Materials Science and Engineering •Microscopic – groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated

Materials Science – investigating relationships together

that exist between the structure and properties of •Atomic – organization of atoms or molecules
materials. •Sub atomic – electrons and nuclei (protons and neutrons)
Materials Engineering – is, on the basis of these In addition to structure and properties, two other important
structure-property correlations, designing or components are involved in the science and engineering of
engineering the structure of a material to produce materials – namely, processing and performance. With regard to
a pre-determined set of properties the relationships of these four components, the structure of a
material will depend on how it is processed. Furthermore, a
Materials in day to day life materials performance will be a function of its properties.
Materials: The Milestones of Progress The 4 components of the discipline of materials science and
• Development and advancement of Human societies- engineering and their interrelationship
closely related with materials Processing
• Civilizations have been named based on the level of their Structure
materials development – Stone age, Bronze age e Quest for newer Properties
materials: Performance
The driving force for the progress- stone age to modern Classification of Materials
age 1.) Metals
Quest for more advanced materials to meet the growing Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic
needs as the civilization progressed. elements and often also nonmetallic elements. Atoms in metals
Stone age and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner, and in
300,000 BC Stone age – People living in caves and hunting comparison to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively dense.
with stone-made weapons 2.) Ceramics
200,000 BC Discovery of fire – Said to be the most significant Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic
discovery in human civilization. However, till the time the fire was elements; they are most frequently oxides, nitrides and carbides.
controlled to contain and utilize the heat, it was not significant. For example, common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide,
Containing the fire – Was not possible without silicone dioxide, silicon carbide, etc. Ceramic materials are more
materials. Started with clay (a ceramic material) pots resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments than
and now we have all kinds of means to control and contain fire. metals and polymers.
Introduction of metals 3.) Polymers
5500 BC First metals to be discovered – Copper and Gold Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials.
5000 BC Material processing - Annealing and Shaping. Throwing Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based
copper into camp fire and hammering in early days on carbon, hydrogen and other nonmetallic elements. These
4000 BC Melting and casting of metals. Melting of Gold to give materials typically have low densities, whereas their mechanical
it different shapes characteristics are generally dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic
3500 BC Reduction of copper from its ore – Nile Valley The materials – they are not as stiff nor as strong as these other
dawn of metallurgy. Perhaps discovered by chance much before by material types.
early Potters 4.) Composites
Discovery of Alloy - Metal Combinations A composite is composed of two or more materials, which come
3000 BC The discovery of alloy – combination of metals from metals, ceramics and polymers. The design goal of a
Mixing of Tin with Copper – Bronze composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not
Copper ore invariably contains some Tin – Mixing of displayed by any single material, and also to incorporate the best
different ores having different Tin content produced characteristics of each of the component materials.
the first Bronzes. 5.) Advanced Materials
Iron and Steel – Building blocks of human civilization Materials that are utilized in high-technology applications are
1450 BC Iron wheels – discovery of iron making. Revolution in termed as advanced materials. These materials are typically
warfare and cultivation traditional materials whose properties have been enhanced, and
1500 AD Invention of Blast furnace – Production of pig iron also newly developed, high-performance materials.
from ores These type of materials is further classified into four kinds, namely,
1855 AD Sir Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) Bessemer steel semiconductors, biomaterials, smart materials and nanomaterials.
making patent a) Semiconductors
20th Century Many other steel making processes Have electrical properties that are intermediate between the
Early 20th Century – The goldenera electrical conductors (metals and alloys) and insulators (ceramics
1886 AD Hall process- Electrochemical process for extraction and polymers)
of Aluminium from Alumina (Al2O3) 1890 - 1910 AD b) Biomaterials
1890-1910 AD Revolution in Transportation – Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the
Discovery of automobiles and Aeroplane human body to replace diseased or damaged body parts.
1939 Process for making Nylon – c) Smart Materials
Introduction of plastics The adjective “smart” implies that these materials are able to
The Electronic Revolution sense changes in their environment and then respond to these
Zone refining – A metallurgical process to produce ultra pure Si changes in predetermined manners.
1960’S Ultra pure Si through zone refining – Si d) Nanomaterials
chip, the heart of electronics. Smaller and Nanomaterials may be one of the four basic materials, however,
smaller Si wafers - Miniaturization unlike those other materials, they are not distinguished on the
Superconductors basis of their chemistry, but rather, size.
High temperature ceramic MRI Machine, Brain Scan – Summary:
superconductors Advancement in Medical • One aspect of materials science is the investigation of
science relationships that exist between the structures and properties of
Magnetic Levitation: Maglevtrain :– 300 – 500 kmph materials. By structure we mean how some internal
component(s) of the materials is (are) arranged. In terms of (and
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Correlations with increasing) dimensionality, structural elements include
• Structure of a material usually relates to the subatomic, atomic microscopic, and macroscopic.
arrangement of its internal components which can be • On the basis of chemistry and atomic structure, materials are
further classified into four categories described in the next classified into three general categories: metals (metallic elements),
section. ceramics (compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements),
• A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and and polymers (compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
magnitude of response to a specific imposed stimulus. other nonmetallic elements.) In addition, composites are
Structure composed of at least two different material types.
