadin II and Sa'adadin retreated to
the Harar plateau and set up a new Muslim resistance base in the late fourteenth century.
As a prelude to this conflict among the Muslim Sultanates, internal strife, corruption and
anarchy were intensified, and new leadership was urgently called for. Such leadership
came from Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. The origin of Imam Ahmed, also named
as “the left-handed” is obscure. He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga
and raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of the oases on the route to Zeila.
After Imam Ahmad came to power, the battles were not just fought to control the
long-distance trade route going through Zeila but mainly because there was a
demographic pressure among the Afar and Somali pastoralists pushing to approach
Harar and the Christian Kingdom. It was one of the Imam's remarkable achievements in
leadership that he mobilized the pastoral communities of the Afar, the Argoba, the Somali,
the Harla, Harari and others to a common cause. He convinced them not to fight amongst
them but to unite and expand to the Christian Kingdom. It was to resolve their pressing
material needs while at the same time keeping Islamic beliefs and practices from the
infiltration of any alien religious doctrine. As a result, he was able to gain an audience as
Imam. He consolidated his army to fight the Christian Kingdom.
Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel was enthroned when he was only eleven. Nevertheless,
assisted by the elderly Elleni and due to internal conflicts in Adal, the Christian state
initially retained its interest and even advanced into Muslim territory scoring significant
victories in the early sixteenth century. As a result, most Muslim Sultanates, including
Adal, were tributaries to the Christian Kingdom.
However, shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed's army. By the time Imam Ahmed was
strong enough for military confrontation in 1520. He refused to pay tribute, which was
followed by a campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527. The Imam's army fought
fiercely and controlled the territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya
and Kambata, and the Christian Kingdom was at risk. In 1528, realizing the upcoming
threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force. However, there was a logistics problem, and
the leadership of the army of the Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy
to defeat Adal’s force. On the other hand, enthusiastic Imam Ahmed’s army managed
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logistics problems with its small-sized army. The Imam’s army also had an excellent
leadership characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified command.
As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated in one of the most
decisive engagements at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present-day Mojo. After
the victory, the Imam's army made a large-scale control of the territories of the Christian
Kingdom, including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash.
By 1535, Imam Ahmed's empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on the coast, including
the Ethiopian interior. As he penetrated deep into the Christian Kingdom, Imam Ahmed
established a civil, administrative bureaucracy constituted by his men and newly recruited
personnel from the Christian territories.
One of the most helpful figures during the war was the wife of the Imam, Bati Del
Wanbara. She was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of Adal known as
Mahfuz. She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions. She is said to have
marched even in a state of pregnancy during which she was unable to use mules. Indeed,
she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present-day
Tigray, respectively. On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military setback forced the
reigning king, Lebne Dengel, to retreat, who finally died in 1540 being fugitive. His son
Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559) ascended to the throne and continued to face the wars with
more intensity.
Conflict in the Ethiopian region began to take an international dimension when two
foreign powers intervened for their advantage. These powers were Portugal and Ottoman
Turkey. Since the twelfth century, Europeans had found the long-distance trade route from
Europe to the Far East blocked by the Ottoman Turks. The Ottoman Turkish Empire was
already in control of Arabia and Egypt. It also occupied areas in parts of the Red Sea
coast and along the eastern coast of the Indian Ocean. Ottoman Turkey was an established
power in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean regions. After Vasco da
Gama discovered a direct sea route to India for Europe in 1498, the Portuguese began to
establish trading stations along the eastern coasts of Africa. They were also interested in
getting new ones on the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea coasts.
Having noticed the movement of diplomatic missions between the Christian Kingdoms
and Portugal, the Turks gave moral and military support to Imam Ahmed. Imam Ahmed
had received Turkish two hundred Muslim musketeers and ten cannons in 1540. In
the meantime, based on the earlier request made by Lebne-Dengel in 1535, about four
hundred Portuguese soldiers armed with matchlocks arrived in the Christian court in 1541.
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The army was led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest son of Vasco da Gama. However,
in August 1542, the Christian army was defeated in Ofla, in today's southern Tigray.
In the battle, about two hundred Portuguese and their leader Christopher da Gama were
killed, and the leader was beheaded. An important anecdote that should be mentioned here
is the role of Lebne-Dengel's wife, Seblewongel. She is said to have participated in the
war against Imam Ahmed in 1542. After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about
his army's ability to repulse any future attack by the force of the Christian Kingdom that
he sent his allies back home and let his army camp.
On the part of the Christians, preparations were made for the final confrontation under
the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos. The Queen's mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the
reigning emperor how to prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-Dega. Due to limited
resources, the monarch employed hit and run strategy, which severely affected Imam's
army. Imam Ahmed's army could not use its previous quality of easy mobility because
they did not know where the attacks came from. On February 25, 1543, while Imam
Ahmed was encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked and killed after fierce fighting at
the battle of Woyna-Dega.
Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident that the nobility and his army were
loyal to him. As a result, the king restored possession of almost all the northern and central
plateau. Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos. He was tolerant
toward them to promote national conciliation and develop a revival of smooth relations
with the Muslim world. Besides, Gelawdewos restored many of the pre-1520s territories
and tributary regions. The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through campaigns
to different areas and camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas. By the early 1550s,
Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom. However, controlling the
Muslim-dominated areas was not an easy task. The growing challenge to the Christian
state came from the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal, the Ottoman Turks,
Jesuit interlude, and Oromo that advanced into the centre. Under the leadership of Nur Ibn
al-Waazir Mujahid, Adal was ready to wage war against the Christian state for revenge. In
1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and killed the king himself.
Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563), who succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the Turks' force
and reclaimed territories on the coast, including Dabarwa. However, in the early 1560s,
Yishaq revolted and allied with the Turks against him. Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-
1598) had to defend the Turks while fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel,
Sidama, Ennarya and the Oromo. The emperor then marched to the north, defeated Turkish
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forces, and restored the territories. The Muslim-Christian conflict had resulted in several
consequences. One of the most obvious was the huge human and material cost.
It is also evident that both the Muslim Sultanate and the Christian Kingdom were
weakened, thereby paving the way for easy penetration and success of the Oromo
population movement. On the positive side, it should be restated that the war had arguably
resulted in cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia. Linguistic and religious
interactions accompanied by intermarriages among peoples of the various cultural groups
were one of these manifestations in the long history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean between Portugal and
the Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim principalities a global dimension.
Apart from the hostile relations, wider socio-economic and cultural interactions were
between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim principalities. As in earlier periods,
trade continued to be the major channel of social integration. Also, it had long been
the source of friendship, interaction, interdependence and conflict among the region's
states. The long-distance trade and local markets served as core areas of social ties. The
difference in ecology between the Muslim sultanates and the Christian Kingdom created
economic interdependence, which strengthened socio-economic bondage. Merchants of
the two regions often moved from the highlands to the coast and vice versa. The social
links were strengthened through such caravan merchants, and religions spread. These
interactions and interdependence in economic, social, cultural and political spheres lay
the foundation for modern Ethiopia.

1. List the positive impacts created as a result of the Christian kingdom
and Muslim sultanates interaction. Browse the internet or refer to other
sources.
2. Write a paragraph on the title “women and their political
participa tion” in Ethiopia. Ask elders or use the internet to get the
necessary information.
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7.4 Political and Socio-Economic Conditions of Southern and

Central States in Ethiopia
• explain major characteristics of central and southern states and peoples in the
Ethiopian region.
• sketch map of Ethiopia and the Horn to locate the territorial extent of various
states of Ethiopia.
• acknowledge the contributions of trade routes in linking the states and peoples
in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Brainstorming
• Who were the peoples in the central and southern states of
Ethiopia?
This lesson provides an exhaustive detail of societies and states in central and southern
parts of the country in the period. Thus, this section explores the history of some of the
states (as illustrations) in the period under consideration. Although no one criterion was
used to select the states, due regard has been given to balancing the number of states
selected from each region mentioned above. The selection of states for discussion also
considered the availability of sources and treatment in earlier sections.
In central and southern parts of the region, there were states and peoples with
traditional religions. Those were Damot, Kafa, Ennarya, Bizamo, Walaita, Yem, Kambata, the
Gurage chiefdoms, and the Agaw kingdom of Gojjam. Damot was probably the
earliest of these states. It seems to have existed as early as the Aksumite period over an
extensive territory. This territory includes the areas south of the Blue Nile River. Damot
might have possibly extended to include the areas of Enareya, Bizamo and Walaita. Among
the rulers of this state, the well-known was called Motalami. Motalami was converted to
Christianity by Abune Tekle Haymanot in the late thirteenth century AD.
The rulers of the Solomonic dynasty began attempts to bring this state under their control
in the last quarter of the thirteenth century. Finally, King Amde Seyon annexed it into
the Christian state in 1316. Information on the history of Bizamo is scanty. Nevertheless,
there are pieces of evidence that it had early connections with Damot. The kingdoms of
Enareya, Kafa, and Wolaita also had similar connections with Damot.
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The Kingdom of Enareya probably existed in the area north of the Gojeb River. The influ-
ence of the highland Christian state into the area seems to have extended through Damot.
Enareya became part of the Christian highland Kingdom. Its rulers built several Churches.
South of Enareya was the Kingdom of Kafa. Kafa was known at least since the end of the
fourteenth century. However, it was not mentioned in any of the Christian documents. It
was an independent kingdom from the Christian High land state.
The state of Wolaita might have also been part of the Kingdom of Damot since its
connection with Damot was strong. The ruling dynasty of Wolaita was known as
Wolaita-Malla. This dynasty had a strong tradition that recognized Motalami as its first
king. Wolaita was mentioned as one of the areas paying tribute to the Christian king
Yeshaq (r. 1413 - 1430). It might have also continued as part of the Christian empire up
to the wars of Ahmad Ibrahim.
Several states existed in central Ethiopian highlands. Among them: Kambata, the Gurage
chiefdoms and the Agaw kingdom of Gojjam. These states seem to have existed for an
extended period. Nevertheless, they became more important in this period. The Gurage
chiefdoms, on the other hand, were concentrated in the area west of Lake Zeway and the
highlands of Dawaro. Its local chiefs used the titles of Azmach, Abegaz and Nigus.
The Agaw kingdom of Gojjam was mentioned in the Christian historical documents. The
Agaw are ancient people who settled in the northern and central Ethiopian Plateau and
are associated with agriculture and animal husbandry development. One of the Agaw
inhabiting central Ethiopian highlands is the Gojjam Agaw. They established the Agwa
kingdom of Gojjam, located to the south of Lake Tana. They were predominantly Agaw
speaking. They exercised strong control over the Lake and its islands. Many Christian
kings made successive attempts to bring it under their control. They advanced to the
hinterlands using the Lake Tana region as a steppingstone. Finally, Amde Tseyon (r. 1314-
1344) incorporated Gojjam into the Christian state in the early fourteenth century.
In the reign of Amde Tsiyon, a Christian preacher at one of the island monasteries at Lake
Tana named Abba Za Yohannes marched southwards to the Agaw inhabited villages and
attempted to evangelize the people. However, the Agaw community of the island and the
surrounding was already converted to Christianity during the Zagwe periods.
However, the same people south of the Lake were predominantly followers of the
indigenous religion. Therefore, Abba ZeYohannes’s attempt to preach the gospel over
Tana areas immediately led to open conflict between Zhan Chuhay and the Christian
Kingdom. Zhan Chuhay was then ruler of the Agaw Kingdom that extended as far southeast as
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Amadamit Mountain in what is today Quarit. He ordered his army to arrest Abba
ZeYohannes, and the monk was detained at Amadamit Mountain. Amde Tsiyon, in
his turn, dispatched his forces to the Agaw kingdom. Zhan Chuhay was killed in the
campaign, and Abba ZeYohannes was freed. This marked the incorporation of the Gojjam
Agaw kingdom into the Christian highland Kingdom.
However, the title of “King of Gojjam” was maintained by local rulers under the
Christian state. Since its conquest, Christianity was introduced to Gojjam. Its people were
Christianized, and Churches and monasteries were built in the Kingdom.
The economy of peoples and states of southern and central Ethiopia was based on
profits from trade and agriculture. The main trade items from these areas were enslaved
people, civets, ivory, and other natural products. Enslaved people formed the most
important trade item in this period.There was high demand for enslaved people from this region in
Arabia, Persia, and India.
Slaves as captives of war were obtained from the south and central regions and the
highland Christian territories.
So far, we have seen the existence of several peoples with a state tradition in the
Ethiopian region and the Horn. However, other societies were in the same area without highly
organised states. Most of them had inhabited the frontier areas of present-day Ethiopia
and its neighbours. Moreover, less organised communities inhabited the narrow lowland
strip in the west, along the Ethio- Sudanese border. These peoples are mainly speakers of
the Nilo- Saharan language family.
The less organised societies mentioned possessing their local administrative system.
They were led by their chiefs and local elderly councils based on their villages and clan
territories. They were the primary agents of frontier trade and cultural relations between
the Ethiopian interior and its neighbours.
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
1. List some of the peoples and states in southern and central Ethiopian
region during the period.
2. By sketching a map of Ethiopia and the Horn, locate the territorial ex
tent of southern and central states of Ethiopia.
7.5 Population Movements, Expansion, and Integration in

Ethiopia
• explain the causes and consequences of population movement in Ethiopia and
the Horn.
• draw a sketch map of Ethiopia to indicate the main directions of Oromo
population’s movement.
Brainstorming
• What is population movement?
The lowland in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa is inhabited by Afar, Oromo,
Somali, Saho, and other Cushitic language family speakers. In the late fifteenth and early
sixteenth centuries, the military conflict between the Christian kingdoms and the
Sultanate of Adal was partly responsible for the Argoba, Afar and Somali
population movement. In addition, the demographic pressure on the environment gave the
background for the population movement. Their territories lay in the region where trade
routes passed and were affected by the consequences of the military conflict. Therefore,
these people moved back and forth in response to the ongoing military conflict.
Argoba: The Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and Muslim state
formation in the Horn. For instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat was established by
the Makhzumite and Walasma Dynasties, respectively. Towards the end of the thirteenth
century, the sultanate of Shewa moved further to the east due to the pressure from the
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Christian Kingdom. The sultanate of Ifat, where the Argoba were dominant, became the
center of Muslim resistance. On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al-Ghazi, the Argoba
joined the Afar and the Somali against the Christian Kingdom. The area inhabited by the
Argoba was also a target of the expanding Christian Kingdom. It was the major center
of the conflict. This was because the major caravan trade routes passed through Argoba
territory. As a result, the Christian-Muslim rivalry and the conflicts thereof led to the
destruction of sultanates and dispersion of the people. The enduring effect of the conflict
can be observed from the fragmented settlement patterns of the people.
Afar: Due to drought, the Afar moved towards the east until they reached the middle
Awash. Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the Afar's territory. As
a result, the region was the centre of competition between the Christian kingdoms and
the Muslim sultanates to control the trade routes. Besides being actors in the conflict,
the conflict inevitably pressurised the Afar to move in different directions to avoid the
risk of disputes. In the sixteenth century, their pastoral economy helped them survive the
destructive effects of the wars.
Somali: Their territory lay in the medieval competition to control trade routes.
Likewise, before the wars of Imam Ahmed al-Ghazi, there was strong demographic
pressure from the Somali.The population movement of the Somali was a strong force behind the
military strength of the Imam. However, the population movement of the Somali did not
last for long as they returned to their home base following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in
1543.
Oromo: The Oromos are an indigenous Cushitic people of Ethiopia and the Horn of
Africa. When Aksum came into history, it was quite clear that the Oromo also occupied
a considerable part of the land in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. According to Oromo
oral traditions, the original homeland of the Oromo before the sixteenth century was the
south-central part of Ethiopia's highlands. The political and religious centre of the Oromo
settlement area was Madda Walabu, located on the Bale- Sidama borderlands.
A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the movement of Oromo
population in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. These are:
• demographic pressure and the subsequent need for land to accommodate the growing
human and livestock population.
• the conflict between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim Sultanates was the other
factor that forced the Oromo to leave the lands they inhabited and move to other
areas.
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The combination of these factors resulted in a dramatic and large-scale population move-
ment of the Oromo people in the sixteenth century.
Map 7.2 The beginning of the 16th century Oromo Population Movement,
Mohammed Hassen, 1994
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Long before their expansion, the Oromo people were divided into two major
confederacies: the Barentu and the Borana confederacies. Each confederacy comprised
smaller divisions and clans. The Borana confederacy consisted of Mecha, Tulama, southern
Borana and Guji clans. The Barentu was composed of the Karayu, Marawa, Ittu,
Humbana, Akachu, Wollo and Arsi clans. The movement and expansion took place from
around 1522 to 1618. The movement was set in two major directions in the Ethiopian
region. The Barentu moved out in a northeast direction. The Borana followed a north-westerly
direction. They also moved out in the directions of Kenya and Somalia outside the
Ethiopian region. The movement took place in two stages. The first stage was the period
of a small and slow movement in the first half of the sixteenth century. The second stage
started around the mid-sixteenth century and lasted up to 1618. This was a large-scale
movement carried out using force.
In 1522, when the population movement began, the Oromo were already organised under
Borana and Barentu confederacies. The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed
through a corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abaya. When they reached halfway
between Lakes Abaya and Hawassa, they took westward. First, they penetrated across the
Bilatte River to the southwest. Then they headed northwards to the lake's region of the
Rift Valley.
From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars. Accordingly,
• the first Gadaa, i.e. Melba (1522-1530), fought and defeated the Christian regiment
Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali.
• Gadaa Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River.
• The Kilole Gadaa (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian regiment
Adal Mabraq
• Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
• The Michille (1554-62) scored a victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, Jan Amora
forces, and Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
• The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied
Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
• In 1574, Sartsa Dingil's (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale
Gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Daga. However, Robale recovered by defeating Zara'a
Yohannis' force.
• The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and
overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
• The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray. In the
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early seventeenth century,

