THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

3. Taught Curriculum, From what has been written or planned, the curriculum has to be implemented or
taught. The teacher and the learners will put life to the written curriculum. The skill of the teacher to
facilitate learning based on the written curriculum with the aid of instructional materials and facilities
will be necessary. The taught curriculum will depend largely on the teaching style of the teacher and the
learning style of the learners.

4. Supported Curriculum. This is described as support materials that the teacher needs to make learning
and teaching meaningful. These include print materials like books, charts, posters, worksheets, or non-
print materials like Power Point presentation, movies, slides, models, realias, mock-ups and other
electronic illustrations. Supported curriculum also includes facilities where learning occurs outside or
inside the four-walled building. These include the playground, science laboratory, audio-visual rooms,
zoo, museum, market or the plaza. These are the places where authentic learning through direct
experiences occur.

5. Assessed Curriculum. Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluated to find out if the teacher
has succeeded or not in facilitating learning. In the process of teaching and at the end of every lesson or
teaching episode, an assessment is made. It can either be assessment for learning, assessment as
learning or assessment of learning. If the process is to find the progress of learning, then the assessed
curriculum is for learning, but if it is to find out how much has been learned or mastered, then it is
assessment of learning. Either way, such curriculum is the assessed curriculum.

6. Learned Curriculum. How do we know if the student has learned? We always believe that if a student
changed behavior, he/she has learned. For example, from a non-reader to a reader or from not knowing
to knowing or from being disobedient to being obedient. The positive outcome of teaching is an
indicator of learning. These are measured by tools in assessment, which can indicate the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor outcomes. Learned curriculum will also demonstrate higher order and critical
thinking and lifelong skills.

7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum. This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but has a great impact on the
behavior of the learner. Peer influence, school environment, media, parental pressures, societal
changes, cultural practices, natural calamities, are some factors that create the hidden curriculum.
Teachers should be sensitive and aware of this hidden curriculum. Teachers must have good foresight to
include these in the written curriculum, in order to bring to the surface what are hidden.
Chapter 1-Curriculum Essentials Module 1- The Teacher and the School Curtoutum Lesson 1.1-The
Curricule in Schools

1. Basic Education. This level includes Kindergarten, Grade I to Grade 6 for elementary; and for
secondary, Grade 7 to Grade 10, for the Junior High School and Grade 11 and 12 and for the Senior High
School. Each of the levels has its specific recommended curriculum. The new basic education levels are
provided in the K to 12 Enhanced Curriculum of 2013 of the Department of Education.

2. Technical Vocational Education. This is post-secondary technical vocational educational and training
taken care of Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). For the Tech Voc track in
SHS of DepEd, DepEd and TESDA work in close coordination.

3. Higher Education. This includes the Baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees and the Graduate Degrees
(Master's and Doctorate) which are under the regulation of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED)

Lesson 2.2 Approaches to the School Curriculum

Desired Learning Outcomes

> Describe the different approaches to school curriculum > Explain by examples how the approaches
clarify the definition of curriculum

> Reflect on how the three approaches interrelate with each other

From the various definitions, we realize that curriculum is viewed in many ways. Let us look back and
use the definitions as a way of classifying how curriculum is viewed. In this lesson, let us look at the
curriculum as either a Content, a Process or a Product to fully understand the different perspectives of
what curriculum is all about. This can be one way of approaching a curriculum.

Three Ways of Approaching a Curriculum

Curriculum can be approached or seen in three ways. It can be defined as a content, a process or an
outcome. If you examine the definitions provided by the experts in the field, there are three ways of
approaching a curriculum. First, is to approach it as content or a body of knowledge to be transmitted,
Second, is to approach it as a product or the learning outcomes desired of learners. Third, is to approach
it as a process or what actually happens in the classroom when the curriculum is practised.

1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge

It is quite common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum to a topic outline, subject matter, or
concepts to be included in the syllabus or a books. For example, a primary school mathematics
curriculum consists of topics on addition, multiplication, subtraction, division, distance, weight and
many more. Another example is in secondary school science that involves the study of biological science,
physical science, environmental science and earth science. Textbooks tend to begin with biological
science such are plants and animals: physical science with the physical elements, force and motion:
earth science with the layers of the earth and environmental science with the interaction of the
biological and physical science and earth's phenomena, climate, vegetation followed by economic
activities such as agriculture, mining, industries, urbanization and so forth.