•Macroscopic – viewable with the un-aided eye • Another materials category is the advanced materials that are
used in high-tech applications. These include semiconductors
(having electrical conductivities intermediate between conductors Valence - number of electrons in an atom that participate in
and insulators), (which must be compatible with body tissues), bonding or chemical reactions
smart materials (those that sense and respond to changes in their Electronegativity - describes the tendency of an atom to gain an
environments in predetermined manners), and nanomaterials electron
(those that have structural features on the order of a nanometer, Periodic Table - contains valuable information about specific
some of which may be designed on the atomic/molecular level) elements, and can also help identify trends in atomic size, melting
CHAPTER 2- ATOMIC STRUCTURE & INTER-ATOMIC BONDING point, chemical reactivity, and other properties.
Both the composition and the structure of a material have a Atomic Bonding
profound influence on its properties and behavior. 1. metallic bond - The metallic elements have more electropositive
The structure of materials at five different levels: atoms that donate their valence electrons to form a ‘‘sea’’ of
1. macrostructure; electrons surrounding the atoms. E.g. Aluminum
2. microstructure; Ductility refers to the ability of materials to be stretched or bent
3. nanostructure; without breaking
4. short- and long-range atomic arrangements 2. covalent bond - Materials with covalent bonding are
5. atomic structure characterized by bonds that are formed by sharing of valence
1. Microstructure - a length-scale of ~10 to electrons among two or more atoms. E.g. Silicon Atom
1000 nm A directional relationship is formed when the bonds between
Length-scale is a characteristic length or range of atoms in a covalently bonded material form specific angles,
dimensions over which we are describing the properties of depending on the material
a material or the phenomena occurring in materials. 3. ionic bond - When more than one type of atoms are present in a
Microstructure features - average grain size, grain size distribution, material, one atom may donate its valence electrons to a different
grain shape, grain orientation, and other features related to defects atom, filling the outer energy shell of the second atom. The
in materials oppositely charged ions are then attracted to one another and
Grain is a small crystal of the material produce the ionic bond.
2. Macrostructure - macroscopic level where the length scale is The electrostatic attraction between these oppositely charged ions
~>100,000 nm holds them together in a crystalline structure. The oppositely
Macrostructure features - porosity, surface coatings, and such charged ions are then attracted to one another and produce the
features as internal or external micro-cracks ionic bond
Atomic structure includes all atoms and their arrangements, which Cation - The atom that contributes the electrons is left with a net
constitute the building blocks of matter. It is from these building positive charge
blocks that all the nano, micro, and macrolevels of structures Anion - atom that accepts the electrons acquires a net negative
emerge. charge
Atomic Arrangement 4. van der Waals bond - Secondary bonds, or van der Waals
1. Amorphous - short-range atomic arrangements (physical) bonds, are weak in comparison to the primary or
2. Crystalline - long-range arrangements chemical bonds; bonding energies range between about 4 and 30
Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) – e.g. small kJ/mol. Secondary bonding exists between virtually all atoms or
accelerometer sensor obtained by the micromachining of silicon molecules, but its presence may be obscured if any of the three
3. Nanostructure - (i.e., the structure and properties of primary bonding types is present.
materials at a nano-scale or @length-scale 1–100 nm Polar molecules - It exists by virtue of the direction of bonds and
The term ‘‘nanotechnology’’ is used to describe a set of the nature of atoms
technologies that are based on physical, chemical, and biological 3 types of van der Waals interactions
phenomena occuring at a nano-scale. London forces - If the interactions are between two dipoles that
The Structure of the Atom are induced in atoms or molecules (e.g., carbon tetrachloride)
Atom - composed of a nucleus surrounded by electrons Keesom forces - When an induced dipole (that is, a dipole that is
Nucleus - contains neutrons and positively charged protons and induced in what is otherwise a non-polar atom or molecule)
carries a net positive charge interacts with a molecule that has a permanent dipole moment,
The negatively charged electrons are held around the nucleus by an Debye forces - If the interactions are between molecules that are
electrostatic attraction. permanently polarized (e.g., water molecules attracting other
Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of electrons water molecules or other polar molecules)
or protons in each atom Hydrogen Bond - The bonding between molecules that have a
The mass of each proton and neutron is 1.67 x 10^-24 g, but the permanent dipole moment, known as the Keesom force
mass of each electron is only 9.11 x 10^-28 g. Mixed Bonding - In most materials, bonding between atoms is a
Atomic mass M, which is equal to the average number of protons mixture of two or more types
and neutrons in the atom, is also the mass in grams of the Compounds formed from two or more metals (intermetallic
Avogadro number NA of atoms. compounds)
Atomic mass unit, or amu,- An alternate unit for atomic mass First three of bonds are relatively strong and are known as primary
which is 1/12 the mass of carbon 12. bonds. The van der Waals bonds are secondary bonds
Atomic Structure – ex. Diamond Binding Energy and Interatomic Spacing
Atomic Arrangements: Long-Range Order (LRO) – ex. Lead- Interatomic Spacing - The equilibrium distance between atoms
zirconium-titanate [Pb(ZrxTi1-x )O3 ] or PZT results from a balance between repulsive and attractive forces.