• the Dulo (1594-1602),
• Melba (1603-10), and
• Mudena (1610-18) expanded to the West and Northern parts of the Horn of
Africa while others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in
Somalia. In addition to the wars between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim
Sultanates, the organisation of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played a crucial
role in the success of the Oromo population movement.
In their movement into various regions, different Oromo branches established Gadaa
centres. These centers were:
• Oda Nabee of Tulama (East Shewa),
• Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi),
• Oda Bultum of Itu-Humbenna (Hararge),
• Oda Bisil of Mecha (West Shewa) and
• Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha (Horro-Guduru).
Other places, which became Gadaa centres, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e Bokko of
Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garad of Wallo, etc.
Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of
Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma and others established Gadaa centres. They laid down
cardinal laws in their respective areas.
However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through the office of Abba Muda
(the father of anointment) seated at Madda Walabu and formed alliances during times of
difficulty. Besides, they obeyed similar culture and law (Seera) by sending their delegates
to Madda-Walabu, the central chaffe, until the pan-Oromo assembly was forbidden in
1900 due to the political influence Ethiopian state.
The Oromo population movement and expansion was successful for several reasons:-
• In the first place, the Gadaa system provided training and military organisation, which
contributed much to the movement's success.
• Besides, almost all members of society participated in wars.
So, it was a large-scale expansion so difficult to stop. The Oromo made wide and good use
of the horse at the time of the expansion. One important Oromo institution which seems to
have facilitated the expansion was adaptation. Moreover, the movement took place when
the Sultanate of Adal- was exhausted and weakened due to the wars of the first half of the
sixteenth century.
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The Oromo population movement and expansion brought about fundamental changes
in the Ethiopian region. Ethnic and cultural intermixing took place between the Oromo
and other peoples of the region. The expanding Oromo destroyed the old states of the
kingdoms of Damot, Bizamo and Ennarya. The peoples of Damot and Gafat were
either assimilated with the Oromo or forced to move out from the south to the north and
intermingle with the Christian community of the area. The Christian kingdom was greatly
disturbed by the Oromo population movement. The territorial and financial strengths of
the kingdom were highly weakened. It was forced to shift its political centre from Shewa
in the south to the Lake Tana area north and Gondar.
The Sultanate of Adal was reduced to the walled town of Harar as the result of the
Oromo expansion. This was mainly because after the death of Iman Ahmed, the Muslims
of Adal was reorganised under Emir Nur Mujahid. The Emir launched an offensive war
against the Christian kingdom. In 1559 Nur Mujahid defeated and killed Gelawdewos in
the Awash valley. Nevertheless, he could not pursue his victory over the Christian forces
because the Oromo forces had already reached the Harar area at the time.
So, he returned to Adal to defend it from falling to the Oromo. However, since most of
Harar was occupied by the Oromo, he just built a wall around the town of Harar, which
is known as the Jegol Gimb. This led to the end of an age-old conflict between Adal and
the Christian kingdom. Following their movement and expansion, the Oromo became
largely sedentary agriculturists. In time, the great majority of them also adopted
Christianity and Islam. Still, later on, they were able to form kingdoms of their own in the
Ethiopian region.

1. Discuss briefly the consequences of the Oromo population movement.
7.6 Gadaa System of the Oromo

• describe the Oromo Gadaa system.
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Brainstorming
• What do you know about the Gadaa System?
The Gadaa system was based on age- grades. It was an egalitarian system in which
an assembly or a chaffe of the ruling Gadaa class provided leadership for the Oromo
nation. It was developed from knowledge gained by community experience over
generations. The system regulates the community's political, economic, social, and religious
activities dealing with conflict resolution (arara), reparation (Guma), and protecting
women's rights. It serves as a mechanism for enforcing moral conduct, building social
cohesion, and expressing forms of community culture. Moreover, the Gadaa system was
an institution through which the Oromo socially organised themselves, administered their
affairs, defended their territories, maintained law order, and managed their economies.
The Oromo had practiced the Gadaa system long before the sixteenth-century movement
of the Oromo.
The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as periodic succession
and power-sharing to prevent a one-man rule. Other principles of the system included
representation of all lineages, clans and confederacies.
The Gadaa system organised the Oromo society into age grades and generation sets
delineating members' social, political, and economic responsibilities. In the system, ten
age grades and five classes operated in parallel. The system provided a socio-political
framework that institutionalised relationships between seniors and juniors and egalitarian
relations among grade members. The system helped the members of age-sets to develop
a consistent and stable sense of self and others. Sons joined the first grade as members of
Gadaa class (generation class or set) forty years after their fathers and were initiated into
the next higher grade every eight years. In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa
period, five Gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation, and nine generations
represented an era. The political philosophy of Gadaa is based on three main values:
terms of eight years, balanced opposition between parties, and power-sharing between
higher and lower levels. In the Gadaa system, generation, age, sex, and class were the
guiding criteria in labour division and the sharing of responsibilities.
Gadaa system was interrupted and revitalised during various eras because of various
internal and external factors. For instance, the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was instituted
after an interruption for nearly two generations. It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu,
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which became the central Chaffe (assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu until 1900.
Gumi-Gayo (Assembly of the representatives): this is the assembly of the representatives
of the entire society that mainly serve as the law-making body. In theory, any individual
had a right to attend and participate in the deliberation and would bring any matter to
the attention of the gumi-gayo. Each class send a delegation of five people to sit at the
legislative body called the Caffe. The new law to be issued and the law to be repealed or
amended were introduced to the Caffe by elders for discussion.
The Oromo common version of age grades and their roles associated with them is
discussed as follows: Dabale (birth-8 years) and Game (9-16 years) are the grades of
socialization; Folle (17-24 years) military training, agriculture etc.; Qondala (25-32 years)
military service; Raba-Dori (33-40 years) candidates for political power; Gadaa (41-48
years) leaders of Gadaa government; Yuba (49 to 80 years) senior advisors, educators
and ritual leaders.
The Gadaa assumed power for eight years. In the Gadaa system, there was peaceful
transfer of political power from one Gadaa class to the other every eight years. The head
of the government was known as Abba-Gadaa, literally “father of the period”, who was
assisted by several elected representatives from among the generation set. These included
Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly), Abba-Dula (war
leader), Abba Sera (father of law), Abba Alanga (judge), Abba Sa'a (father of treasury)
and other councillors.
The Abba Gadaa or Abba Boku served as the spokesman of the reigning set. However,
he did not have absolute power. The supreme authority rested on the assembly (chaffe),
which consisted of all members of the ruling Gadaa class or those in the sixth Gadaa
grade (41 – 48 years).

1. Ask elders or browse the internet and write a paragraph describing the
major features and values of the Oromo Gadaa system.
The Gadaa assembly takes place under a sycamore tree (Odaa), symbolically representing
its emphasis on dialogue and consensus.
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Figure 7.1 Abba Gadaa of Oromo Sitting under Odaa (Left) and the Chaffe (Right)
In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable roles in
power transfer and legitimizing the ruling Gadaa class. Women maintained their rights by
the Sinqe institution, which helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity. Women from
childhood to old age, i.e., guduru (pre-pubescent), qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage),
kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba) and cifire (wives of Gadaamojji/above 80 years), were
believed to have sacred power. They are involved in power transfer, conflict resolution,
thanksgiving, and others. The kalale were also privileged to support and advise the ruling
class.
The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical power transfer from one Gadaa class to the
next every eight years. With some minor differences in nomenclature in different parts of
Oromo territories, the five Gadaa classes (generation sets) are listed below:
Chart 7.1 The Five Gadaa Classes
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The Gadaa system has the principles of check and balance (through a regular
succession of every eight years), division of power (among executive, legislative, and
judicial branches), balanced opposition (among five parties), and power-sharing among
administrative organs. In addition, it embodies the following principles:
• the rule of laws that stand above all, the principle of accountability,
• the role of confession and impeachment (buqqisu),
• the subordination of warriors to deliberative assemblies,
• a period of testing: time gap between elections and investiture,
• the principle of check and balanced.

1. List the roles of Abba Gadaa.
7.7 Moggasa and Guddifacha

• point out the main features and practice of the Moggasa and Guddifacha
System of the Oromo.
• explain the consequences of the Moggasa and Guddifacha System of the
Oromo.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about Moggasa and Guddifacha?
The Oromo integrated non-Oromo people through two adoption mechanisms. One form
of adoption was Guddifacha, a form of parent adopting a child. In this system, the child
enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a biological child. The second form of adoption
is known as Moggasa. Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos commonly known
as Oromsu.
Moreover, Moggasa was the practice of incorporating individuals or groups into a
clan through an oath of allegiance. The incorporated person enjoys all the rights and
obligations that such membership entailed. The Abba Gadaa undertook Moggasa on
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behalf of the clan. The adopted community or individual shares everything equally with the
Oromos and gains protection and material benefits.
The Moggasa and Guddifacha culture allowed other peoples to mix with the Oromos
and live together in peace. So, in their expansion, the Oromo adopted much of the
population they came across and used them in their wars with the next group. The process
significantly contributed to the social cohesions, national integration, and the revival of
long-distance trade. The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-cultural values
and institutions.
Several people in the neighbourhood of the Oromo adopted the Gadaa system and the
Oromo language. Likewise, the Oromo adopted the cultures and traditions of the people
with whom they came into contact. A case in point is the adoption of monarchical systems
and the integration of the Oromo to the Christian and Muslim states. On a larger scale,
the Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the sixteenth century brought far-reaching
integrations among peoples across ethnic and religious backgrounds.

1. Identify the chararcteristic features of Moggasa and Guddifacha.
7.8 Egalitarian System of Governance

• explain an egalitarian democracy in Ethiopia among Sidama, Gedeo, Konso
and Burji.
• draw a sketch map of Ethiopia and show the site of egalitarian democracies in
Ethiopia.
Brainstorming
• What is an egalitarian democracy?
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Sidama
The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king). The Mote
exercised political and administrative authority in consultation with the council of
elders called Songo. Songo members would raise any agenda for discussion within the
council and submit their decisions to the Mote for approval. Although there was no written
constitution, the rules were known by the heart through generations and practiced
accordingly.
Figure 7.2 The Sidama Luwa system and their assembly,

(source: static.dw.com)
The Woma was the cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society. The criteria for his
election were his ability as a peacemaker, bodily perfection, expressive ability, wisdom,
and caution. The Woma could not participate in war or cattle raiding as he was considered
a man of peace. In addition, the Woma handled cultural matters such as offering sacrifices
to the spirits. He also performed other rituals such as circumcision and marriage. The
Sidama were grouped into two major clans called Bushe and Maldea. These are, in turn,
subdivided into different sub-clans.
Seniority was closely related to the age cycles of luwa. The luwa structure had many
commonalities with the Oromo Gadaa system and played a fundamental role in initiation
rites and maintaining authority roles. There are two terms used to refer to the elderly,
gercho and cimessiccho. The first term refers to a person's age- a person with grey hair.
The other term refers to an elder who has undergone the rite of passage, the initiation into
the status of elderhood. The timing of this rite is a function of the luwa age-grade system.
The luwa identity had repeatedly been expressed as a basic traditional Sidama value.
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The age-grade had an 8-year cycle, and each of the five luwa generations had its name:
Fulasa, Wawasa, Darara, Hirbora and Mogisa.
Chart 7.2 The Five Luwa Classes of the Sidama

Boys are assigned to one of these age groups, primarily by the age cycle each was born.
Men of the same luwa, age-cycle group, have powerful bonding. Each age group selects
their Gadaanna, leader, who will represent their generation throughout eight years. The
passage into elderhood, which gives a man the status of cimessima, takes place during the
rites of his generation, the luwa to which he belongs. A son cannot undergo the initiation
ritual to enter the cimessima, which includes circumcision berchima, before his father.
He has to wait for the successive luwa to be initiated. According to the halal, an elder is
expected to live according to the halale, the actual concept. Traditionally, this is a moral
standard reflecting the truth by avoiding any form of crime, such as stealing, perjury,
corruption, injustice, and strict adherence to the highest standards of probity, integrity,
honesty, and truthfulness. In this respect, they are the repository of the tribal heritage,
passed on from generation to generation.
The daily lives have traditionally been organised around a social network within the olla,
village or mine manni, the family unit. The murricha (elder) has a leadership role at the
village level. In general, the gerontocracy has traditionally dominated the communal
network on all levels.
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The Sidama people comprise some subtribes, gosa, which are ruled independently by
their king, actually a supreme judge, and the woma. The woma of the different subtribes
within the Sidama make up the woma-songo, the assembly of subtribal kings or judges.
It is the highest traditional authority. In addition, there are differentiated lower songo
assemblies, which have different areas of authority and responsibility. However, gender
and age are limitations to participation. Only the elders and only the men have a say in these
assemblies. The sera are defined as the ruling truth, referred to as halale. Halale
proclaimed by the elders is hard to challenge and is often a base for “forced” consensus.
As opposed to individualism, decision making in the assemblies is always with one voice,
and the consensus is valued over the open confrontation of opposing ideas.
The gare-songo is the next level. This is the council of the mote, who are the kings of the
gare, the maximal lineage segment (a sub-division of the subtribe). The mote is partly
an inherited position, but there may be a choice between the sons of the former mote.
The gare-songo deals with matters closer to daily life than the woma-songo. It may, for
example, be involved in making a disobedient son obedient to his father. It also deals
with matters of loans and serves as a local court, and can impose penalties. People who
do not pay their penalties in cash, in-kind, or community service obligations may be
excommunicated from the community.
Within the smaller agnatic units such as at the haracha level, there are also songo
(assemblies), headed by the muriccha. The haracha comprises a cluster of agnatic
units, olla, villages, sharing sera. There is a songo at the olla level, and the head of that
assembly is also called a muriccha. At both levels, the haracha and the olla, the
murricha are primarily in charge of administrating the services related to deaths and funerals.
However, because of the high authority associated with these indispensable ceremonies
in the community, the murricha may also be called upon to become involved in other
significant community activities. The principle of seniority and communal relationship
is still strong at the neighbourhood and household level. Observations confirm that the
elders still have a powerful influence on the daily life of ordinary people. In particular, the
murricha was referred to as an authority. Gender roles are traditionally defined.
The sera in the Sidama community have traditionally ruled a web of relations and
interrelations. Sera is a set of local cultural norms or codes regulating the communal
social structure and interaction. Traditionally, sera are almost an ethical and moral codex.
It may be seen as unwritten law, but it constitutes at the same time the morality and the
conscience of the individual and the community. Sera also provides social security to
the members. It provides the community with a procedure of decision making through
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consensus.
It obliges the individual to conform to the majority, to seek harmony and consensus
rather than an individual opinion and personalised justice. The sera mainly relate to
domestic, communal life. It traditionally works at the basis of commonality and consent
rather than individualism. The sera law or rule is advanced regarding the social communal
life, particularly on the domestic level.