If curriculum is equated as content, then the focus will be the body of knowledge to be transmitted to
students using appropriate teaching method. There can be a likelihood that teaching will be limited to
the acquisition of facts, concepts and principles of the subject matter, however, the content or subject
matter can also be taken as a means to an end.

All curricula have content regardless of their design or models The fund of knowledge is the repository
of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man from the explorations of th

earth and as products of research. In most educational setting, curriculum is anchored on a body of
knowledge or discipline.

There are four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum. These are:
1. Topical Approach, where much content is based on knowledge, and experiences are included; 2.
Concept Approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and sub-concepts and their interaction,
with relatedness emphasized;

3. Thematic Approach as a combination of concepts that develop conceptual structures, and 4. Modular
Approach that leads to complete units of instruction.

Criteria in the Selection of Content

There are some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge or subject matter. (Scheffer, 1970 in
Bilbao, et al 2015)

1. Significance. Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and generalization that should
attain the overall purpose of the curriculum. It is significant if content becomes the means of developing
cognitive, affective or psychomotor skills of the learner. As education is a way of preserving culture,
content will be significant when this will address the cultural context of the learners.

2. Validity. The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity. Knowledge becomes obsolete with
the fast changing times. Thus there is a need for validity check and verification at a regular interval,
because content which may be valid in its original form may not continue to be valid in the current
times.

3. Utility. Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners who are going to use
these. Utility can be relative to time. It may have been useful in the past, but may not be useful now or
in the future. Questions like: Will I use this in my future job? Will it add meaning to my life as a lifelong
learner? Or will the subject matter be useful in solving current concerns?

4. Learnability. The complexity of the content should be within the range of experiences of the learners.
This is based on the psychological principles of learning. Appropriate organization of content standards
and sequencing of contents are two basic principles that would influence learnability.

5. Feasibility. Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, resources available, expertise
of the teachers and the nature of the learners? Are there contents of learning which can be learned
beyond the formal teaching-learning engagement? Are there opportunities provided to learn these?

6. Interest. Will the learners take interest in the content? Why? Are the contents meaningful? What
value will the contents have in the present and future life of the learners? Interest is one of the driving
forces for students to learn better.
The selection of the subject matter or content, aside from the seven criteria mentioned earlier, may
include the following guide.

Guide in the Selection of the Content in the Curriculum

1. Commonly used in the daily life

2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners

3. Valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career

4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and integration

5. Important in the transfer of learning to other disciplines

BASICS: Fundamental Principles for Curriculum Contents

Palma in 1952 proposed that the contents in the curriculum should be guided by Balance, Articulation,
Sequence, Integration and Continuity. However, in designing a curriculum contents Hunkins and
Ornstein (2018) added an important element which is Scope, hence from BASIC to BASICS initials of
Balance, Articulation, Sequence, Integration, Continuity.

Balance. Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth. This will guarantee that significant
contents should be covered to avoid too much or too little of the contents needed with in the time
allocation.

Articulation. As the content complexity progresses educational levels, vertically or horizontally, across
the same discipline smooth connections or bridging should be provided. This will assure no gaps or
overlaps in the content. Seamlessness in the content is desired and can be assured if there is articulation
in the curriculum. Thus, there is a need off team among writers and implementers of curriculum. the

Sequence. The logical arrangement of the content refers to sequence th or order. This can be done
vertically for deepening the content c horizontally for broadening the same content. In both ways, the
pattern usually is from easy to complex, what is known to the unknown, what is current to something in
the future. or

Integration. Content in the curriculum does not stand alone or in isolation. It has some ways of
relatedness or connectedness to other contents. Contents should be infused in other disciplines
whenever possible. This will provide a wholistic or unified view of curriculum instead of segmentation.
Contents which can be integrated to other disciplines acquire a higher premium than when isolated.

Continuity. Content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow as it was before, to where it
is now, and where it will be in the future. It should be perennial. It endures time. Content may not be in
the same form and substance as seen in the past since changes and developments in curriculum occur.
Constant repetition, reinforcement and enhancement of content are all elements of continuity.

Scope. The breadth and depth of the curriculum content are vital in a curriculum. Scope consists of all
the contents, topics, learning experiences comprising the curriculum. In layman's term scope refers to
coverage. The scope shall consider the cognitive level, affective domain and psychomotor skills in
identifying the contents. Other factors will be considered but caution is given to overloading of contents.
"More contents is not always better."

Hence the process of teaching and learning becomes the central concern of teachers to emphasize
critical thinking, and heads-on, hands-on learning and many others.