Atomic Arrangements: Short-Range Order (SRO) – ex. Ions in silica- Binding energy - or the energy required to create or break the
based (SiO2 ) bond
Nanostructure – ex. Nano-sized particles (@5–10 nm) of iron oxide Modulus of elasticity of a material (the slope of the stress-strain
are used in ferrofluids or liquid magnets curve in the elastic region (E), also known as Young’s modulus) is
Microstructure – ex. The mechanical strength of many metals and related to the slope of the force-distance curve
alloys depends very strongly on the grain size Yield Strength - a level of stress at which the material begins to
Macrostructure – ex. Relatively thick coatings, such as paints on deform easily with increasing stress
automobiles and other applications, are used not only for coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) - describes how much a
aesthetics, but also to provide corrosion resistance material expands or contracts when its temperature is changed.
The Electronic Structure of the Atom Atomic Bonding in Solids
Quantum Numbers - numbers in an atom that assign electrons to 3 different types of primary or chemical bond are found in solids
discrete energy levels. Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic
4 Quantum Numbers: Ionic bonding - is perhaps the easiest to describe and visualize. It is
Principal quantum number n always found in compounds composed of both metallic and
Azimuthal quantum number l - describe the energy levels in each nonmetallic elements, elements situated at the horizontal
quantum shell extremities of the periodic table.
Magnetic quantum number ml Coulombic - that is, positive and negative ions, by virtue of their
Spin quantum number ms - is assigned values +1/2 and -1/2 and net electrical charge, attract one another
reflects the different electron spins. Ionic bonding is termed nondirectional—that is, the magnitude of
the bond is equal in all directions around an ion.
 • Correlations between bonding type and material class were
Covalent Bonding - is found in materials whose atoms have small noted:
differences in electronegativity—that is, that lie near one another Polymers—covalent
in the periodic table. Metals—metallic
The covalent bond is directional - it is between specific atoms and
Ceramics—ionic/mixed ionic–covalent
may exist only in the direction between one atom and another that
participates in the electron sharing
Molecular solids—van der Waals
Hybridization - —the mixing (or combining) of two or more atomic Semi-metals—mixed covalent–metallic
orbitals with the result that more orbital overlap during bonding Intermetallics—mixed metallic–ionic
results. C h a p t e r 3 The Structure of
Metallic bonding - the final primary bonding type, is found in Crystalline Solids
metals and their alloys Crystalline- is one in which the atoms are situated in a
They may be thought of as belonging to the metal as a whole, or repeating or periodic array over large atomic distances
forming a “sea of electrons” or an “electron cloud.” Crystal Structure - the manner in which atoms, ions, or
Secondary bonds, or van der Waals (physical) bonds, are weak in molecules are spatially arranged.
comparison to the primary or chemical bonds; bonding energies Crystalline solids are defined as a three-dimensional
range between about 4 and 30 kJ/mol. Secondary bonding exists structure consisting of a highly ordered and repeating regular
between virtually all atoms or molecules, but its presence may be
pattern of atoms or molecules, forming a crystal lattice.
obscured if any of the three primary bonding types is present.
Basic Concepts
Secondary bonding forces arise from atomic or molecular dipoles.
1. Unit Cells - Smallest block of 3d space containing a group of
Hydrogen bonding - a special type of secondary bonding, is found
atoms, ions, or molecules
to exist between some molecules that have hydrogen as one of the
Lattice - A three-dimensional framework of points that represents
constituents.
the repeating pattern of the crystal's structure.
Polar molecules - Permanent dipole moments exist in some
Lattice Point - A specific position or location within a crystal lattice
molecules by virtue of an asymmetrical arrangement of positively
structure
and negatively charged regions
Crystal Lattice - The arrangement of unit cells in a crystal
Summary
Coordination Number - Describes the number of nearest neighbors
Electrons In Atoms
or atoms or ions that surround a central atom or ion in a crystal
• The two atomic models are Bohr and wave mechanical. Whereas
lattice or a molecule
the Bohr model assumes electrons to be particles orbiting the
Atomic Packing Factor - Quantifies how efficiently atoms or ions
nucleus in discrete paths, in wave mechanics we consider them to
are packed together in a crystal structure or a solid material.
be wavelike and treat electron position in terms of a probability
APF = (Volume of atoms in unit cell) / (Total volume of unit cell)
distribution.