Case Study
The Sidama tradition refers to a legendary Queen (Motite – in Sidama
language) called Fura. During the reign of Fura, the status of males was
degraded below the status of the female. Fura was said to have cruel,
mistrusted men and asked them to carry out various orders that were
difficult or degrading to execute. For example, she asked them to bring
an animal that had not been mounted by anyone previously. She also
ordered men to build a house on air between the earth and the sky.
Furthermore, Queen Fura ordered the killing of all elderly males because
1. What can you learn from this story about women and politics? Are
there similar traditions in your locality? Asking local elders, write a
paragraph about women and politics.
Gedeo
Gedeos live in the highlands found to the east of Lake Abaya. They are bordered north
by the Sidama and the Guji on the remaining sides. Tradition indicates that they are
descendants of Derasso. The tradition also suggests that there was a close relationship
between Derasso and the ancestors of neighbouring Oromo groups like the Guji and
Borana. The traditions account for the similarities in the social organisation of these
groups.
The area around Haro Walabu, a lake found near Dilla town, is believed to be the
homeland of the Gedeo. Other traditions indicate that before moving to Haro Walabu, the
ancestors of the Gedeo lived at a place called Harsu and its surroundings. The movement
to Haro Walabu is believed to have taken place before the 16th century.
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The Gedeo comprised seven clans. The Gedeo traditional governance system is known
as ballee. It is based on an age system and has similarities with the Gadaa system of
the neighbouring Gujji Oromo. The leaders of the ballee were elected by the general
council called Yaa from the ruling age group. The yaa council was the supreme authority
among the Gedeo. All ballee officials were elected by the yaa. The most important of these
officials was the Abba Gadaa, who would give political, social and ritual leadership to the
whole Gedeo. Each of the three Gedeo territorial units was administered by a roga. These
were responsible for the Abba Gadaa.
Konso
Konsos live in a largely mountainous region found to the east of the Rift valley in
southwestern Ethiopia. They are bordered in the south by the Sagan River, north by the
Gumayde plains, east by the Amaro Mountains, and east by the Woito River. They speak
an East Highland Cushitic language spoken by their neighbours, the Burji, Dirashe and
Gawada. Konso traditions have close cultural relations with some of these neighbours.
For example, they used to live in a region called Liban together with the Borana Oromo,
Burji and Dirashe before they departed and settled in their present locations.
Konso economy is dependent on mixed agriculture. They produce grains, the most
important of which is sorghum and millet. The region receives low and erratic rainfall,
which is ideal for the crops. They also cultivate a tree crop locally called shelgeda. It is
like moringa whose leaves are consumed as cabbage.
Konsos have also developed an intensive agriculture system through time. They have
terraced their hillsides with stones. This practice has made Konso agriculture sustainable.
Political organisation among the Konso was non-centralised. Thus, power was shared
among different individuals and groups. One of these individuals was the poqalla who
was a priest. He was responsible for the clan's well-being and mediated in conflicts. Other
groups involved in the administration were the members of the generation set called tella
and the council of elders.
Until the late nineteenth century, the Konso people lived in walled villages
(paletas). There was no central authority who acted as a sovereign power over the three
regions. Instead, each village was ruled by a council of elders called hayyota, who were
selected through the direct participation of male members of the village. Membership to the
council was not hereditary but rotated every eighteen years. At the core of the
socio-political organisation of the Konso appear to be the clan or lineage group and
generation set, Tselta. The Konso were divided into nine exogamous clans:
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Toqmaleta, Elayta, Saudata, Pasanta, Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and

Argamyta. The Tselta had a fixed cycle of years starting from birth. However, they varied across
villages-eighteen in Karat, nine in Takati and five in Turo. The primary function of the
generation set was informing the responsibilities expected of each age group.
Burji
The Burji clans belong to one of two moieties named Dashcha and Jiremalecha. Dashcha
includes Goda, Banbal, Dedebana, Yab, Qedado, Umma, Hirola, etc. At the same time,
Jire Malecha comprises Gammaye, Tamay, Wotesh, Mangodo, Anabura, Karamana and
others.
Traditional Burji administration had an elective system known as basha (shumet). Under
the basha system, appointments took place in different ceremonies in which official titles
were conferred. They included officials titled woma in the womis ceremony, kings in
royal coronations, dayna officials in daynoma ceremonies and masha in other
appointment ceremonies. The Burji possessed two types of woma, each with appropriate
womiso or royal coronation ceremonies. One was a hereditary spiritual woma, while the
other was a popular elective political elite or woma. The latter came to power through a
plebiscite based on personal ability and integrity. The hereditary spiritual woma was known
as gan. There were two types: saganaka gan and banbalinka gan. The former served as a
rainmaker while the latter was believed to possess powers to control and prevent wars,
crop pests and disease.
The eldest son succeeded his deceased woma's father. The body of the deceased woma was
taken out of his home via a hole pierced through the walls on the rear side of the house.
The deceased's wrist bracelet was removed and transferred to the successor. The latter
started his reign by performing all appropriate public duties. The woma was appointed as
a king based upon the number of his supporters, degree of wealth oratory and fulfilment of
social criteria contained in the traditional system of appointments of the basha principle.

1. Mention at least one ethnic group that practices an egalitarian
democracy.
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Unit Summary

The Zagwe kingdom maintained the basic features of the Aksumite kingdom.
At this period, the history of peoples and states in the various parts of Ethiopia
and the Horn of Africa shows many interactions with one another. Moreover, the
Zagwe rule was best known for its rock-hewn Churches that became numbered
among the famous world heritages. The so-called 'Solomonic dynasty' replaced
the Zagwe rule in 1270. This dynasty used the legend of Queen Sheba's union
with King Solomon of Israel. The result of their union was Menelik I, whom
they consider as the 'first Solomonic King'.
However, this legend has only helped to legitimize state power for successive
generations until 1974. The result was the Christian highland state's dominance
over the peoples and other states of the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa
between 1270 and 1529.
There were a series of conflicts between the Christian, Muslim and other states.
The result shows how the various peoples and states of the whole region of
Ethiopia and the Horn were highly interrelated with each other in many ways.
The movements of people from one place to another have played essential
roles in shaping the history of Ethiopia and the Horn. As far back sources tell,
population movements occurred in the Horn for various reasons, in varied scales
and followed different directions. People move from place to place due to pull
and push factors, summarised as natural and social.
Specifically, people move out from their habitats in search of resources and
a better living environment. In Ethiopia and the Horn, the causes of the
movements could be attributed to the region's long socio-political conditions
involving military conflicts, drought and demographic factors.
Population movements of the medieval period had extensive effects,
including integrating peoples across ethnic and religious lines. Major outcomes of
population movements during the period under consideration include religious,
ethnic and linguistic interactions and intermingling of peoples. Specifically, this
has resulted in the intermarriage of peoples, change of abode, original culture
and evolution of new identities.
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❓
correct.
1. The name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation marks because the claim of descent
was from King Solomon of Israel is legendary.
2. The Zagwe rule was best known for its Steles.
3. The Zagwe kingdom maintained the basic features of the Aksumite kingdom.
4. Traditional Burji administration had an elective system known as Luwa.
5. The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king).
6. Political organisation among the Konso society was highly centralized.
7. The Gedeo traditional governance system is known as ballee.
A B
1. Abba-Dula A. head of the assembly
2. Abba Bokku B. Father of law
3. Abba Sa'a C. War leader
4. Abba Sera D. Father of treasury
5. Abba Alanga E. Father of scepter
6. Abba Chaffe F. Judge
G. Qallu
H. Chaffe
Part II: Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.
1.The Muslim state which reorganised the Muslim resistance against the Christian
kingdom was:
A. Ifat
B. Shewa
C. Adal
D. Bali
2. At which battle did Imam Ahmed score a decisive victory over the Christian forces?
A. Lake Tana B. Woina Dega C. Wofla D. Shimbra Kure
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3. The Oromo social, political and military organisation is:

A. Qallu institution
B. Gadaa system
C. Monarchy
D. Gumi Gayo
4. Which of the following is true under the Gadaa system?
A. Qallu institution
B. Gadaa system
C. Monarchy
D. Gumi Gayo
5. Which of the following is true under the Gadaa system?
A. The transfer of political power was hereditary.
B. The Abba Dulas ruled over their people.
C. The Abba Bokus exercised absolute power.
D. The council of elders led the Oromo nation.
6. The Qallus:
A. provided political leadership.
B. were intermediaries between the Oromo people and Waqa.
C. were advisors of the abba Gadaa.
D. were leaders of the fighting age-group.
7. Which of the following is not the result of Oromo population movement and
expansion?
A. It weakened the christian state.
B. It led to the interaction of different people with the oromos.
C. It reduced the power of muslim states.
D. None of the above
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8
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Unit 8 Political, Social and Economic Processes in Ethiopia Mid- 16th to Mid- 19th C.
Unit
POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROCESSES IN ETHI-
OPIA MID- 16th TO MID- 19th C.
Unit Introduction
This chapter presents the treats societies that are not so
socio-economic and political highly organised in the region.
changes in Ethiopia between The next section of the unit
the mid-16th to the mid-19th describes changes and
centuries. After the decline of continuities in the Christian
the Christian Kingdom, many kingdom from the mid-16th to the
groups of people from southern, mid-19th centuries. It starts
western, eastern and central with the recovery of the
Ethiopia developed their Christian highland kingdom
independent local states. from the defeat it faced in the
During this period, political hands of the Sultanate of Adal.
power was decentralised across the Nevertheless, its efforts at
country. The unit also discusses the revival were disturbed later on
history of different peoples who by elements of regional power
had their local states in the struggle. This period of
southern half of the regionalism was called the Zemene
Ethiopian region. In the first Mesafent (period of regional
section, you will learn about some of the warlords). It deals mainly with
independent polities that the efforts of the Christian
flourished in western, southern Kingdom to consolidate its power
and eastern Ethiopia. The lessons and how it entered into chaos in the
of this unit describe the different mid-19th century. This unit forms
ways in which economic, political form an important context to
and social process was organised understand the dynamics of the
in polities. The differences and creation of the modern Ethiopian,
similarities that existed among which will be discussed in grade 10.
them were underlined. It also
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• describe peoples and states of Ethiopia from mid-16th mid 19th century.
• explain the major socio-economic and political structure of Ethiopia during the
period.
• explain major features and achievements of the Gondarine period.
• identify the main characteristic features of the Zemene Mesafint and the Yejju
🔑
Dynasty.
Key Terms
• Gondar
• Tato • Zemene
• Kawo • Mesafint
• Sera • Yejju Daynasty
8.1 Peoples and States of the Eastern, Central, Southern and

Western Regions
This section reviews some polities that flourished in the southern part of Ethiopia in
the period and their major political, economic, and social features. From the middle
of the the16th century to the middle of the 19th century, many people of Ethiopia were
politically autonomous, and independent polities flourished. They led an independent
position from the domination of either the Christian Kingdom or any other power of their
kind. However, these polities and their people maintained a sort of relationship through
trade, marriage, and conflicts over resources. Due to this process, these polities either
expanded their territory or lost it.
8.1.1 Southern States
• describe the source of political power in the peoples and states in southern,
western, and eastern Ethiopia.
• explain the socio-economic and political structure of Omotic, Cushitic,
Semitic, and Nilotic peoples.
• show the competitive and cooperative forms of political dynamics between
peoples Omotic and Cushitic states socio-political structure.
• value the historical, cultural, and political values shared by different peoples of
Ethiopia.
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Brainstorming
• What does the term Tato mean?
• Omotic States and Peoples under Tato system

Kafa
The Kingdom of Kafa was found south of Enareya, located south of the Gojeb and north
of the Omo River. According to the people's traditions, it was known at least since the end
of the fourteenth century. This part of Ethiopia receives heavy rainfall, has dense forests
and fertile soil. It was inhabited by peoples related to the Bench. Kafa was ruled by a king
whose title was called Tato. The insignia of the kingship is interesting and important. They
consist of twelve objects, many of them made of gold. Especially, the king's crown was in
the form of a helmet made of gold and silver, with a triple phallus of gold in front.
Figure 8.1 Crown of the Kingdom of Kafa, (adopted from Laphiso

G. Delebo, 1985:18)
The Kingship was hereditary. An advisory council of nobles called Mikkerecho

assisted the king. Though one of the king's sons succeeded, it was not necessarily the
eldest like other societies of the country. The choice of the king's successor lay in the
hands of Mikkerecho. The regional administration and the maintenance of law and
order in the kingdom were also their duties. Under the king were kinglets or chiefs of the
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districts who were allowed to wear golden armlets as insignia (signs) of office.
Sub-districts (woraafo) were in charge of a junior chief called woraafe rasho, who was
responsible to the king. These all indicate that the kingdom of Kafa was highly organised.
Bonga was the center of the kingdom. Anderecha was the second seat to the southeast
of Bonga. It was an independent kingdom from the Christian High land state. Kafa
was influenced by the Christian kingdom. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the 16th
century, Kafa seems to have been an independent state. However, Kafa survived the Oromo
pressure and disconnected its relation with the Christian Kingdom. Kafa governed itself
as an independent state until the late 19th century.
Kafa was one of the resourceful kingdoms that greatly contributed to Ethiopian trade. The
economy of Kafa was based on agriculture and trade. Coffee said to have been originated
in Kafa was the main crop, and enset is the major food crop of the Kafa kingdom. The
main trade items were ivory, mask, honey, coffee, enslaved people, and gold.
Kafa had considerable trade relations with the neighbouring Oromo and Shewan states
in the nineteenth century. In addition, it had a tradition of digging deep trenches called
Kuripo as a defensive barrier. This strong internal political organisation and defense
system enabled the kingdom to maintain its independence for an extended period.
The Kafa rulers adopted the title tato from the neighbouring kingdom of
Ennarya whose ruling elite moved to the south of Gojeb River due to the Oromo pressure.
Christianity was also introduced to Kafa from Enaria state. Nevertheless, it remained
limited to the royal families, while the local people largely continued to practice their indigenous
religion.
Yem
Evidence shows that the Yem had established a state before the late 16th century. Then,
according to their traditions, power was transferred from a local dynasty called Gama to
another dynasty that traced its origin from Gonder before the 15th century. This dynasty
called Mowa ruled the Yem until the late 19th century from its capital at Angari.
Like Kafa and Ennarya, the Yem state was hierarchically organised, and its key
institutions were broadly similar. At the top of the political hierarchy was the king called
tato or amno. He was a political and religious leader. Like Mikkerecho of Kafa, below the
king were his twelve councillors called astessors, led by waso. The council nominates the
king's successor made decisions on wars, foreign relations, and administration.
Like Kafa, the Yem were also influenced by Orthodox Christianity. According to a few
sources, it paid tribute to the Christian in horses. However, their relationship with the
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Christian kingdom seems to have been discontinued after the arrival of the Oromo to
the Gibe region. The Yem managed to repulse the Oromo in the Gibe region. However,
after the formation of the kingdom of Jimma Abba Jiffar, the pressure on the Yem was
intensified. Raids and counter raids between the two states would continue until the last
quarter of the 19th century.