As a process, curriculum links to the content. While content provides materials on what to teach, the
process provides curriculum on how to teach the content. When accomplished, the process will result to
various curriculum experiences for the learners. The intersection of the content and process is called the
Pedagogical Content Knowledge or PCK. It will address the question: If you have this content, how will
you teach it?

This section will not discuss in detail the different teaching strategies from where learning experiences
are derived. Rather, it will describe how the process as a descriptor of curriculum is understood. The
content is the substance of the curriculum, how the contents will be communicated and learned will be
addressed by the process.

To teachers, the process is very critical. This is the other side of the coin: instruction, implementation,
teaching. These three words connote the process in the curriculum. When educators ask teachers: What
curriculum are you using? Some of the answers will be: 1. Problem- based. 2. Hands-on, Minds-on 3.
Cooperative Learning 4. Blended Curriculum 5. On-line 6. Case-based and many more. These responses
approach curriculum as a Process. These are the ways of teaching, ways of managing the content,
guiding learning, methods of teaching and learning and strategies of teaching or delivery modes. In all of
these, there are activities and actions that every teacher and learner do together or learners are guided
by the teacher. Some of the strategies are time- tested traditional methods while others are emerging
delivery modes.

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.

1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies are means to achieve the end.

2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the desired learning
outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher.

3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners' desire to develop the cognitive, affective,
psychomotor domains in each individual.
4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.

5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be described as cognitive,
affective and psychomotor.

6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An effective process will always
result to learning outcomes. 7. Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in ìthe
implementation of the curriculum.

2. Curriculum as a Process

We have seen that the curriculum can be approached as content. On the other hand, it can also be
approached as a process. Here, curriculum is not seen as a physical thing or a noun, but as a verb or an
action. It is the interaction among the teachers, students and content. As a process, curriculum happens
in the classroom as the questions asked by the teacher and the learning activities engaged in by the
students. It is an active process with emphasis on the context in which the processes occur. Used in
analogy of the a recipe in a cookbook, a recipe is the content while the ways of cooking is the process.
Curriculuta as a process is seen as a scheme about the practice of teaching. It is not a package of
materials or a syllabus of content to be covered. The classroom is only part of the learning environment
where the teacher places action using the content to achieve an outcome.

Hence the process of teaching and learning becomes the central concern of teachers to emphasize
critical thinking, and heads-on, hands-on learning and many others.

As a process, curriculum links to the content. While content provides materials on what to teach, the
process provides curriculum on how to teach the content. When accomplished, the process will result to
various curriculum experiences for the learners. The intersection of the content and process is called the
Pedagogical Content Knowledge or PCK. It will address the question: If you have this content, how will
you teach it?

This section will not discuss in detail the different teaching strategies from where learning experiences
are derived. Rather, it will describe how the process as a descriptor of curriculum is understood. The
content is the substance of the curriculum, how the contents will be communicated and learned will be
addressed by the process.

To teachers, the process is very critical. This is the other side of the coin: instruction, implementation,
teaching. These three words connote the process in the curriculum. When educators ask teachers: What
curriculum are you using? Some of the answers will be: 1. Problem- based. 2. Hands-on, Minds-on 3.
Cooperative Learning 4. Blended Curriculum 5. On-line 6. Case-based and many more. These responses
approach curriculum as a Process. These are the ways of teaching, ways of managing the content,
guiding learning, methods of teaching and learning and strategies of teaching or delivery modes. In all of
these, there are activities and actions that every teacher and learner do together or learners are guided
by the teacher. Some of the strategies are time- tested traditional methods while others are emerging
delivery modes.

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.

1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies are means to achieve the end.

2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the desired learning
outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher.

3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners' desire to develop the cognitive, affective,
psychomotor domains in each individual.

4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.

5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be described as cognitive,
affective and psychomotor.

6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An effective process will always
result to learning outcomes.

7. Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in the implementation of the curriculum.

3. Curriculum as a Product

Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, or process that gives action using the
content, it has also been viewed as a product. In other words, product is what the students desire to
achieve as learning outcomes.

The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills and values to function
effectively and efficiently. The real purpose of education is to bring about significant changes in
students' pattern of behavior. It is important that any statement of objectives or intended outcomes of
the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. Central to the approach is the
formulation of behavioral objectives stated as intended learning outcomes or desired products so that
content and teaching methods may be organized and the results evaluated. Products of learning are
operationalized as knowledge, skills, and values.