• The energies of electrons are quantized—that is, only specific
Types of Unit Cells
values of energy are allowed. Simple Cubic - The simple cubic has a coordination number of 6
• The four electron quantum numbers are n, l, ml , and ms. They and contains 1 atom per unit cell
specify, respectively, electron orbital size, orbital shape, number of Body-centered Cubic (BCC) - The body-centered cubic (BCC)
electron orbitals, and spin moment. has a coordination number of 8 and contains 2 atoms per
• According to the Pauli exclusion principle, each electron state can unit cell
accommodate no more than two electrons, which must have Face-centered Cubic (FCC) (Unit Cell) - The face-centered
opposite spins cubic (FCC) has a coordination number of 12 and contains 4
The Periodic Table atoms per unit cell
• Elements in each of the columns (or groups) of the periodic table Closed-Packed Structure
have distinctive electron configurations. For example: Group 0 Refers to a specific arrangement of atoms, ions, or
elements (the inert gases) have filled electron shells. Group IA molecules in a crystalline lattice where the particles are
elements (the alkali metals) have one electron greater than a filled closely packed together to maximize the efficient use of
electron shell space.
Bonding Forces and Energies Types
• Bonding force and bonding energy are related to one another Hexagonal Closed-Packed - The hexagonal closest packed (HCP)
according to Equations 2.5a and 2.5b. has a coordination number of 12 and contains 6 atoms per
• Attractive, repulsive, and net energies for two atoms or ions
unit cell
depend on interatomic
Face-Centered Cubic - The face-centered cubic (FCC) has a
separation per the schematic plot of Figure 2.10b
Primary Interatomic Bonds coordination number of 12 and contains 4 atoms per unit
• For ionic bonds, electrically charged ions are formed by the cell.
transference of valence electrons from one atom type to another. Crystal systems refer to a classification system used in
• There is a sharing of valence electrons between adjacent atoms crystallography to describe the various ways in which atoms
when bonding is covalent. or ions are arranged in three-dimensional space within a
• Electron orbitals for some covalent bonds may overlap or crystal lattice
hybridize. Hybridization of s and p orbitals to form sp3 and sp2 The 14 Distinct Crystal Systems:
orbitals in carbon was discussed. Configurations of these hybrid 1. Cubic Crystal System
orbitals were also noted. Characteristics:
• With metallic bonding, the valence electrons form a “sea of Highest degree of symmetry with three
electrons” that is uniformly dispersed around the metal ion cores equal axes at 90-degree angles.
and acts as a form of glue for them All edges of the unit cell have the same
Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding length.
• Relatively weak van der Waals bonds result from attractive forces Symmetry elements: 4 three-fold axes, 3
between electric dipoles, which may be induced or permanent. four-fold axes, 6 two-fold axes.
• For hydrogen bonding, highly polar molecules form when Real-Life Examples:
hydrogen covalently bonds to a nonmetallic element such as Cubic Crystal System
fluorine Sodium chloride (table salt), diamond, and iron at high
Mixed Bonding temperatures.
• In addition to van der Waals bonding and the three primary 2. Tetragonal Crystal System
bonding types, covalent– ionic, covalent–metallic, and Characteristics:
metallic–ionic mixed bonds exist. Three axes, two of which are equal in length and perpendicular to
• The percent ionic character (%IC) of a bond between two each other.
elements (A and B) depends on their electronegativities (X’s) Third axis is of different length.
Symmetry elements: 1 four-fold axis, 4 two-fold axes.
according to Equation 2.16
Real-Life Examples:
Bonding TypeMaterial Classification Correlations Tetragonal Crystal System
Rutile, zircon, and scheelite. Body-Centered Tetragonal
3. Orthorhombic Crystal System theoretical.
Characteristics: 12. Base-Centered Tetragonal
Three axes of different lengths, all at 90-degree angles. Characteristics:
Rectangular prism unit cell. Variation of the tetragonal system with
Symmetry elements: 3 two-fold axes. lattice points at the base centers.
Real-Life Examples: Symmetry elements: 1 four-fold axis, 4 two-fold axes.
Orthorhombic Crystal System Real-Life Examples:
Sulfur, aragonite, and orthoclase feldspar. None in this specific variation; it's
4. Rhombohedral (Trigonal) Crystal System theoretical.
Characteristics: 13. Body-Centered Orthorhombic
Three axes of equal length, not necessarily at 90-degree angles. Characteristics:
Rhombohedral unit cell. Variation of the orthorhombic system with a lattice point at the
Symmetry elements: 1 three-fold axis, 3 center of the unit cell.
two-fold axes. Symmetry elements: 3 two-fold axes.
Real-Life Examples: Real-Life Examples:
Rhombohedral (Trigonal) None in this specific variation; it's
Calcite and dolomite. Body-Centered Orthorhombic
Crystal System theoretical.