Discuss the following questions in groups.
1. Compare and contrast the socio-economic and political organisations
of the kingdoms of Kafa and Yem.
2. What kind of relationship did the two states have with the highland
Christian kingdom, Ennarya and the Oromo monarchies?
• Omotic States and Peoples under Kawo/Kati system

Brainstorming
• What do you know about Kawo/Kati system?
The Omotic Sates of Wolaita, Gamo, Gofa, Dawuro and Konta, who live on both sides of
the Omo River, practice nearly similar political structures. The Wolaita live between the
Bilate river in the east and Omo River in the west. Omo Reiver separates them from the
Dawuro people. To the south of Wolaita, the Gamo people live in a mountainous terrain
known as the Gamo highlands. The first mention of the Wolaita and Gamo in written
records dates back to the fifteenth century.
The people of Wolaita, Gamo and Gofa were led by a hereditary king Kawo whereas the
Dawro and Konta people used to call Kati. The state of Wolaita might have also been
part of the kingdom of Damot since its connection with Damot was strong. The ruling
dynasty of Wolaita was known as Wolaita Malla. This dynasty had a strong tradition that
recognized Motalami as its first king. Wolaita was mentioned as one of the areas paying
tribute to the Christian king Yeshaq (r. 1413 - 1430). It might have also continued as part
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of the Christian empire up to the wars of Ahmad Ibrahim. The kings (kawos) Wolaita
belonged to the Wolaita Malla and Tigre-Mala dynasties. The beginning of the Wolaita
Malla was associated with the kingdom of Damot since the 13th century. Its king Motolami
was traditionally said to have been the founder of the Wolaita-Mala ruling family until the
Tigre-Mala replaced it in the late fifteenth century. The Tigre-Mala lasted in the late 19th
century.
According to tradition, the Dawuro state was established in the 16th century by an
immigrant clan called Kawuka. By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big
state of Dawuro. Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of Dawuro, Kati Erashu (r.
1719-1775) and Kati Halala (r. 1775-1835) were famous. The Dawuro administrative
hierarchy in ascending order includes Huduga, Abaliya, Danna, Guuda, Erasha, Woraba,
Bushasha and Kate. The khati of Konta controlled and supervised his subordinate officials
with the titles of Gana, Torancha, Woraba, Erasha, Guda, and Dana.
The Kawo of Gamo was distinct. The Gamo organised between 40 to 55 politically
autonomous units called dere. Each dere administered itself independently and had a
hereditary ruler, kawo. The dere assembly called duletha was the major administrative
body of the Gamo people. The assembly was made up of elected officials called halaka.
These representatives were the real administrators of the deres. They decided on all the
major decisions affecting the lives of the dere. The states of Wolaita, Gamo and Gofa had
tributary relations with the Christian kingdom until it was cut off following the movement
of the Oromo in the 16th century. However, they successfully resisted Oromo pressure. The
administration was hierarchical among the Oyda people, with ranks of officials bearing
honorific titles of Khati, Chamicha, Bitane and Erasha.
The Chamicha preserved peace and security, and even he would take the king's task in the
event of malpractice. The eldest son succeeds the khati upon his death or abdication. The
Zayse king belonged to the Zulessa clan. Subordinate to khati, there were seven public
administrators of equal power with the title of maga. Like the khati, the position of maga
was hereditary.
The realm of Gamo was divided into seven different kingdoms, each of which was ruled
by a king (kawo). The king delivered the most important verdicts, and his decisions were
binding. The king was the supreme head of the entire administrative apparatus with the
power to appoint and dismiss officials under him. These include Woraba, Erasha, Guda,
Gana, and Mochena (Mura). Likewise, the kawo, the subordinate officials, had the power
to appoint and dismiss junior officials under them.
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The highest authority over the socio-political structures of the Basketo, Maleh, Kara,
Zayise, Oyda, and Kore was a hereditary king called khati. There was a similarity
between the subordinate titles also. However, the duty of khati, procedure of his successions,
and subordinate officials' title vary from place to place. In Basketo, below the khati, the
administrative hierarchy comprised a series of subordinate officials with the titles such
as Dana, Guda, Bitena, Gudena and Chemach. In Maleh, in order of seniority, Goda,
Kagotoka, and Katoydka were officials answerable to the king. Being closest to khati, the
goda were the most powerful among the three. In addition to exercising administrative
duties, the Maleh's Khati believed to possess spiritual powers. The traditional Kara social
structure, below khati was Arti and Ghana, who also performed administrative and ritual
responsibilities.
The Omotic language family speaking people of Kore possessed a traditional
administration comprising a hierarchy of officials discharging duties appointed under the
elective system. At the zenith of the administrative hierarchy was the king called Khate.
Below the king officials were: Awajite, Daynena, Ushete, Tora Maga, Fizena and Mura, in
descending order of their importance.
Economically, the Omotic states and polities are agriculturalists. The enset was their
main crop. They cultivated crops like maize, taro and sorghum. They also raised
livestock. They had a complex relationship with one another. They fought wars over
territory and tribute. For instance, Wolaita began to expand its influence among the Omotic and
Cushitic peoples during their Tigre-Mala dynasty.
On the other hand, they traded with each other and also had extensive marriage
relationships. Land ownership is ordered according to three basic principles of social
organisation, i.e., kinship, polity and social status. There were also communal lands
allocated for grazing and social gatherings to which all members of the society except
artisans had equal access.
The Omotic states defended their boundaries by using fortifications are called Kella. For
example, the Wolaita's most famous fortification was Amado Kella. It was constructed
during Kawo Amado (r.1799-1834) thus named after his name. Similarly, in Dawuro, Kati
Halala is remembered for building stone fortifications which he oversaw to defend his
territories from outsiders. Therefore, it was named after him, the Kati Halala Kella.
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
1. Why did Kawo Amado and Kati Halala build a stone wall of
fortification.
2. Mention other societies in Ethiopia that followed similar methods to
defend their territories.
3. Use the internet or refer to other sources and write about the
socio-economic and political developments of Omotic states.
• Cushitic States and Peoples under Sera-Woma system

Brainstorming
• What do you know about Sera-Woma system?
Since the mid-16th century, several states emerged by the people who belong to the
“Highland East Cushitic” languages. These include: Hadiya, Kambata, Sidama,
Tambaro, Kabena, Halaba, Gedeo, Konso and Burji. Due to the relative freedom from the
domination of the three forces: the Christina Kingdom, the sultanate of Adal and the
Oromo Population movement, they all developed largely similar traditional political
structures.
For example, a web of relations has traditionally been ruled by the sera among these
peoples. Sera tradition is a set of local cultural norms regulating the communal social
structure. It may be seen as an unwritten law. It is not a codified body of rules but several
sets of norms. Hence, during the execution of sera, reference cannot be made to specific
articles. The entire implementation of sera is consultative and compromise-oriented that
influenced by circumstances as the elders see fit. In their traditional administrative system,
woma (king) is the height of authority.
The administrative system of the Hadiya was called Sera. Hadiya constituted one of
the important Muslim states during the 13th-16th centuries. In the 16th century, the wars
of Imam Ahmed and the Oromo population movement transformed the territorial,
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social and political landscape of Hadiya. During the wars of Imam Ahmed, the rulers of
Hadiya joined the Imam and remained active participants in the empire until the Imam’s
downfall. During the 17th century, Hadiya was confronted with the Christian kingdom. The
political and social transformation of the 16th and 17th centuries seems to have led to the
traditional administrative system called Sera. In Hadiya, the traditional administrative system
leadership position were all elected officers.
Among Hadiya equivalent to a king is named adila (garada). It is reported a term derived
from the Arabic word adil. The kings led the council of elders of their people.
Power transfer took place in ritual ceremonies, and it was hereditary. Each clan (Giicho)
administered itself independently without recognizing any higher authority. The clan
leaders continued to use the title of garad. The garad was not an absolute ruler or a king.
The people appointed him for his leadership qualities. He could also be an elected war
leader who had the title of gatanna or abegaz. The position was not hereditary.
The Kambata kingdom maintained the tradition of monarchy from king Anno to
king Dilbato. All of them were from Oyata clan. Mount Hambaricho, an important
symbolic significance for the Kambata, became a major ritual site and home to Kambata
leaders. Christian churches on Mount Hambaricho was not destroyed and religious objects
were concealled in caves during the wars of Ahmed ibn Ibrahim. The earliest clans were
believed to be seven in number and settled on Mount Hambaricho.
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Christianity was introduced to Kambata sometime in the 14th or 15th centuries. Before
introducing local administration, Kambata was governed by a prominent Christian
governor called Hamelmal of the Christian kingdom.
Figure 8.2 Mount Hambaricho, early socio- political center of Kambata
The woma of Halaba came from the Sidae clan. Likewise, the offices of kings of
Tambaro were from Molla clans. The office of the king appears not hereditary. For example, in
Sidama, power transfer took place in luwa ceremonies once every eight years. The Sidama
people comprise several sub-tribes ruled independently by their king, the woma, actually
a supreme judge.
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The woma of the different sub-tribes within the Sidama make up the woma-songo, the
assembly of sub-tribal kings or judges. In a way, it is the highest traditional authority.
The Qabena were ruled by a group of elected leaders, the woma. An administrative
council comprises 12 judges governing based on traditional and Islamic law. The woma
of Halaba chaired the council of clans called Ogate and presided over ritual ceremonies.
Further south, Gedeo and Konso political process varies from their contemporary Cushitic
states. Gadaa system was introduced in Gedeo after the period of Akumanoye. It was an
era when women succeeded one another in dynastic rule. It was reported to have been
dictatorial. The Gedeo Gadaa system comprised nine members council called yiea.
The Gadaa system announced power distribution and introduced egalitarian, democratic
values. The Gadaa system transferred power once every eight years. Among Konso's nine
clan leaders, poqala tuma possessed administrative and judicial authority.
One prominent unifying feature of these groups was their economies. They were farmers
belonging to the "enset-culture complex" and cattle herders. Enset was a crucial staple for
almost all of them except the Konso due to their environment. They, therefore, focused on
producing cereals crops. They have grains, the most important of which is sorghum and
millet.
The region receives low and erratic rainfall, making these crops ideal for such an
environment. Konso has also developed an intensive agriculture system through time.
They have terraced their hillsides with stones. This technological achievement has given
sustainability to Konso agriculture.
Enset edulis is mainly cultivated by different ethnic groups west of the Rift Valley,
except the Sidama, the Gedeo and the Amarro areas east of the Rift Valley. The enset plant
provides a large amount of carbohydrates, which means that a whole family gets its daily
requirement from a few plants. The Enset cultivation made the high density of population
possible.
The Enset can be stored for months, allowing planned storage. This diet, though, has to be
supplemented by-products from animal husbandry. In this way, the Enset cultivation and
the cattle breeding complemented each other.
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Enset food products have been used as a staple and/or co-staple food by the people
who inhabit the country’s southern, southwestern, and western parts. These regions are
among the most densely populated areas in Ethiopia. The markets became places for
communication across ethnic borders.
Figure 8.3 Enset plant in the garden (A) and its parts (B), (Source: ResearchGate)
Map 8.1 Enset-growing areas of southern and southwestern Ethiopia,

(source: ResearchGate.net)
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Although the Gurage are not a Cushitic language speaking population, their culture has
been strongly influenced by the Cushitic speaking population. They are also part of what
has been called the “enset-culture complex”, which is discussed above. The Gurage
chiefdoms were concentrated in the area west of Lake Dambal and the highlands of
Dawaro. The Gurage were mentioned in written sources for the first time in the 14th
century.
Gurage chiefdoms: Oral tradition suggests that they were descendants of Christian
settlers from Gura, Eritrea. They were led by a man called Azmach Sebehat. The Gurage
had been influenced culturally by the medieval Islamic and Christian Semitic culture. The
Gurage practice agriculture. Enset is their main staple crop.
Its local chiefs used the titles of Azmach, Abegaz and Nigus. The basic unit of
socio-political organisation was the clan assemblies. Local power is vested in lineages;
these descent groups display corporate rights, obligations, and influence. In contrast,
the religious or ritual system is highly centralised; ritual officials sanction the authority
of the political elders. Elected officials exercised political, social and legal power. This
distributed land administered justice and organised social events like funerals. This was
called the Yajoka Sera among the Sebat Bet, while among the Kistane, it was known as Ye
Gordana Sera.

1. What are the cultural and political significance of Mount Hambaricho
for the Kambata people?
2. Identify the main peoples and states in the southern and central Ethio-
pian region.
8.1.2 Western States

• describe the source of political power in the peoples and states in western
Ethiopia.
• explain the socio-economic and political structure of Nilotic peoples.
• value the historical, cultural and political values shared by different peoples of
Ethiopia.
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Brainstorming
• What do you know about the five Gibe Oromo states?
A. Oromo Monarchies: Gibe States

The Oromo had an egalitarian and republican socio-political organisation system known
as the Gadaa, which is based on age groups. As discussed earlier, the socio-political
organisation of the Oromo was based on the Gadaa system. However, following their
expansion in the Gibe and Wallaga regions, the system went under changes in the early
nineteenth century. In such a way, the Oromo gradually abandoned the Gadaa system and
began to form monarchial states in these regions.
The Oromo population movement and expansion brought about fundamental changes in
this part of the Ethiopian region. It put pressure on Damot, Gafat and Bizamo, causing the
local inhabitants to assimilate with the Oromo or flee north of Abay River.
Different views are held regarding the cause for the transformation of the Gadaa system.
One of the main factors was the changing of Oromos from a pastoral to agrarian mode
of life and the class differentiation that this brought about. The continuous wars that the
Oromo waged during their movement and expansion were another factor. The war tended
to strengthen the powers of the abba dula (the war-leader in the Gadaa system) at the
expense of the abba boku (head of the Oromo society).
They controlled land, markets and trade routes, and used much of the war booties to built
up their private armies. Finally, they were able to gain control over their respective clans
and regions and began to assume the title of moti, meaning king.
This evolution towards monarchical power was manifested in two regions. The first was
in the area of the Gibe River, hence they were named Gibe monarchies. This process
occurred first in the Gibe region in the early nineteenth century, where five small Oromo
states Limmu-Ennarya, Jimma, Gumma, Gomma and Gera emerged. The same process
was repeated in Wallaga later in that century, where Leqa Naqamte and Leqa Qellem were
formed.
Limmu Ennarya was the earliest Gibe state. Its center was Saqqa. This state was
established on the territories of the older state of Ennarya. Its strategic location in the
region enabled it to control the long-distance trade routes that linked the region with the
north. As a result, it became the strongest state in the region during the first half of the
nineteenth century. The strongest ruler of Limmu Ennarya was Abba Bagibo, or Ibsa (r.
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1825-1861), which marked the peak of Limmu-Ennarya's ascendancy
Figure 8.4 Abba Bagibo, the Leader of Limu Ennariya (Adopted from Short
History of Ethiopia, Baharu Zawude)
The second Gibe state was Jimma. It was stronger than Limmu-Ennarya and other Gibe
states since the middle of the nineteenth century. It became popular under Sanna or
Abba Jifar I (r. 1830-1855). Jimma named after its founder Abba Jifar I. It emerged in
southwestern Ethiopia in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The state of Jimma
depended on the ideological support of Islam and the commercial prosperity from coffee
and slave trade. Jimma's success resulted in its supremacy in the second half of the 19th
century.
Figure 8.5 Palaces of Abba Jifar of Jimma
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The state of Gumma emerged in the first decade of the nineteenth century. It became an
important state in 1820. Its political importance grew up under its strong ruler, Oncho
Jilcha. He involved Gomma in successive wars against the neighbouring states. Gomma
was the earliest Gibe state to accept Islam. On the other hand, Gera became well known
around 1835 during its strongest ruler, Tullu Gunji, a popular warrior king and a good
administrator. It was in great conflict with the state of Gumma.
A distinctive feature of the Gibe states was their conversion from indigenous religions to
Islam in the first half of the nineteenth century.
B. Oromo Monarchies: Leqa States
Besides the Gibe states, there were two main centres of monarchical power in Wallaga in
the early nineteenth century. These were the states of Leqa Naqamte and Leqa Qellem.
A leader called Bakare Godana established the state of Leqa Naqamte, which grew even
more powerful under his successors Moroda and Kumsa Moroda. After his conversion to
Christianity, his successors, Moroda and Kumsa (later Dejazmach Gabra – Egziabher),
followed in his footsteps and consolidated Leqa Naqamte.
Figure 8.6 Kumsa Moreda (left) and his Palace at Naqamte (right)
In southwestern Wallaga, Leqa Qellem was founded by one of the Qellem chiefs, Tullu.
His son and successor, Jote, consolidated it in the second half of the nineteenth century.
Besides agriculture, the economy of Leqa states was based on the Ethio - Sudanese fron-
tier trade. Some foreign merchants from Funj Sultanate of Sudan used to visit these two
Leqa states. Jote Tullu’s kingdom was in constant interaction, both hostile and peaceful,
with the sheikhdoms of Asosa.