Curriculum product is expressed in the form of outcomes which are referred to as the achieved learning
outcomes. There may be several desired learning outcomes, but if the process is not successful, then no
learning outcomes will be achieved. These learned or achieved learning outcomes are demonstrated by
the person who has meaningful experiences in the curriculum. All of these are result of planning.
content and processes in the curriculum

Lesson 2.3 Curriculum Development: Processes and Models

Desired Learning Outcome Explain and summarize the curriculum development process

and models

Curriculum is a dynamic process. In curriculum development, there are always changes that occur that
are intended for improvement. To do this, there are models presented to us from well-known
curricularists like Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, Galen Saylor and William Alexander which would help clarify
the process of curriculum development. There are many other models, but let us use the three for this
lesson.

Curriculum Development Process

Curriculum development is a dynamic process involving many different people and procedures.
Development connotes changes which is systematic. A change for the better means alteration,
modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive changes, development should
be purposeful, planned and progressive. Usually it is linear and follows a logical step-by-step fashion
involving the following phases: curriculum planning, curriculum design, curriculum implementation and
curriculum evaluation. Generally, most models involve four phases.

1. Curriculum planning considers the school vision, mission and goals. It also includes the philosophy or
strong education belief of the school. All of these will eventually be translated to classroom desired
learning outcomes for the learners.

2. Curriculum designing is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection and organization
of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences or activities and the selection of the
assessment procedure and tools to measure achieved learning outcomes. A curriculum design will also
include the resources to be utilized and the statement of the intended learning outcomes.

3. Curriculum implementing is putting into action the plan which is based on the curriculum design in the
classroom setting or the learning environment. The teacher is the facilitator of learning and together
with the learners, uses the curriculum as design guides to what will transpire in the classroom with the
end in view of achieving the intended learning outcomes. Implementing the curriculum is where action
takes place. It involves the activities that transpire in every teacher's classroom where learning becomes
an active process,

4. Curriculum evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been achieved. This
procedure is on- going as in finding out the progress of learning (formative) or the mastery of learning
(summative). Along the way, evaluation will determine the factors that have hindered or supported the
implementation. It will also pinpoint where improvement can be made and corrective measures,
introduced. The result of evaluation is very important for decision-making of curriculum planners and
implementors.

Curriculum Development Process Models

1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles Also known as Tyler's Rationale, the curriculum development
model emphasizes the planning phase. This is presented in his book Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction. He posited four fundamental principles which are illustrated as answers to the following
questions:

1. What education purposes should schools seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? 3. How can
these educational experiences be effectively organized?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?
Tyler's model shows that in curriculum development, the following considerations should be made:

1. Purposes of the school

2. Educational experiences related to the purposes

3. Organization of the experiences

4. Evaluation of the experience

2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

Hilda Taba improved on Tyler's model. She believed that teachers should participate in developing a
curriculum. As a grassroots approach. Taba begins from the bottom, rather than from the top as what
Tyler proposed. She presented six major steps to her linear model which are the following:

1. Diagnosis of learners' needs and expectations of the larger

society 2. Formulation of learning objectives

3. Selection of learning contents

4. Organization of learning contents

5. Selection of learning experiences 6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing
3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as consisting of four steps.
Curriculum is "a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and
related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school center."

1. Goals, Objectives and Domains. Curriculum planners begin by specifying the major educational goals
and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain:
personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and specialization. The goals,
objectives and domains are identified and chosen based on research findings, accreditation standards,
and views of the different stakeholders.

2. Curriculum Designing. Designing a curriculum follows after appropriate learning opportunities are
determined and how each opportunity is provided. Will the curriculum be designed along the lines of
academic disciplines, or according to student needs and interests or along themes? These are some of
the questions that need to be answered at this stage of the development process

3. Curriculum Implementation. A designed curriculum

is now ready for implementation. Teachers then prepare instructional plans where instructional
objectives are specified and appropriate teaching methods and strategies are utilized to achieve the
desired learning outcomes among students.

4. Evaluation. The last step of the curriculum model is evaluation. A comprehensive evaluation using a
variety of evaluation techniques is recommended. It should involve the total educational programme of
the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students.
Through the evaluation process. curriculum planners and developers can determine whether or not the
goals of the school and the objectives of instruction have been met.

All the models utilized the processes of (1) curriculum planning, (2) curriculum designing. (3) curriculum
implementing, and (4) curriculum evaluating