5. Hexagonal Crystal System 14. Face-Centered Orthorhombic
Characteristics: Characteristics:
Four axes, three of which are equal in length and lie in the same Variation of the orthorhombic system with lattice points on the
plane. face centers.
The fourth axis is perpendicular to the Symmetry elements: 3 two-fold axes.
plane. Real-Life Examples:
Symmetry elements: 1 six-fold axis, 6 two-fold axes. None in this specific variation; it's
Hexagonal Crystal System Face-Centered Orthorhombic
Real-Life Examples: theoretical.
Quartz, graphite, and beryllium.
Crystal Systems Vs. Bravais Lattices
Crystal Systems - The external shape and symmetry of the
crystal.
6. Monoclinic Crystal System Bravais Lattices - The internal arrangement of lattice points.
Characteristics: DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS
Three axes of different lengths. • Crystalline material has a crystal structure in which the
One angle is not equal to 90 degrees. atoms are positioned in a perfect ordered pattern which is
Symmetry elements: 1 two-fold axis. repetitive over large atomic distances.
Real-Life Examples: • Defects have a profound impact on the macroscopic
Gypsum, azurite, and orthorhombic sulfur. properties of materials.
Monoclinic
• Sometimes defects are deliberately created to improve
Crystal System
properties of crystals.
7. Triclinic Crystal System
Point Defects are the irregularities or deviations from ideal
Characteristics:
arrangement around a point or an atom in a crystalline substance.
Three axes of different lengths.
Vacancy Defects
None of the angles are 90 degrees.
• Atom missing from an atomic site
Symmetry elements: None.
• Occur due to imperfect packing during crystallization
Real-Life Examples:
• This results in decrease in density of the substance
Microcline feldspar and turquoise.
Triclinic Crystal System • Number of vacancy defects depend on temperature
8. Simple Monoclinic Interstitials Defects
Characteristics: • Addition of an extra atom within crystal structure
Variation of the monoclinic system with • This defects increase the density of the substance
additional lattice points. • Causes atomic distortion
Symmetry elements: 1 two-fold axis. • Vacancy and interstitials are inverse phenomena
Real-Life Examples: Line defects
Some pyroxenes and amphiboles. • Line defects are the irregularities or deviations from ideal
Simple Monoclinic arrangement in entire rows of lattice points.
9. Base-Centered Monoclinic • Interatomic bonds are significantly distorted in the
Characteristics: immediate vicinity of the dislocation line.
Variation of the monoclinic system with • Dislocation affects the mechanical properties
lattice points at the base center. Edge Dislocation
Symmetry elements: 1 two-fold axis. • Positive Dislocation
Real-Life Examples: • Negative Dislocation
Potassium chloride (KCl), potassium Screw Dislocation
Base-Centered Monoclinic The lattice/atomic planes follow helical or spiral along the
bromide (KBr). dislocation line
10. Face-Centered Monoclinic How Do Crystal Defects Affect
Characteristics: Material Properties?
Variation of the monoclinic system with Crystal Defects control and affect a lot of properties of materials.
lattice points on the face centers. Electric and thermal conductivity in metals can be strongly reduced
Symmetry elements: 1 two-fold axis. by point defects whereas electric conductivity in semiconductors
Real-Life Examples: can be controlled by substitution defects. Ionic conductivity means
Lead iodide (PbI2). vacancy defects can control the movement of ions.
11. Body-Centered Tetragonal Crystalline vs Amorphous
Characteristics: Crystalline - Regular atomic arrangement (three dimensional
Variation of the tetragonal system with a lattice point at the center repeating pattern "crystal lattice")
of the unit cell. Non-Crystalline (also known as amorphous meaning "without
Symmetry elements: 1 four-fold axis, 4 two-fold axes. form") - Irregular atomic arrangement
Real-Life Examples: Example of Crystalline Materials
None in this specific variation; it's
Metals Yield strength - The stress corresponding to the intersection
• Gold FCC of this line and the stress–strain curve as it bends over in the
Uses: For Jewelry, Electronics, and Dentistry plastic region
• Iron BCC yield point phenomenon - The elastic–plastic transition is
Uses: For Construction, Appliances, Vehicle and Medical very well defined and occurs abruptly
• Titanium HCP
tensile strength - stress at the maximum on the engineering
Uses: For Aircraft, Spacecraft, Armor plating, Missiles, and
for Dental implants.
stress–strain curve
Example of Crystalline Materials necking - a small constriction or neck begins to form at some
Minerals point, and all subsequent deformation is confined at this
• Diamond - Cubic neck
Uses: For Jewelry, Industrial (e.g Cutting, Drilling, Ductility is another important mechanical property. It is a
Polishing), and Medical measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been
• Quartz - Trigonal sustained at fracture. A metal that experiences very little or
Uses: For Jewelry, Glass-making, and Electronics no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed brittle.