1. What were the economic sources of Leqa Qellem?
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C. Sheikdoms and Peoples of Beni-Shangul Gumuz.

Sheikdoms and Peoples of Beni-Shangul Gumuz inhabited the narrow lowland strip
along the Ethio- Sudanese border in the west. These peoples are mainly speakers of the
Nilo- Saharan language family. This area was a gold-producing region since Punt and
commonly identified as the Silent Commerce, probably due to language barriers between
merchants. Gumuz society practiced shifting cultivation as chief subsistence strategies on
a small scale in the pre-19th century. The Gumuz used slash-and-burn agriculture not only
as a system of farming but also as a natural resource management system. Slash-and-burn
agriculture has a long history that appeared during the Neolithic period and gradually
expanded into different parts of the world. The Gumuz farmers also identified the fertility
of the soil by observing the color of soil and its drainage capacity.
The Gumuz had a positive attitude towards the forests in their surroundings. The
Gumuz natural resource management was tied to their belief system; they believed that
natural resources are the best gifts of Yama (supreme deity). Moreover, they had
indigenous knowledge on how to manage their natural resources.
The Gumuz used fire as an essential tool for hunting, providing new vegetation growth
for their herds and diminishing the ravages of the tsetse fly. The Gumuz sow sorghum on
the first virgin plot prepared through clearing. They sow millet and sorghum again for the
second round on the same plot. For the third round, they sow cotton based on a peasant's
need. Gumuz do not cultivate a single plot more than three times. Thus, after the third
round of cultivation, this plot is left to become fallow for the regeneration of the forest.
The Shinasha were one of the groups of Gonga people who established a powerful
kingdom in southwestern Ethiopia before the 16th century.
However, demographic and political pressures since the 16th century pushed them further
to the west to the territories they occupied at present. In addition, the 16th century Oromo
expansion weakened and divided the Gonga kingdom into different groups. The southern
group was represented by the Kafa people, while the Shinasha people represented the
northern group. The Gonga people lived along the sides of the Blue Nile, extending up to
the Ethiopian escarpment long before the reign of Susenyos (1607-1632).
Shifting cultivation was one of the subsistence strategies of Shinasha, Gumuz and
Benishangul. The Shinasha shifting cultivation was based on cooperative labour work
coordinated and led by a community leader known as Dawa Nasho. Shinasha followed
a similar shifting plot and crop rotation pattern with the Gumuz. After third round
cultivation on a single plot, they left fallow. The other subsistence strategy of the Shinasha
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people was cattle herding. Their knowledge of traditional medicine enabled them at least
to restrict widespread cattle diseases in their locality. Thus, they possess large numbers of
cattle.
Shinasha's social and cultural institutions gave special value to the preservation of
forests. Cutting trees from such reserved forests was forbidden in Shinasha culture. Hence,
Shinasha had cultures that suited the physical environment. They had the traditions of
preserving their local environment.
The Benishangul people live in Benishangul Gumuz along the border of Ethiopia and
Sudan. The Benishangul people are mixed farmers involved in livestock raising, trade,
beekeeping, and coffee cultivation. Their staple food is sorghum.
The people of Benishangul Gumuz had organised their local administrative system. Based
on their kinship lines, they were led by their own chiefs and local elderly councils. The
people of Benishangul Gumuz were indigenous religious followers in the early period.
Islam was introduced as a result of frontier trade and cultural relations with Sudanese.
However, the southwestern remained of paramount economic importance to the central
highland. The people of Benishangul Gumuz used a unique musical instrument known as
Zumbara.
Figure 8.7 Zumbara: Musical Instrument
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People in Benishangul Gumuz were the main agents of frontier trade and cultural
relations between the Ethiopian interior and its neighbours due to continuous interactions
between the local Benishangul-Gumuz and the Arabic-speaking merchants. The Muslim
states of Asosa, Benishangul and Khomosha were formed Benishangul Gumuz. Because
of the immense gold deposits of the region, Sheikhdoms became targets for Egyptians
in the 1820s and Sudanese-Mahdist penetration in 1880s. Nevertheless, the Sheikhdoms
defended their independence and the territory of Ethiopia as well.

1. Describe the type of interactions between the peoples along the
Ethio-Sudanese border.
D. Local Chiefs of Gambella peoples

Brainstorming
• What do you know about the local chiefs of Gambella?
The people in Gambella include Anywaa, Nuer, Majang, Komo and Opuo. The history
of Gambella peoples was influenced by broad regional developments. The socio-political
organisation of the different populations of Gambella was characterized by the absence of
a strong centralized state structure. For example, the political organisation of the Anywaa
was centered in their villages. Villages were administered by either noble called nyieye
or headmen known as kuaari. The primary responsibility of both these officials was to
maintain peace and redistribute wealth. The Majang traditionally had a very egalitarian
society. The traditional leaders of the Majang were called tapad, who come from the
Melanir clan. Their position, however, was more religious than political. They provided
ritual services.
They lived along the banks of rivers by cultivating the floodplains. They grew maize,
tobacco, sorghum, among others and engaged in some hunting. Fishing and gathering
were also important sources of livelihood. Trade was another factor that connected the
peoples of Gambella with their neighbours. For example, before the 1850s, different kinds
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of manufactured goods from Northern Sudan passed through Benishangul land and thence
to the Oromo territories. It seems that some of these goods were taken into South Sudan.
Such trade
8.1.3 helped introduce
Eastern new goods
States: Harar, and ideas
Afar, Somaliacross this vast region.
• describe the source of political power in the peoples and states in eastern
Ethiopia.
• value the historical, cultural and political values shared by different peoples of
Ethiopia.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about Harar and Aussa?
Harar
As discussed earlier, in 1332, Ifat was defeated by the Christian kingdom and lost its
independence. As a result, some members of the ruling family of Ifat retreated farther to
Harar and established the Sultanate of Adal around 1380. As a result, Harar served as a
political center of the Sultanate of Adal up to the sixteenth century.
The Sultanate of Adal was reduced to the walled town of Harar as the result of the Oromo
expansion. After the death of Imam Ahmed, the Muslims of Adal were reorganised under
Emir Nur Mujahid. The Emir launched an offensive war against the Christian kingdom.
In 1559 Nur Mujahid defeated and killed Gelawdewos in the Awash valley. However, he
could not continue with his victory over the Christian forces because the Oromo forces
had already reached the Harar area at the time. So, he returned to Adal to defend it from
falling to the Oromo. However, since most of Harar was occupied by the Oromo, he
just built a wall around the town of Harar, which is known as the Jegol wall. The walls
surrounding this city, considered “the fourth holy city” of Islam, were built between the
13th and 16th centuries and served as a protective barrier.
Following the Oromo movement and expansion, the Walasma rulers abandoned it and
moved to Aussa. Then, the emirate of Harar was established under a local Harari dynasty
in the middle of the seventeenth century. The founder of this dynasty was Emir Ali Ibn
Dawd (r. 1647-1662). Harar functioned as the capital of the Harari emirate from 1520 to
1568 became an independent emirate in the 17th century.
The Emirate of Harar continued to serve as a strong center of Islamic culture and political
power. It controlled the rich trade routes from the Gulf of Aden and the coastal areas of the
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Indian Ocean. From the late 16th century to the 19th century, Harar was an important trade
centre between the coast and the interior highlands and a location for Islamic learning.
Harar has existed as a center of Islamic studies since the fourteenth century.
Harar consolidated its power over the neighbouring communities, mainly through Islam
and marriage alliances. Starting from 1875, the Egyptians occupied Harar for about a
decade. The local Harari, Emir Abdullahi, revived the Harari dynasty in the second half
of the 19th century. Harar was finally incorporated into Meneliks Empire in 1887 after the
battle Chelanqo.
Figure 8.8 Harar wall (Jegol) and the main gate of Harar City
(source: UNESCO site)
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Afar (Aussa, Bidu, Gobaad, Tajura and Rahayito)

Since ancient times the Afar people have resided principally in the Horn of Africa in the
region referred to as the “Afar Triangle”. The “Afar Triangle” includes Ethiopia, Eritrea
and Djibouti. The land inhabited by the Afar in the Horn region is known as the cradle
of human beings. It also has abundant natural resources. Geo-political features of the
Afar land further magnify its strategic importance. The Afar land is one of the sites of
archaeological studies in human history. Afar people are predominantly Muslims.
The ancestors of the Afar settled in farmland in the Ethiopian highlands and primarily
raised livestock. Later, they began a gradual transition to a more pastoral lifestyle and
moved to the area they currently occupy. The Afar people used the ports of Adulis, Zula,
Obok and Tajura for trade. The commercial relations between the Afar and the interior
part of Ethiopia date back to the early Christian era. Since time immemorial, the Afar land
provided Ethiopia with a bulk of salt supplies. The rock salt (called amole) was used for
various purposes. It also served as currency for a long period of time.
Figure 8.9 The Afar Amole Production and Caravan Trade
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Historically, the territory occupied by the Afar was organised into sultanates and
semi-independent regions ruled by sultans. In each sultanate, the group's unique
culture and customs flourished. Traditionally each sultanate was made up of several
villages. In the early 14th century, however, the kings of the Christian kingdom associated
the Afar with the medieval Adal Sultanate. However, the “Afar Triangle” maintained a
confederation of sultanates. Among these were the Sultanate of Aussa, Sultanate of Bidu,
Sultanate of Tadjoura, Sultanate of Rahaito, and Sultanate of Goobad.
Aussa was ruled by the local Afar chiefs who had the title of Sultan. Later, the Walasma
rulers of Adal ruled Aussa after they had left Harar in 1577. In 1577, the Adal leader Imam
Muhammed Ga’as (r. 1573-1583), moved his capital from Harar to Aussa in Afar. In
1647, the rulers of the Emirate of Harar broke away to form their polity. However, Harari
Imams continued to have a presence in the southern Afar. Aussa occupied relatively larger
territorial limits than other sultanates in Afar.
The Aussa was weakened after a century. In 1734 sultan Kadafo Hanfarie Aydahis
(1733-1790) of the Mudaito clan established the Mudaito sultanate. The Mudaito clan
ruled the sultanate of Aussa consequently for 241 years from Sultan Kadafo Hanfarie
Aydahis to Sultan Ali Mirah II (1944-1974). The sultanate of Bidu held the second level
to Aussa in military power. The Sultanate of Rahaito is the oldest in the region. Although
it was the smallest in territorial limits, the Sultanate of Tadjourah exceeded all sultanates
in Afar in terms of urban features.
The Afar people had an independent traditional political system. Each Afar sultan was
the religious and political leader of his clan. They had overall control of trade activities
and imposed tax on caravans. The Afar successively resisted the persistent intrusions by
neighbouring highlanders. This shows that there had been long-lasting rivalry between
the Afar sultanates and the Christian highland kingdom for economic resources and
socio-political hegemony.
Externally, its location on the coast exposed it to attacks from foreigners such as Ottoman
Turks, Egypt, and French. Throughout history, the Afar people have strongly resisted
domination by others, and this tradition continues into the 21st century. They did not let
foreigners in, and thus, no European crossed their territory without claiming the right
of hospitality. For example, they ambushed the Egyptian army led by a Swiss Werner
Muzinger in 1875 into the sands of Afar.
The Somali
The Somali people have inhabited vast territory in the Horn. The Somali language
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belongs to the Eastern Lowland Cushitic language family. The majority of the Somalis
were pastoralists, while others settled agricultural communities and traders. There are
several Somali clans in Ethiopia. Darod, Isaaq, Gadaabuursi, Issa, Massare, Degodia and
Jidle, and Karanle Hawiye are some of the clans.
The Somali indigenous governing structure was a council of elders known as Shir, which
had the power to decide criminal and civil cases. The decision-making process was
highly democratic in that all adult males were allowed equal access and participation. These
councils at the sub-clan, clan and inter-clan level provided a governing structure that acted
as enforcement of law and justice. The council governed wide-ranging affairs, including
resource allocation, marriage, trade, and crime. As a component of shir, the guurti (a
council of elders) was the highest political council mandated to resolve conflicts and crisis.

1. Describe the type of relationship that existed between Harar and Aussa.
2. To which linguistic family does the Harari people’s language belong?
8.2 Gondarine Period

• describe the major features and achievements of the Gondarine period.
• appreciate the achievements of the Gondarine period.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about Gondar?
The Gondar period refers to the years during which the rulers of the highland
Christian Kingdom ruled from a new capital called Gondar. Beginning from the mid-sixteenth
century, the Kingdom gradually shifted its political center from the Shewan highlands to
the Lake Tana region. The shift was caused by Adal’s continued threat and the pressure of
the Oromo population movement. After the death of Gelawdows in 1559, Minas (r.1559-
63), brother and successor of Gelawdewos, retreated to the lands north of the Abay River.
However, his successors continued to live in mobile capitals. Denqez, Gorgora, Azezo,
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Dembiya, and Qoga in Gojjam and Begemidir were sites where this mobile capital rested
at different times.
Gondar was founded by Fasiladas around 1636. Gondar was strategically located on the
long-distance trade route linking southwestern regions with Massawa on the Red Sea
and Mettema on the Ethio-Sudanese border. Its establishment as a permanent capital city
ended the tradition of ruling from temporary camps. Gondar continued to serve as a
political center for the next two centuries.
Figure 8.10 The Fasiledas Castel
Gondar became known for its architectural achievements and building technology.
Several kings who ruled from Gondar built magnificent castles as palaces. In addition,
churches, bridges and swimming pools were constructed. Notably, during the reigns
of its three successive kings: Fasiladas (r. 1632- 1667), Yohanes I (r. 1667- 1682) and
Iyasu I (1682-1706), Gondar attained great prosperity and technological developments.
The city grew, and traditional schools of learning were built and expanded around their
palaces and Churches. These three Gondarine rulers were also politically stronger than their
successors.
Gondar developed certain urban features very soon. It had about 70,000 inhabitants.
Its population was composed of different religious, cultural, indigenous and foreign
communities. Gondar became an important commercial center with a daily market
attracting merchants, crafts and rural people to exchange their respective products. This
led to intense urban-rural interactions. Traders were mostly Ethiopian Muslims, known as
the Jeberti. However, there were also other occupational groups like the Bete Israel. They
were engaged in craft activities such as masonry, pottery, basketry and ironworks. There
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were separate living quarters for the Muslim communities, for the Bete Israel and also
for some foreign communities from India, Greek, Armenia and Persia. Cash payment for
labour services was also introduced.
The ruling class enjoyed luxurious life and lived in their beautiful palaces and castles.
They took advantage of Gondar's commercial and urban prosperity. However, it was only
during the reigns of the first three kings that Gondar led a life of glory. Later on, Gondar
declined as an important political center and economic prosperity. Political disorder and
social unrest became common in the city. Court intrigues became common, accompanied
by poisoning and assassinations of kings and princes. The Gondarine monarchy could
not keep its former political power. This was partly because of its military weakness.
Finally, they were unable to impose control over regional lords and provinces.
Following the assassination of Iyasu I in 1706, the imperial court itself had to be guarded by
powerful warlords with regional bases. The period led to the strengthening of warlords of
different regions with little or no control from the weakening centre.
The last stage of the Gondarine period was dominated by the growing power and
importance of a Quara born woman called Itege Mentewab. She was the wife of Emperor
Bakafa (r. 1721-30). Soon after the death of Bakafa, she began to rule over the kingdom as
a regent for her young son and the successor of Bakafa, Iyasu II (r.1730-55). Until he died
in 1767, she was Supported by her strong brother, Welde Leul, on whom she bestowed
the prestigious title of Ras Bitweded. The warlords were contending for the title of Ras
Bitweded and position during the whole period of the Zemene Mesafint. Mentewab lost
power in 1769 to the Tigrean warlord Ras Michael Sehul. Michal Sehul came to Gondar,
killed the reigning king, Iyoas (1755-1769), and took over the title of Ras Bitweded.
Gondar also suffered from internal splits within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. In
addition, the clergy were engaged in conflicts over religious principles or doctrines that
also had a regional character. The combination of political and religious disputes finally
led to the period of the Zemene Mesafint or the Era of warlords.

1. Who was Mentewab? By asking local elders or exploring internet,
discuss the political role of Mentewab. Also discuss the role women
have in political affairs among your society.
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8.3 The Zemene Mesafint (The Era of Warlords)

• identify the main features of the Zemene Mesafint.
• locate using a map a competing region for political upper hand during Zemene
Mesafint.
• value the historical, cultural and political standards shared by different peoples
of Ethiopia.
Brainstorming
• What does Zemene Mesafint mean for you?
From 1767 to 1769, there was a power struggle in Gondar between groups of Wollo and
Quara political factions. Wollo was represented by Wabi, the wife of Iyassu II and mother
of the young monarch, Iyoas (r. 1755-1769). Quara, on the other hand, was represented by
her mother in - law, Itege Mentewab, who then controlled state power in the name of her
grandson, Iyoas. This rivalry took place following the death of Ras Bitweded Welde Leul
in 1767. Mentewab had given a power base to the Wallo Oromo by arranging a political
marriage between her son Iyassu II and Wabi, from the Wollo Oromo family. In addition,
she intended to secure their military support to consolidate her power in the Gondarine
state. After that, however, the Wollo Oromo gradually began to enjoy a leading political
role and influence.
The conflict between Quara and the Wollo Oromo factions created political disorder
around the capital. This endangered Mentewab's power. She was thus forced to look for
any strong personality who could help her control the situation.
The most powerful candidate in 1768 was Ras Michael Sehul of Tigrai. He had a big army
and more modern firearms due to his access to foreign trade through the Red Sea. Michael
Sehul was invited to Gondar by Mentewab and soon restored peace and order in the city.
He was awarded the highest title of Ras Bitweded. When king Iyoas ordered him to go
back to Tigrai, Michael felt strong and refused to obey the king's order. He assassinated
King Iyoas in 1769. This event marked the beginning of a new era in which powerful
regional warlords undermined the monarchy's power.
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Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when the actual position of political power was
in the hands of different regional lords. The period from1769 when Ras Michael Sehul
"assassinated" king Iyoas to 1855 when Kasa Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.
Ras Michael, a kingmaker during the period, took strong measures against the nobility.
A coalition of lords of Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo defeated him at the battle of
Sarba-Kussa in 1771 and forced him to go back to his power base in Tigrai. He ruled over
Tigray for the next nine years until his death in 1780. After the defeat of Michael Sehul,
chaos and disorder continued until the coming to power of Ali Gwangul (Ali I) from the
Yejju Oromo family. Ali founded a new ruling dynasty known as the Yejju dynasty or the
Warra Sheh in 1786.
Under the reigns of his successors, there was relative stability, but several regional lords
evolved. The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were Tigray, Semen,
Debye, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa. This era is commonly known
in Ethiopian history as the Zemene Mesafint (1769 – 1855).
The different regionally based northern Ethiopian warlords of the Zemene Mesafint fought
against each other for various objectives:
• They wanted to expand their territories at the expense of their neighbours because
large territory means enormous human and material resources.
• They wanted to have the title of Ras Bitweded to become guardians of the weak
Gondarine kings and their court.
• They wanted to collect as much tribute as possible in the name of these weak kings.
Religious conflicts worsened the regional power conflicts of the Zemene Mesafint. There
was an intense doctrinal controversy within the Orthodox Church during the period.
This weakened the position of both the Ethiopian state and the Church. The Orthodox
Church could not enforce unity among the Christian masses because it was deeply divided
into different factions within itself. The divisions took a regional character. The internal
religious division gave an ideological dimension to the power conflict and further
intensified the power struggle of the Zemene Mesafint.
The endless wars of the Zemene Mesafint affected the social and economic life of the
peasantry. The peasants suffered from frequent wars. The peasants were forced to feed the
enormous armies of the local and regional lords. The many shiftas (bandits) also forced
the peasant to supply them food. Therefore, the various dependents discouraged the
peasantry from working hard and producing surplus production. Moreover, the farmlands
of the peasantry often became battlefields, and their villages were burnt down. Therefore,
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agriculture which formed the backbone of the peasant economy, was depressed in the
period of the Zemene Mesafint.
The continuous wars of the Zemene Mesafint also affected the development of trade.
Merchants could not travel peacefully along the long-distance trade routes due to endless
wars and robbery. Moreover, they were forced to pay heavy taxes at the different warlords'
gates (tax stations). The most important trade items during the Zemene Mesafint were
natural products such as ivory, gold, and civet. Enslaved people formed an important
element of trading items. As a result of feudal wars, war captives increased the supply of
enslaved people who were in high demand in Arabia.
By and large, the continuous wars of the Zemene Mesafint had undermined the sense of
nationalism. It was a period of weak national feeling and national power.

1. Identify the basic features of the Zemene Mesafint.
8.4 The Yejju Dynasty

• identify the main characteristic features of the Yejju Dynasty.
• locate in a map regions that were competing for political upper hand during
Yejju Dynasty.
• value the historical, cultural and political standards shared by different peoples
of Ethiopia.
Brainstorming
• What do know about Yejju Dynasty?
After the defeat of Michael Sehul, chaos and disorder continued until the coming to
power of Ali Gwangul (Ali I) from the Yejju Oromo family. Ali founded a new ruling
dynasty known as the Yejju dynasty or the Warra Sheh in 1786. This dynasty dominated the
politics of northern Ethiopia in the name of the puppet kings of Gonder until the middle
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of the nineteenth century. During this period of Yejju rule, the most important centers
of political power were the territories of the present-day Gojjam, Gondar, Tigrai and
Wollo. When compared to each other, the “Yejju dynasty” was the leading power during
the Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debre- Tabor. Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was
considered the founder of the “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
The Yejju dynasty strengthened its power during its strongest ruler Ras Gugsa (1803-
1825). The two successive Tigrian rulers, Ras Walda Sellase of Indarta (r. 1790 -
1816) and Dejjazmach Sabagadis (r. 1822-1831), resisted Gugsa's power in the north.
Nevertheless, he tried to neutralize them through marriage relations and diplomacy.
Moreover, Gugsa's military and diplomatic skills helped him exercise his power over
the lords of Gojjam, Wollo, Lasta, Semen, Wagara and Dambya. Following the death of
Gugsa in 1825, the Yejju dynasty met strong challenges from Semen and Tigrai.
Semen was defeated by Gugsa's son and successor, Ras Yemam (1825-1828). Ras Marye
succeeded Yemam in 1828.
However, Dajjach Sabagadis of Tigrai decided to end the Yejju political domination. This
led to the battle in 1831 of May-Aslamay, near Dabra Abay, in western Tigrai. The two
rivals, Ras Marye and Deijjazmach Sabagadis were killed in this battle, but the final
victory went to the Yejju dynasty. The ruler of Semen, Dejiazmach Wube, was rewarded
Tigrai for his contribution siding with the Yejju lords during the battle of May-Aslamay.
However, the Yejju political dominance over northern Ethiopia continued for the next two
decades under Ras Ali Alula or Ali II (r. 1831-1853).
Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825), who made an incessant
struggle against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of
Agame. In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of
Simen. Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827. The period of
zemene mesafint was brought to an end by Kasa Hailu of Qwara through battles that lasted
from the 1840s to 1855.

1. Who was the founder of Yejju dynasty?
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8.5 The Kingdom of Shewa

• describe the historical developments in Shewan region before 1696.
• explain the advantages of Shewan isolation from the wars of the Zemene Me-
safint.
Brainstorming
• Who was Sahle Sellase?
As already indicated in unit three, the central highlands of the present-day Shewa
had been the political center of the Christian Kingdom. However, the Christian State
shifted its capital to the Lake Tana area as a result of the pressure from Adal and the
subsequent Oromo expansion of the sixteenth century. Some strong Gondarine rulers,
including Iyassu I (r.1682-1706), tried to control Shewa. To this end, they sent military
expeditionsto Shewa. However, Shewa gradually detached itself from the newly founded
centre ofthe Christian State. During this period of isolation, Shewa was disunited, and
several local chiefs emerged in various parts of the region.
Nevertheless, the Shewan kingdom emerged in the area of Manz around the end of the
seventeenth century or early eighteenth century. The founder of this Kingdom was a
local chief known as Negasi. During the Zemene Mesafint, by safely isolating themselves
from the wars in northern Ethiopia, successive rulers began to consolidate the Shewan
kingdom with their centre at Ankober. The Kingdom reached its heyday under King Sahle
Sellase (r.1813-47). Sahle Sellase had brought several regions under Shewan's control and
maintained law and order in the Kingdom. This stability enabled several foreign
travellers to come to visit Shewa. This helped Sahle Sellase to establish independent foreign
relations with Britain and France.

1. Explain the role of Shewa kingdom in Ethiopian politics during Zemene
Mesafint.
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Unit Summary

After the decline of the Christian Kingdom, many groups of people from
southern, western, eastern and central Ethiopia developed their
independent local states. From the mid-16th to the mid-19th centuries, political
power was decentralised. In the period, independent polities flourished in western,
southern and eastern Ethiopia. From the mid-16th to the mid-19th centuries,
various economic, political, and social processes were organised.
In the central, western, eastern and southern Ethiopian regions existed many
states and communities at different stages of socio-economic and political
developments. The political organisation of these states was monarchical, while
that of the several peoples and communities was based on their traditional
political systems. However, the Christian kingdom and the states and peoples
in the rest of the Ethiopian regions maintained strong economic relationships
throughout this period.
From the defeat it faced in the hands of the Sultanate of Adal, the Christian
highland kingdom began to recover. Nevertheless, its efforts at revival were
disturbed later on by elements of regional power struggle. This period of
regionalism was called the Zemene Mesafent (period of regional warlords). The
arrival of the Jesuit missionaries followed the Portuguese military assistance to
the Christian kingdom in 1541.
The main objective of the Jesuits was to convert Christian Ethiopia into the
Catholic faith. However, this failed in the early seventeenth century, when these
missionaries were expelled. This event was followed by the foundation of a
permanent capital city at Gondar in 1636, which became a historical event of
great importance.
Gondar experienced the construction of permanent structures like palaces and
Churches, the growth of trade, the introduction of cash payment for services
and many other urban elements. Since the beginning of the eighteenth century,
however, Gondar declined. This was partly due to the political anarchy in
northern Ethiopia, culminating during the Zemene Mesafint and doctrinal
controversies within the Orthodox Church.
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Part I: Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.
❓
1. The Ethiopian king who declared Catholicism as the official religion of the country
was:
A. Fasilades C. Gelawdewos
B. Susenyos D. Lebene Dengel
2. Which of the following region did not engage in the wars of the Zemene Mesafint?
A. Showa B. Gondar C. Tigrai D. Gojjam
3. The official title of the king of Wolaita was:
A. Moti B. Kawo C. Tato D. Negus
4. Which of the following was not the Oromo state?
A. Jimma C. Komosha
B. Limu-Enariya D. Gera
5. The Emirate of Harar was established by:
A. the Afar chief C. Ali ibn Dawd
B. Nur Mujahid D. Emir Abdullahi
Par II: Match the items under column A with names under B
A B
1. Title of Oromo kings A. Kumsa Moroda
2. The kings of Kambata, Halaba called B. Jesuits
3. Ruler of Leqa Naqemte C. Woma
4. Ethiopian Muslim merchants D. Moti
5. Catholic missionaries E. Jeberti
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9
Unit
THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS 1750S TO 1815
Unit Introduction
This unit intends to acquaint you are illustrated with examples

with the Age of Revolutions, the and images to facilitate your
1750s to 1815. The lessons in this learning and make it interesting
unit cover Industrial Capitalism in to you. The unit closes with a
Europe, the French Revolution, the summary of the main points of each
Napoleonic Era and the lesson, followed by review questions
American war of Independence. that enable you to measure your
Major points and arguments achievements all through the unit.

• evaluate the major changes that took place during the Modern Europe.
• describe the causes and consequences of the French Revolution and American
War of Independence.
• discuss the contribution of the Industrial Revolution to humankind.
🔑
•
Key Terms
Enlightenment
• Napoleonic Era
• Capitalism
• Revolution
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Unit 9 The Age of Revolutions 1750s to 1815
9.1 Industrial Capitalism in Europe

• identify factors that led to the consolidation of capitalism in Modern Europe.
• describe the main political, economic and social consequences of the industrial
revolution.
• appreciate political, economic, and social effects of the Industrial Revolution.
Brainstorming
• What does capitalism mean?
9.1.1 Political, Economic and Social Effects of Industrial Revolu

tion
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the late 1700s but slowly spread
across the globe. The Industrial Revolution was new manufacturing processes in Europe
and the United States that took place between the 18th and the 19th centuries. Before the
Industrial Revolution, the economic needs of the society were met through the farming
and production of simple handmade articles.
During the Industrial Revolution, manufacturing rapidly changed from mainly hand
production to the use of machinery. This transition from old modes of production to new
technologically driven production brought drastic changes in the European way of life.
Making cloth moved from homes to large factories. Britain also had plenty of coal and
iron, which was essential to power and produced machine for the factories.
The consolidation of capitalism in Europe was an outcome of change in producing cloth,
iron, steel, and other manufactured goods. It was essentially the replacement of manual
works by the new machine that made the large-scale production of goods possible.
Capitalism emerged in the 16th to 17th centuries in Northwestern Europe, especially in
Great Britain. Industrial capitalism is a mode of production consisting of large, centrally
controlled accumulations of capital that is used to finance production of commodities.
One of the biggest factors contributing to the rise of industrial capitalism was technology.
Characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, a price
system, private property and the recognition of property rights, voluntary exchange and
wage labour. In addition, there were new technologies that helped business: the telephone
to coordinate transactions over long distances, the typewriter to speed up record-keeping,
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and electricity which made it possible to work safely after dark.