• Apatite - Hexagonal Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy
Uses: For Jewelry, Fertilizer, Pharmaceuticals, and when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to
Explosives
have this energy recovered.
• Axinite - Triclinic
Toughness is a mechanical term that may be used in several
Uses: For Jewelry, and Medical
contexts. For one, toughness (or more specifically, fracture
• Gypsum - Monoclinic
Uses: For Construction, Fertilizer and Pharmaceuticals toughness) is a property that is indicative of a material’s
• Sulfur - Orthorhombic resistance to fracture when a crack (or other stress-
Uses: For Fertilizer, Car batteries, Oil refining, Mineral concentrating defect) is present
extraction and Gun powder True stress 𝜎T is defined as the load F divided by the
• Zircon - Tetragonal instantaneous cross-sectional area Ai over which
Uses: For foundry (casting metals) deformation is occurring (i.e., the neck, past the tensile
point)
hardness, which is a measure of a material’s resistance to
Example of Non-crystalline Materials localized plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent or a scratch).
• Glass (bottles, windows, TV screen, etc) Rockwell Hardness Tests
Uses: For Food Container, Tableware, Housing, Buildings,
The Rockwell tests constitute the most common method
Medical equipment, Automotive,
Transportation, Appliances, and Electronics
used to measure hardness because they are so simple to
Properties: Transparent, Hard, Brittle, Good electrical perform and require no special skills
insulator Brinell Hardness Tests
• Rubber (car tires, medical gloves, toys, etc) In Brinell tests, as in Rockwell measurements, a hard,
Uses: For Medical equipment, Clothes, Automotive, spherical indenter is forced into the surface of the metal to
Transportation be tested.
Properties: Flexible, Elastic, Durable, Resistant to heat, Knoop and Vickers Microindentation Hardness Tests
light and chemicals, Heat and Electrical insulator Two other hardness-testing techniques are the Knoop
• Plastic (plastic bottles, cups, etc.) (pronounced nup) and Vickers tests (sometimes also called
Uses: For Containers, Packaging, Furniture, and diamond pyramid)
Decorations)
ELASTIC RECOVERY AFTER PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Properties: Light, Flexible, Durable, Good insulator
Upon release of the load during the course of a stress– strain
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
Stress strain behavior test, some fraction of the total deformation is recovered as
The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the elastic strain. During the unloading cycle, the curve traces a
magnitude of an imposed stress. near straight-line path from the point of unloading (point D),
This is known as Hooke’s law, and the constant of proportionality E and its slope is virtually identical to the modulus of elasticity,
(GPa or psi)6 is the modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus. or parallel to the initial elastic portion of the curve. The
Elastic Deformation magnitude of this elastic strain, which is regained during
Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional unloading
It is none permanent. The process by which plastic deformation is produced by
It is time dependent dislocation motion is termed slip
This dependent elastic behavior is known as ANELASTICITY The number of dislocations, or dislocation density in a
Elongation (Elastic) Computation material, is expressed as the total dislocation length per unit
Elongation is calculated by dividing the deformation (increase volume or, equivalently, the number of dislocations that
in length) of a sample by the sample ' s initial length and intersect a unit area of a random section.
multiplying the result by 100 (to convert to a percentage). As a consequence, there are regions in which compressive,
Hooke’s law— relationship between engineering stress and tensile, and shear lattice strains are imposed on the
engineering strain for elastic deformation (tension and neighboring atoms.
compression) This combination of the slip plane and the slip direction is
Elastic deformation is nonpermanent termed the slip system
A parameter termed Poisson’s ratio 𝜈 is defined as the ratio Resolved shear stress - perpendicular alignments to the
of the lateral and axial strains stress direction
critical resolved shear stress - slip in a single crystal
commences on the most favorably oriented slip system when
It is therefore desirable to know the stress level at which
the resolved shear stress reaches some critical value
plastic deformation begins, yielding or where the
Yield strength of a single crystal — dependence on the
phenomenon of yielding occurs.
critical resolved shear stress and the orientation of the most
Proportional limit - For metals that experience this gradual
favorably oriented slip system
elastic–plastic transition, the point of yielding may be
Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers
determined as the initial departure from linearity of the
(Mechanical Behaviour of Polymers/Polymer Types)
stress–strain curve
CHAIN ARCHITECTURE
LINEAR >> BRANCHING >> CROSSLINKS >> GRAFTED
MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION 2) YIELD BEHAVIOR- CHARACTERIZED BY A MAXIMUM IN
APPLICATIONS THE STRESS/STRAIN CURVE FOLLOWED BY YIELDING
1. PACKAGING DEFORMATION WHICH IS USUALLY ASSOCIATED WITH
2. MEDICAL DEVICES CRAZING OR SHEAR BANDING AND USUALLY DUCTILE
3. CONSUMER GOODS FAILURE. DUCTILE FAILURE EXHIBITS A HIGH EXTENT OF
4. CONSTRUCTIONS DEFORMATION ON THE FAILURE SURFACE. YIELD BEHAVIOR
5. AUTOMOTIVE CAN RESULT IN NECKING WHICH EXHIBITS A CLOSE TO
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS CONSTANT LOAD REGIME AND A TERMINAL INCREASE IN THE
PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES STRESS.