The ethos of industrial capitalism also began to challenge mercantilist doctrines of
trade barriers and protective monopolies, and by the mid-19th century, Britain had fully
embraced laissez-faire economy. Liberalism and competition in trade and the development
of a free-market economy are now capitalism’s main political and economic philosophies.
By the 19th century, Britain was seen (and saw herself) as the world's workshop. However,
the driving forces of industrial capitalism, comparable to those experienced in the Britain,
also impacted landscapes in other parts of Europe and North America.
Figure 9.1 The first steam locomotive
Steam engine technology underpinned the invention in the early 19th century of
steam-powered locomotive engines and the development of railways. Railways made
possible the integration of vast continental spaces politically, culturally, and
economically. For example, the British began to build railways in India in the 1850s. In
North America, the first transcontinental railroad opened in 1869. As a result, the transport
costs of raw materials and finished products were significantly reduced, new sources of
supply became accessible, and new markets were opened.
Politically, industrialization had effects on the political structure due to the increase
of power of the industries that would later become monopolies. The mechanization of
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labour caused the displacement of thousands of labourers. The rise of industrial capitalism
throughout the nineteenth century went hand in hand with the rise of strikes and other
forms of labour protests.
Socially, Industrial Revolution drastically changed the social life of Europe and the world.
This change was evident in the growth of cities and the emergence of two new social
classes: the bourgeoisie and proletariat. The bourgeoisie owned the factory, machine in
its raw materials and the finished goods. The proletariats sold their labour for money
wages. They were poorly paid under strict work discipline and faced unemployment. Living
conditions were changed along with the emergence of class differences. Children
represented a cheap supply of labour.
Economically, the Industrial Revolution transformed agriculture and handicrafts
economies to large-scale industry, mechanized manufacturing, and the factory system.
This transformation resulted in increase in wealth, production of goods and standard of
living. In addition, people had access to healthier diets, better housing, better education,
and cheaper goods.
Industrial Revolution had also many negative effects. Among those were:
• environmental degradation,
• poor sanitation,
• spread of diseases,
• pollution,
• poor working conditions and low wage,
• child labor.

1. Write about the effects of the industrial capitalism.
9.2 French Revolution

• point out and explain the causes, course, and consequences of the French
Revolution.
• examine the causes, course, and consequences of the French revolution.
191
Brainstorming
• What do you know about the French revolution?
The French Revolution was a period of major social upheaval that began in 1787 and
ended in 1799. The Revolution lasted for ten years. It began on July 14, 1789, when
revolutionaries stormed a prison called the Bastille. The Revolution ended in 1799 when
a general named Napoleon overthrew the revolutionary government and established the
French Consulate (with Napoleon as leader).
Figure 9.2 The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789,

(source: Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Before the 18th century, France was a feudal nation whose society was highly oppressed.
This feudal oppression created revolutionary situations in the late eighteenth century. As
a result, the French Revolution broke out in 1789. There were three main reasons for the
outbreak of the Revolution.
• The French monarchy was bankrupt, and the autocratic kings were inefficient.
• The influence of the French philosophers stimulated the French society against
feudal oppression and its political, economic and social injustices.
• The French people were highly influenced than any other societies in Europe by
the English bourgeois Revolution and the American War of Independence.
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Before the Revolution, the French society was divided into three Estates.
• The First Estate included the royal family and the clergy.
• The Second Estate consisted of the French nobility.
• The Third Estate formed the largest section of French society.
Both the First and the Second Estates owned vast lands. They also had special
socio-economic and political privileges. They were free from government taxation. The
peasants and the bourgeoisie made up the Third Estate. This Estate owned little land
and enjoyed no social, economic and political rights. It paid heavy taxes and was highly
exploited by the French government.
The French rulers did not call the Estates General (the gathering of the three Estates)
for an extended period. Since 1614, it had been ignored and was not assembled for
the next one hundred and seventy-five years. During this period, France remained an
absolute monarchy. This meant power was concentrated in the hands of individual monarchs.
Finally, on May 5, 1789, the French king, Louis XVI, faced financial bankruptcy and
called for the meeting of the Estates General. At this time the French people got an
opportunity to express their discontent. When the Estates General met on May 5, 1789,
conflict broke out between the three Estates. This was because the Third Estate tried to
control the Assembly. There was a power conflict between the first two estates, on the one
hand, and the third on the other.
Louis XVI now prepared for struggle and gathered his troops from various French
provinces. However, the revolt spread rapidly throughout France. The immediate action
that led to the French Revolution came from the poor of Paris, who found it difficult to
overcome the high price of bread and other daily needs. On June 17, 1789, the
Estates-General was transformed into the National Assembly (also later called the
constituent Assembly). On July 14, 1789, they stormed the Royal Castle and Prison of
Bastile. The event is often called “the Storming of the Bastile”. It left Louis XVI helpless.
He could not use his army because he was unsure about their loyalty.
Moreover, many of the aristocracies were now fleeing France. In June 1791, Louis XVI
and his family tried to escape France in disguise. However, they were recognized in
a small town called Varenis and taken back as prisoners to the capital. This episode is
remembered as the Varnis crisis.
The French Assembly kept the king as a symbol until he signed the new constitution in
September 1791. As soon as the Estates-General had transformed itself into the National
Assembly, it began to undertake several reforms. The greatest political achievements of
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the French Revolution were affected from 1789 to 1791.

The first achievement began with the "August Days of 1789" when the old feudal
privileges were abolished. Second, the National Assembly declared the rights of man
and all citizens in August 1789. Third, a constitution was written in 1791. It established a
limited monarchy instead of an autocracy. By this constitution, voting was not extended
to all French citizens. It was allowed only to what was called active citizens, which means
those who paid taxes. Those who could not fulfil the necessary financial qualifications
were called passive citizens.
The third achievement of the National Assembly was the law against the Catholic Church.
It confiscated church lands and suppressed monasteries.
In the Revolution, new political forces emerged in Paris and other French cities. These
political groups started to play the role of political parties since their emergence in
1789-90. The leadership of the French Revolution belonged to these political groups.
There was disagreement between the leaders of the Revolution, as some were moderate,
while others were radical. These revolutionary leaders were under siege in 1792. The
king could still serve as a center of plot for the royalist counterattack and damage the
Revolution. Meanwhile, Austria and Prussia waged war against France, supporting the
French monarchy. In April 1792, France declared war on Austria and Prussia.
The French people heroically fought against these external forces. The people marched
into Paris, singing the song known as La Marsellaise that would become the French
National Anthem. They demanded that the French Republic should be proclaimed.
The French army defeated the enemy forces at the battle of Valmy on September 20,
1792. Two days later, France was proclaimed a republic. Louis XVI was put on trial in
December 1792, found guilty and executed on January 21 1793. In February 1793, France
again faced the joint military forces of Britain, Austria, Prussia, Holland, Spain, Sardinia
and other Italian states. This anti-French coalition continued the earlier Austro-Prussian
attempt to restore the French monarchy.
The first years of the French Republic were very stormy and bloody. As already
indicated above, the leaders of the French Revolution differed among themselves. Girondists
represented the big and middle bourgeoisie. They were called Girondists which was
the name of the province they came from. The Girondists represented the extreme right
political wing. The left-wing of the Revolution was led by a group called Jacobins. The
Jacobins got their name from St. Jacob Church in southern France, where they made
their first meeting. They defeated the Girondists and formed the Jacobin revolutionary
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dictatorship in June 1793.

The Jacobins also adopted a new constitution on June 24, 1793. To protect the
Revolution against internal enemies, they instituted the Reign of Terror against counter
revolutionaries. The Reign of Terror reached its highest stage when Robespirre took over
the Jacobinleadership. During this time guillotine became a famous machine in executing
people.
The revolutionary Jacobins and their leader Robespirre executed members of the
Girondins group or any other led by Danton. In addition, the Jacobins made several
reforms under Robespirre. Many of these reforms encouraged merchants and free trade.
Nevertheless, the Jacobins harshly suppressed their opponents. Because of this, they
gradually lost support. Finally, Robespirre and his Jacobin followers were themselves
guillotined in July 1794. This brought the period of Jacobin Revolutionary Dictatorship to
an end. Hence, the authority of the French republic passed to the board of five men known
as the Directory. Nevertheless, its power also came to an end with the rise of Napoleon
Bonaparte.
Results of the French Revolution: The French Revolution destroyed the old feudal
order in France and led to the capitalist system's development. It further led to the growth
of industrial capitalism, a process started earlier by the English Bourgeoisie revolution.
Although the forces of the Revolution were the poor peasants and other lower sections
of the French people, its final leadership came into the hand of the bourgeoisie. It did not
extend political rights to the broad mass or improve the life of the working people.
The French Revolution had a tremendous and far-reaching impact that probably
transformed the world more than any other revolution. Its repercussions include lessening
the importance of religion, the rise of Modern Nationalism, the spread of Liberalism and
igniting the Age of Revolutions.

1. Explore the internet and write the consequences of the French
Revolution.
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9.3 Napoleonic Era

• explain the major reforms introduced by Napoleon Bonaparte.
• state the contribution of the Napoleonic era to the contemporary society.
Brainstorming
• Who was Napoleon Bonaparte?
The French Revolution ended when a French general named Napoleon Bonaparte took
power and established a dictatorship over France and most of Europe. The period of the
rule of Napoleon in France and Europe is known as the Napoleonic Era (1799 - 1815).
Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769 on the Mediterranean Island of Corsica. At the age
of twenty-six, he became an officer in the French army. He was a supporter and a friend
of the French revolution. He used to call himself "the son of the revolution". Since 1795,
Napoleon started to become famous as a defender of the revolution from the reactionary
forces of the European monarchical states. He saved France from foreign danger and
reversed the invasion.
Napoleon Bonaparte commanded the French army that fought in Italy and got victory
over Austria in 1796. From 1798 to 1799, he was in Egypt and managed a short-lived
conquest of that country. On his return from Egypt, he was given a warm national
welcome in France in 1799. He took over government power by a coup d’état in 1799.
Since that year, he ruled as 'The first consul' and from 1802 onwards as 'Consul for Life'.
Napoleon finally made himself 'Emperor' of France on 2 December 1804. As the ruler of
France, he introduced many reforms in the political, economic, social, and cultural fields.
Some of the reforms and changes introduced by Napoleon are stated as follows: He made
himself an imperial dictator. He introduced press censorship and used the police and
the army to strengthen his dictatorship. His administration was highly centralized. He
introduced the Napoleonic Code of Laws in 1804. His laws guaranteed civil equality to all
persons regardless of birth, wealth, and rank.
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
Read the case study below and answer the questions that follow.
1. How were the ancient Roman laws and the Napoleonic code
interrelated? Discuss in pairs.
2. How did the Napoleonic Code affect Europe?
A Case study: Unifying the Law
In 1799, a French general named Napoleon Bonaparte set out to
build an empire even larger than Rome’s. To rule this empire,
Napoleon followed the Roman example. He appointed a commission
to write a uniform code of laws. This code, known as the Napoleonic
Code, was completed in 1804. Although Napoleon ruled as emperor,
he drew upon many of the legal precedents first introduced by the
Romans. This included the principle that the same laws should be
used to govern all people. Under Napoleon, this code was adopted in
areas across the globe, such as present-day Belgium, Spain, and Latin
America. (Jackson J. Spielvogel, 2005, Glencio World History (Glencio
/McGraw-Hill SchoolCompany), p.14.
Employment and promotion in government offices were made based on ability. In 1802 a
Legion of Honour was introduced to reward great deeds.
Collection of revenues from the provinces, called departments of the Empire, became
efficient. In 1800, he established the National Bank of France. Public works, such as
roads, bridges, monuments, and palaces, were carried out. He settled differences
between his state and the Church. This was done by an agreement with the Roman
Catholic Pope in 1801. The Pope finally accepted the confiscation of Church properties, and
Napoleon promised to pay the salaries of the clergy of France. Steps were taken to expand
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education. State secondary schools and universities were opened. The Church was
allowed to keep its schools. In his colonial policy, Napoleon regained Louisiana for France.
However, it was sold for $ 11,000,000 to the U.S.A. in 1803.
Napoleon’s Government in France was a military dictatorship. The Bonapartist
dictatorship, however, had its good sides. In France, the reforms of Napoleon kept
the fruits of the French Revolution, like civil equality and achieved a great deal of
constructive work. Nevertheless, his rule did not allow political democracy to the people.
Napoleon Bonaparte was ambitious for glory. By 1799, at the age of 30, he had become
master of France. He conquered the nations of Europe, built a European Empire, and ruled
it until 1814. He claimed that he fought the wars of conquest to spread the democratic
ideals of the French Revolution, i.e., “liberty, equality and fraternity,” and for the glory
of France.
Figure 9.3 Napoleon in His Imperial Robes, oil on canvas by Francois

Gerard, 1805, (source: Encyclopaedia, Britannica)
Napoleon was a great political and military leader. He built a Grand Army that had
600,000 troops by 1812. His army was made up of horsemen and foot soldiers, which
used weapons like cannons, firearms and swords. He had capable generals. Emperor
Napoleon fought European coalition forces.
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At one time or another, he fought against Britain, Prussia, Russia, Austria, Italy,
Southern and Western Germany, Spain, Belgium, Holland, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland.
Between 1805 and 1808, he built a large European Empire. In 1808, the Napoleonic
Empire included Belgium, Spain, Holland, Switzerland, Italy, the Southern and Western
German States on the Rhine River, Poland, and France. At this time, Russia, Prussia,
Denmark and Norway were Napoleon's allies. Most of Europe was under his control, and
he was at the highest of his power.
Napoleon and his troops spread the democratic ideals of the French Revolution (civil
equality) wherever they went in the different corners of Europe. They attacked the old
reactionary, conservative and feudal orders and privileges. They spread the new ideas
of liberty and equality. Napoleon's troops took to Europe the ideas of individualism and
secularism. They made reforms such as religious toleration, abolition of serfdom and
civil equality. They planted the ideas of equality and the rule of law. Strong European
forces challenged the Napoleonic Empire. Old established national states and new arising
national forces resisted French rule. Together with the resistance of the forces of reaction
and conservatism, they destroyed the Napoleonic Empire.
Map 9.1 Europe during Napoleonic Era, (source: Encyclopaedia, Britannica)
199
The first of these resistances came from the direction of Britain. Napoleon had plans
to conquer Britain. Nevertheless, this plan never succeeded. Indeed, the British navy
under Admiral Horatio Nelson defeated the allied French and Spanish naval forces at
the sea Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Napoleon imposed a blockade on British trade with
mainland Europe. This was known as the Continental System. The system was in force from
1806 to 1810, but it failed to force Britain into submission. British resistance against the
Napoleonic Empire was strong.
National resistance to French rule also appeared within the conquered territories
of the Napoleonic Empire. This was because the French looted and economically
exploited the conquered territories. They collected taxes. They even introduced French-like
departmental (provincial) administration units in some conquered territories. Such
measures led to strong nationalist feelings among the conquered peoples.
In Spain, a nationalist revolt took place between 1808 and 1812. With the help of Britain,
Spain fought against France and became free from French rule in 1812. Prussia and other
German states started to strengthen themselves between 1807 and 1813. Austria declared
war on France in 1809.
In Russia, Napoleon met the strongest and the most successful resistance. The 1812
campaign to conquer Russia became the beginning of the end of the Napoleonic Empire.
Napoleon began the war to conquer Russia with a giant army of 600 000 soldiers. The
Russians mobilized a force of 400,000 troops. However, they chose to use the strategy
of withdrawal and scorched-earth tactics rather than fight a major battle. Moreover, the
Russian winter was unbearable to Napoleon's force.
Nevertheless, it contributed much to defeating Napoleon's Grand Army- Hunger, cold
and disease defeated the French Army. When Napoleon occupied Moscow on September
14, 1812, he got it burned down and left it five weeks later. Napoleon was defeated and
withdrew from Russia. At the Battle of Leipzig in Northern Germany, also known as the
Battle of the Nations, European coalition forces of Russia, Britain, Sweden, Prussia, and
Austria defeated Napoleon's retreating, tired and demoralized troops. Napoleon fled from
Germany and went to France.
The European coalition forces occupied Paris and forced Napoleon to abdicate on March
31, 1814. He was exiled to the Island of Elba. King Louis XVIII was put on the throne
of France. However, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France on March 20,
1815. He ruled France for one hundred more days. On June 18, 1815, at the Battle of
Waterloo in Belgium, the English commander Arthur Wellesley (the Duke of Wellington)
200
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and the Prussian general Blucher defeated him. This was his end. The forces of reaction
and conservatism and the rising nationalism of European states and peoples won. He was
exiled to the Island of St. Helena in the southern Atlantic Ocean, where he stayed until his
death in 1821.