TEXTILES 3) RUBBER-LIKE BEHAVIOR- CHARACTERIZED BY THE
ADHESIVES ABSENCE OF A YIELD POINT MAXIMUM BUT EXHIBITING A
POLYMERS ON RESEARCH PLATEAU IN AN ENGINEERING STRESS/STRAIN CURVE. OFTEN
NANOCOMPOSITES RUBBER-LIKE BEHAVIOR EXHIBITS A TERMINAL INCREASE IN
SMART MATERIALS THE STRESS FOLLOWED BY FAILURE WHICH RESULTS IN A
BIO-BASED POLYMERS TEAR WITH LITTLE PERMANENT DEFORMATION EXHIBITED IN
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THERMOPLASTICS THE FAILURE SURFACE, E.G. JELL-O
Thermoplastics are polymers that can be softened through Materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics
heating before being processed and then left to cool and when deformed under stress are known to be viscoelastic.
harden. Once cooled, they show no changes in chemical And this would include any polymeric material—from butter
properties, meaning they can be remelted and re-used to bicycle helmets.
several times Fractures can be characterized by a series of concentric crack
Elastic deformation in thermoplastics is the result of two growth bands that grow from the surface initiation site
mechanisms. An applied stress causes the covalent \ bonds PLASTICS ARE MATERIALS THAT HAVE SOME STRUCTURAL
within the chain to stretch and distort, allowing the chains to RIGIDITY UNDER LOAD AND ARE USED IN GENERAL-PURPOSE
elongate elastically. When the stress is removed, recovery APPLICATIONS.
from this distortion is almost instantaneous. POLYETHYLENE, POLYPROPYLENE, POLY(VINYL CHLORIDE),
PLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF AMORPHOUS THERMOPLASTICS POLYSTYRENE, AND THE FLUOROCARBONS, EPOXIES,
These polymers deform plastically when the stress exceeds PHENOLICS, AND POLYESTERS MAY ALL BE CLASSIFIED AS
the yield strength PLASTICS. THEY HAVE A WIDE VARIETY OF COMBINATIONS
CREEP AND STRESS RELAXATION OF PROPERTIES. SOME PLASTICS ARE VERY RIGID AND
IN A SIMPLE MODEL, THE RATE AT WHICH STRESS BRITTLE
RELAXATION OCCURS IS RELATED TO THE RELAXATION TIME ELASTOMERS ARE ALWAYS AMORPHOUS AND ARE USED IN
L, WHICH IS CONSIDERED A PROPERTY OF THE POLYMER SERVICE, ANY RUBBERY MATERIAL COMPOSED OF LONG
(MORE COMPLEX MODELS CONSIDER A DISTRIBUTION OF CHAINLIKE MOLECULES, OR POLYMERS, THAT ARE CAPABLE
RELAXATION TIMES). THE STRESS AFTER TIME T IS GIVEN BY OF RECOVERING THEIR ORIGINAL SHAPE AFTER BEING
WHERE “LOWER CASE Σ” IS THE ORIGINAL STRESS. THE STRETCHED TO GREAT EXTENTS
RELAXATION TIME, IN TURN, DEPENDS ON THE VISCOSITY FIBERS
AND, THUS, THE TEMPERATURE: POLYMERS ARE CAPABLE OF BEING DRAWN INTO LONG
FILAMENTS HAVING AT LEAST A 100:1 LENGTH-TO-DIAMETER
RATIO. MOST COMMERCIAL FIBER POLYMERS ARE USED IN
WHERE “LOWER CASE Σ” IS A CONSTANT AND Q IS THE THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, BEING WOVEN OR KNIT INTO CLOTH
ACTIVATION ENERGY RELATED TO THE EASE WITH WHICH OR FABRIC
POLYMER CHAINS SLIDE PAST EACH OTHER. STRESS MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
RELAXATION OCCURS MORE RAPIDLY AT HIGHER Coatings
TEMPERATURES AND FOR POLYMERS WITH A LOW COATINGS ARE FREQUENTLY APPLIED TO THE SURFACE OF
VISCOSITY. THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLE SHOWS HOW STRESS MATERIALS TO SERVE ONE OR MORE OF THE FOLLOWING
RELAXATION CAN BE ACCOUNTED FOR WHILE DESIGNING FUNCTIONS: (1) TO PROTECT THE ITEM FROM THE
WITH POLYMERS. ENVIRONMENT, WHICH MAY PRODUCE CORROSIVE OR
TOUGHNESS THE ABILITY OF A POLYMER TO EXHIBIT PLASTIC DETERIORATIVE REACTIONS. (2) TO IMPROVE THE ITEM’S
DEFORMATION AND RESISTANCE TO AN IMPACT LOAD APPEARANCE. (3) TO PROVIDE ELECTRICAL INSULATION