1. By referring to the internet, write a report on the consequences of
Napoleonic era. Then, discuss your reportd in pairs.
9.4 American War of Independence

• explain the causes, course and consequences of the American Revolutions.
• examine the causes, course and consequences of the American Revolution.
• recognise the consequences of the American war of Independence on later
democratic and nationalist movements all over the world.
Brainstorming
• What do you know about American War of Independence?
The American Revolution was also called the U.S. War of Independence. The war was the
insurrection fought between 1775 and 1783, through which 13(thirteen) of Great Britain's
North American colonies threw off British rule to establish the sovereign United States of
America.
Since Columbus's discovery of the "New World" in 1492, people from Europe
began to inhabit, searching for a better life there. Nevertheless, these people gradually
developed settled life as colonists and began to claim colonial territories in the "New
World". Among Europeans, between 1607 and 1682, the British have succeeded in
establishing thirteen colonies in North America. The struggle of these European settlers
(thirteen colonists) against British colonial rule for independence was coined in world
history as the American War of Independence.
201
As the British began to impose heavy taxations, the thirteen colonists gathered at
Philadelphia - the First Continental Congress. They adopted a non-importation,
non-consumption agreement, which virtually cut off imports from Britain. Again, they
met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. The Congress set the Army of the United Colonies
and Colonel George Washington to be Commander-in-Chief of the Army.
The fighting started in the largest cities and trading ports. Finally, in 1776,
representatives from 13 colonies met in Philadelphia to declare themselves independent.
Thomas Jefferson drafted a document called the Declaration of Independence (July 14,
1776). It justified the act of rebellion and announced the birth of a new nation called the
USA. The document also set forth the philosophy of human freedom, which later became
a dynamic force in the rest of the western world. In 1783, the British government accepted
defeat. The majority of delegates signed a constitution on September 17, 1787.

Case Study: Constitutional Government laid ground for Peace
The founders of the United States knew about and admired the
Romans and their belief in limiting government power. When it
came time to draw up a government plan, the founding fathers of
America wrote a constitution that balanced the powers of government
among three branches. To ensure that elected leaders did not place
themselves above the law, the founding fathers included a provision that
made the Constitution “the supreme law of the land.” The Constitution was
adopted on September 17, 1787, which laid the ground for peaceful power
transfer.
Answer the following questions based on the case study given above
1. How did ancient Roman law influence the American conistitution?
Discuss in pairs.
2. How did the United States ensure that leaders would not place
themselves above the law?
202
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The constitutional convention of 1787 faced severe challenges in 1788 when a

gulf was created between federalists and anti-federalists. Nevertheless, finally,
anti-federalists joined the federalists to ratify the constitution on June 25. The war of
independence brought about the liberation of the American people from British rule. It also
created independent American nations, which were formerly the British colonies. These
nations finally created the United States of America. The American War of Independence
highly influenced many countries like the French and Latin Americans. It was one of the
immediate causes for the French Revolution outbreak in 1789. In the case of the
Latin American countries, they started to raise arms against their colonial masters, Spain
and Portugal. In March 1889, elections were held for the Presidency of the new federal
government, and George Washington became the first President of the USA.
The American War of Independence did not abolish slavery. At the same time, it
did not consider the Red Indians as citizens. Nevertheless, it was an essential step towards
creating the United States of America, which has shown a more rapid industrial
development since then.

1. By exploring the internet, write a paragraph about the
consequences of American Revolution.
9.5 The Congress of Vienna

• point out the aims and consequences of the Congress of Vienna (1815).
Brainstorming
• What comes to your mind when you hear or read about the
congress of Vienna?
203
Congress of Vienna began in September 1814, five months after Napoleon I's first
abdication and completed its "Final Act" in June 1815, shortly before the Waterloo
campaign and Napoleon's final defeat. The settlement was the most comprehensive
treaty that Europe had ever seen. The objective of the Congress of Vienna was to
provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French
Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. As a result, virtually every state in Europe
had a delegation in Vienna.
The four powers (Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain) that were chiefly
instrumental in the overthrow of Napoleon had concluded a special alliance among
themselves with the Treaty of Chaumont on March 9, 1814, a month before Napoleon's
first abdication. The subsequent peace treaties with France, signed on May 30 not only by
the "four" but also by Sweden and Portugal and on July 20 by Spain, stipulated that all
former belligerents should send plenipotentiaries to a congress in Vienna. Nevertheless,
the "four" still intended to reserve their real decision-making.
Map 9.1 Delegates states during the congress of Vienna,

(source: Encyclopaedia, Britannica)
204
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All of Europe sent its most important statesmen. The delegates began to arrive in Vienna
towards the end of September 1814. Klemen, principal minister of Austria, represented
his emperor, Francis II. Tsar Alexander I of Russia directed his diplomacy. King Frederick
William III of Prussia had Karl, Prince von Hardenberg, as his principal minister. Great
Britain was represented by its foreign minister, Viscount Castlereagh. However, when
Castlereagh had to return to his parliamentary duties, the duke of Wellington replaced
him, and Lord Clancarty was principal representative after the duke’s departure.
The restored Louis XVIII of France sent Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand. Spain,
Portugal, and Sweden had only men of moderate ability to represent them. Many of the
rulers of the minor states of Europe put in an appearance. With them came a host of
courtiers, secretaries, and ladies to enjoy the magnificent social life of the Austrian court.
Assisting Metternich as host, Friedrich Gentz played a vital role in the management of
protocol and the secretarial organisation of the congress. The social side of the congress
was, in fact, one of the causes of the long and unexpected delay in producing a result, for
Metternich at least sometimes subordinated business to pleasure.
The major points of friction occurred over the disposition of Poland and Saxony, the
conflicting claims of Sweden, Denmark, and Russia, and the adjustment of the borders of
the German states. In general, Russia and Prussia were opposed by Austria, France and
England, which at one point (January 3, 1815), went so far as to conclude a secret treaty
of defensive alliance. The major final agreements and decisions of the congress were as
follows.
In return for acquiring Poland, Alexander gave back Galicia to Austria and gave Thorn
and a region around it to Prussia; Kraków was made a free town. The rest of the Duchy
of Warsaw was incorporated as a separate kingdom under the Russian emperor’s
sovereignity. Prussia got two-fifths of Saxony and was compensated by extensive
additions in Westphalia and on the left bank of the Rhine River. It was Castlereagh who
insisted on Prussian acceptance of the latter territory, with which it had been suggested the
king of Saxony should be compensated.
Castlereagh wanted Prussia to guard the territories of the Rhine region against France and
act as a buttress to the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, which comprised both the former
United Provinces and Belgium. Austria was compensated by Lombardy and Venice and
got back most of Tirol, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden, on the whole, did well. Hanover
was also enlarged. The outline of a constitution, a loose confederation, was drawn up for
Germany- a triumph for Metternich. Denmark lost Norway to Sweden but got Lauenburg,
205
while Swedish Pomerania went to Prussia. Switzerland was given a new constitution.
In Italy, Piedmont absorbed Genoa; Tuscany and Modena went to an Austrian archduke;
and the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza was given to Marie-Louise, consort of the deposed
Napoleon. The Papal States were restored to the pope, and Naples went to the Sicilian
Bourbons. Valuable articles were agreed to on the free navigation of international rivers
and diplomatic precedence. Castlereagh’s outstanding efforts to abolish the slave trade
were rewarded only by a pious declaration.
The Final Act of the Congress of Vienna comprised all the agreements in one great
instrument. It was signed on June 9, 1815, by the “eight” (except Spain, which refused as
a protest against the Italian settlement). All the other powers subsequently acceded to it.
As a result, the political boundaries laid down by the Congress of Vienna lasted, except
for one or two changes, for more than 40 years. The statesmen had successfully worked
out the principle of a balance of power.
However, the idea of nationality had been almost entirely ignored, necessarily so because
it was not yet ready for expression. Territories had been bartered about without much
reference to the wishes of their inhabitants. Until an even greater settlement took place at
Versailles after World War I, it was customary for historians to condemn the statesmen of
Vienna. It was later realized how difficult their task was, as was the fact that they secured
for Europe a period of peace, which was its cardinal need. However, the statesmen failed
to give to international relations any organ by which their work could be adapted to the
new forces of the 19th century, and it was ultimately doomed to destruction.

1. Explore the internet and discuss briefly the consequences of the
congress of Vienna.
206
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Unit Summary

A fully developed capitalist system in the present western world emerged only
after the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century. Nevertheless, the
industrial revolution was not the only factor for the emergence of modern
capitalist society.
A series of events occurred before the industrial revolution and contributed to
the growth and consolidation of capitalism. The earliest of these events was the
English Revolution of the seventeenth century. The English revolution was a
bourgeois revolution. It destroyed feudal autocracy and cleared the way for the
rapid growth of capitalism in England.
Similar revolutions also took place in North America and France. In North
America, the revolution took the form of a war of Independence which was
fought to liberate the 13 colonies of North America from British rule. However,
the war had results that were far beyond this objective. It created a new nation
called the USA and facilitated the growth of capitalism in that new nation.
The American war of Independence also provided an immediate cause for the
French revolution of 1789. In fact, before the American war of Independence,
the intellectual movement called Enlightenment had created a revolutionary
situation in France. Thus, the two events inspired the French Revolution's
outbreak, which destroyed the old feudal system and stimulated rapid capitalist
growth in France.
The French Revolution was important not only to France but also to the world.
It became a source for new ideas and principles like liberty and equality.
Napoleon's conquests spread these new ideas and principles to various
corners of his European empire. However, his rule awakened nationalist feelings
among the conquered peoples and states of Europe and finally brought about the
downfall of the Napoleonic Empire.
207

Part I: Part I: Multiple Choice Item. Choose the best answer.
❓
1. The two privileged classes in France before the revolution were:
A. nobility and peasants
B. nobility and bourgeoisie
C. nobility and clergy
D. clergy and bourgeoisie
2. What was the fundamental cause of the French Revolution of 1789?
A. The American war of Independence
B. Food shortage caused by poor harvest
C. The Enlightenment
D. Injustices under the old feudal order
3. The battle that marked Napoleon's final defeat was
A. Leipzig
B. Jena
C. Waterloo
D. Trafalgar
4. Which of the following was not the effect of the American War of Independence?
A. It liberated the American people from British rule
B. It influenced the French and Latin Americans
C. It abolished slavery
D. It created the USA
5. The action which marked the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 was related
to the
A. French bourgeoisie
B. poor people in Paris
C. peasantry
D. merchants of Paris
6. Napoleon Bonaparte met the strongest and most challenging resistance of all in
A. Prussia
B. Austria
C. Russia
D. Egypt
Part II: Short Answer
1. Browse the internet and find the consequences of the French Revolution. Then, dis
cuss your findings in groups.
2. Discuss some of the reforms and changes introduced by Napoleon.
208
Glossary
GLOSSARY
Abbaa: father, master of a ceremony/ religion.
Abbaa Gadaa: Prime Councilor, Master of Gadaa period, Gadaa leader.
Abbaa Muudaa: father of anointing.
Abba Duulaa: commander in chief .
Balabbat: hereditary owner of rist land; or is an appointee at district level by the state to
serve as subordinate land administrator or local land lord.
Balambaras: head of the amba’ a low-level administrative title.
Butta Cermony: the cermony occured every eight years by the Oromo,when power
transfered from one Gadaa grade to the next.
Chaffe: the Oromo Gada assembly.
Dajӓzmӓčh: a higher warrior title of the Amhara.
Etege: equivalent to Queen.
Fitӓwrӓri: a warrior title literally means “leader of the vanguard army.”
Gäbbar: tribute paying peasants either in kind or many.
Gadaa: an Oromo indigenous, traditional socio-political system through which the Oro
mo society exercise self-governance.
Geber: agrarian tribute, invariably paid in kind, tax.
Gult: is a right given to an official to share in the produce of the peasantry.
Guddifacha: a form of parent adopting a child Oromo family.
Grazmach: a warrior title of the Amhara, literally means “left leader”.
Jabarti: the Ethiopian Muslim merchants of the 19th the and early 20 centuries.
Janissaries: a member of the Turkish infantry forming the Sultan’s guard between the
14th and 19th centuries.
Kawo: Tittle for King of Wolayta, Gamo and other Omotic people.
Luwa: is an age grade system of Sidama where each grade rotates every 8 years.
Mannor: Villages during the medieval European.
Moggasa: was a system of adopting non-Oromo community into Oromo clan.
Odaa: a sycamore tree chosen for the performance of religious rituals as well as political
actions.
Nagadras: head of merchant, later chief government official in charge of the collection
of customs.
Negus: King.
Qaalluu: Oromo religious leader. He leads ritual performances and prayers, anoint the
participants as a religious piety. His gosa and he are believed to be the ‘eldest’.
209
He is seen as a custodian of the waqeffanna and the guardian of the harmonious

functioning of the gada system.
Qannazmach: an Amharic warrior title literally means “right leader”, or commander of
the right.
Ras: ‘head’, the highest traditional title next to negus.
Rist: a lineage system of land ownership, giving usufruct right to the claimant; in the
20th century, and rist assumes the meaning of absolute private property.
Tato: tittle for King of Kafa and Yem People.
Sera: a set of cultural norms regulating the social structure of the society among Cushit
ic peoples (Law).
Woma: Tittle for King among Kambata, Sidama, Tambaro, Halaba and others.
210

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HISTORY

FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA HAWASSA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA June 2022

4.1.2 Feudal Society...................................................................................................66

8.1.3 Eastern States: Harar, Afar, Somali ................................................................174

This unit intends to familiarize and the emergence of states. In

Unit learning outcomes

1.1 Meaning of Prehistory and History

2. Explain the term ‘Istoria’.

3. Referring to different history books or exploring the internet, write a

half-page essay describing the relationship between man and the

natural environment and present it to your class.

1.2 The Discipline of History

1.2.1 The importance of History

discipline. It is a systematic study because historical study follows established rules,

anticipate what is yet to come.

2. In a group, search the importance of learning history from the internet

and present it to the class.

3. Answer the following question based on the below case study.

A case study on car accident

A. Which ones do you believe are primary, and which is secondary

1.2.4 Dating in History

Dating in history is expressed in numerical statements such as a decade, century, and

the arrival of Christianity and Islam in Ethiopia and present it to your

Historians sometimes use a timeline. A timeline is a graphic representation of events

Figure 1.2 Historical timeline

A. Cities built on Indus valley

D. Rise of Chinesee Civilisation

E. Romans set up a Republic

F. Sumerians developed cuneiform

2. Explain why the Ethiopian calendar lags 7 or 8 years behind the

1.3 The Evolution of Human Beings

Map 1.1 Hominids’ sites in Ethiopia Afar region

1.4 Theories of Human Evolution

Figure 1.3 Stages of Human Evolution

succession in the Horn of Africa?

2. Explain the differences between the creationist and evolutionist

theories of Human Evolution.

3. Draw a map of Ethiopia and show the major archaeological sites.

1.5 Africa and Human Evolution

Figure 1.4 Picture of Lucy (Dinkinesh), (adopted from World history)

half-page report explaining why East Africa is important for

studying human origin.

2. Draw a map of Africa and show the major archaeological sites.

1.6 The Stone Age

Figure 1.5 Stone tools, (adopted from Kevin Shillingiton 1995:7)

Map 1.3 Principal archaeological sites in Ethiopia, (source: ResearachGate.net)

3. Explain the major changes that resulted from the development of

1.7 The Emergence of States

Unit Review Questionns

6. Which one of the following is a specific feature of state?

Unit learning outcomes

2.1 Ancient Civilisations of Africa

2.1.1 Ancient Egypt

Egyptian society was structured hierarchically.

Figure 2.1 Ancient Egyptian Social Hierarchy

2. Describe the impacts of the ancient African civilisations on modern

2.2 Civilisations in Asia

• appreciate the importance of the ancient Asian civilisations to modern