WITHOUT FAILURE, IS A VERY DESIRABLE PROPERTY OF A Adhesives - ADHESIVES - IS A SUBSTANCE USED TO BOND
MATERIAL OR PRODUCT TOGETHER THE SURFACES OF TWO SOLID MATERIALS
IMPACT BEHAVIOR - THE IMPACT PROPERTIES OF THE (TERMED ADHERENDS). THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF BONDING
POLYMERIC MATERIALS ARE DIRECTLY RELATED TO THE MECHANISMS: MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL. *MECHANICAL
OVERALL TOUGHNESS OF THE MATERIAL. BONDING - THERE IS ACTUAL PENETRATION OF THE
DEFORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE POLYMERS- AT A ADHESIVE INTO SURFACE PORES AND CREVICES. *CHEMICAL
MICROSCOPIC LEVEL, DEFORMATION IN POLYMERS BONDING - INVOLVES INTERMOLECULAR FORCES BETWEEN
INVOLVES STRETCHING AND ROTATING OF MOLECULAR THE ADHESIVE AND ADHEREND
BONDS. Films - POLYMERIC MATERIALS HAVE FOUND WIDESPREAD
ELASTOMERS (RUBBERS)
CRAZING - CRAZING IS AN UNDERLYING MODE OF POLYMER USE IN THE FORM OF THIN FILMS. FILMS HAVING
Geometric Isomers
FRACTURE AND HAS BEEN WIDELY STUDIED THICKNESSES BETWEEN
Isoprene or natural rubber 0.025 AND 0.125 MM (0.001 AND
BLUSHING - BLUSHING TAKES PLACE WHEN MOISTURE GOES 0.005 IN.) ARE FABRICATED AND USED EXTENSIVELY AS BAGS
In the transform of isoprene, the hydrogen atom and the
THROUGH CONDENSATION ON A COATED SURFACE DURING FOR group
PACKAGING
methyl at the FOOD
centerPRODUCTS AND
of the repeat OTHER
unit are located on
THE PROCESS OF CURING. AT TIMES, THE MOISTURE MAY BE MERCHANDISE, AS TEXTILE PRODUCTS, AND INThis
A HOST OF
opposite sides of the newly formed double bond.
GENERATED FROM POROUS SUBSTRATES. BLUSHING OTHER USES
arrangement leads to relatively straight chains; the polymer
MANIFESTS AS MILKY OR WHITE PATCHES, WITH HAZY Foam - FOAMS AREaPLASTIC MATERIALS THAT CONTAIN A
crystallizes and forms hard rigid polymer called gutta percha
EFFECTS IN CLEAR TYPES OF COATINGS RELATIVELY HIGH VOLUME PERCENTAGE OF SMALL PORES
STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR AND TRAPPED GAS BUBBLES
1) BRITTLE FRACTURE- CHARACTERIZED BY NO YIELD POINT, Silicones - SILICONES HAVE A DIVERSE SET OF DESIRABLE BIO-
A REGION OF HOOKEAN BEHAVIOR AT LOW STRAINS AND PROPERTIES AND ARE USED IN A WIDE VARIETY OF
FAILURE CHARACTERIZED BY CHONCHOIDAL LINES SUCH AS APPLICATION TYPES. DEPENDING ON DEGREE OF
SEEN IN INORGANIC GLASSES.
CROSSLINKING, SILICONES CAN BE PREPARED TO EXIST AS
ELASTOMERS, GELS, AND FLUIDS
POLYMER BIOMATERIALS
MAY BE DIVIDED INTO TWO MAIN CLASSIFICATIONS:
SYNTHETIC (MAN-MADE)
NATURAL (DERIVED FROM PLANTS OR ANIMALS)

Ultra-High-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene is a linear

polyethylene that has an extremely high molecular weight.
Its typical Mw is approximately 4 × 106 g/mol, which is an
order of magnitude greater than that of high-density
polyethylene.
It is used in some important biomedical applications. When
crosslinked (chemically or by ionizing radiation). UHMWPE
materials are extremely resistant to wear and abrasion, have
very low coefficients of friction, and offer self-lubricating and
nonstick surfaces
Thermoplastic elastomers are a type of polymeric material
that, at ambient conditions, exhibits elastomeric (or rubbery)
behavior yet is thermoplastic
Liquid crystal polymers are a group of chemically complex
and structurally distinct materials that have unique
properties and are used in diverse applications. The
molecular structures in both melt and solid states for
semicrystalline, amorphous, and liquid crystal polymers