Science Inquiry Skills (SIS)

Summary Booklet

 Science inquiry skills are fundamental to students investigating the social, ethical, and
environmental impacts and influences of the development of scientific understanding
and the applications, possibilities, and limitations of science. These skills enable
students to critically consider the evidence they obtain so that they can present and
justify conclusions.

 Science Inquiry Skills cover the following:

 Biopsychosocial Model
 Research Designs
 Research Methods
 Measuring Data
 Evaluating Data
 Ethical Considerations

Biopsychosocial Model
 • The biopsychosocial model states that psychological health, illness, treatments, and factors are affected and/or
caused by the interaction between biological, psychological, and social factors.
• One approach is not enough to fully explain behaviour, so it must be examined as a holistic concept.
• All three perspectives should be explored, but just as important is how the three perspectives interact with
each other i.e., how biological can impact psychological, which impacts social etc.

Biological
• Contributes genetic factors including neurochemistry and previous head/body trauma or injury.
• Examples:
• Greatest risk factor for developing schizophrenia is a first degree relative having the illness.
• D2 dopamine receptors more prevalent in patients with addiction compared to the rest of the
population.
• Can also include other biological factors, including hormones, disease, age, sex, medication/drugs, alcohol,
immune response, flight or fight, sleep.

Psychological
• Contributes factors of cognition and thinking, particularly cognitive distortions which can trigger the onset of
mental illness and psychological stress such as anxiety and depression.
• Example:
• Trauma and neglect in childhood can shape thinking and create negative emotions leading to
heightened emotions.
• Can also include other psychological factors including learning, emotions, attitudes, memory, perceptions,
beliefs.

Social
• Contributes factors such as cultural values, religion, family, and social expectations. Many mental illnesses
are heavily influenced by cultural values of the community and society.
• Can include other social factors including social support, family background, socio-economic status, gender
expectations, interpersonal relationships, social media.
• Example:
• Anorexia and bulimia are less common in non-western countries as ‘beauty’ is not attributed to
‘thinness.’ Voluptuous women are seen as the ‘ideal’ in Spain and Venezuela, where thinness is an
indication of poor health.
• Also, an increase in eating disorders, body dysmorphia, depression and anxiety in the male and gender
diverse populations due to pressure of socio-cultural factors i.e., social ‘ideals’ > reinforced by
psychological and biological factors.

Scientific Nature of Psychology

• Psychology approaches the study of behaviour in a scientific way. This involves the use of the scientific
method.
• Scientific method: systematic approach for planning, conducting, and reporting research that involves
collecting empirical evidence.
• Empirical evidence: data (or information) collected directly by observation or experimentation. Allows
Psychologists to draw accurate conclusions which tend to be free of personal bias.

Variables
• Every research design in psychology has at least one independent and one dependent variable.
• Independent variable (IV): deliberately manipulated/changed by the researcher to determine effect on
dependent variable.
• Dependent variable (DV): factor that is measured as a result of the IV > depends on the IV.
Important in scientific research to operationalise variables, meaning we are as specific as possible with what we are
measuring.
Example: A researcher wanted to determine whether drinking caffeine or water made athletes run faster. We can
identify:
IV: Caffeine
DV: Time

To make this clearer for research purposes, we need to operationalise the variables above:

Operationalised IV: The type of drink (water vs. caffeine)

Operationalised DV: time taken to run 400 meters.

Constant variables: a factor that should remain the same throughout an experiment.
Extraneous variables: any factor that interferes with the data and has an unwanted effect on the DV. Usually too
difficult, unethical, or impossible to control.

Types of extraneous variables:

• Participant variables: biological sex, intelligence, personality, motivation, emotional state, cultural
background etc.
• Placebo effect: belief in the treatment working rather than the treatment itself. Very common in drug trials.
• Experimenter effects: the experimenters influence on results e.g., being tired, moody, unwell or bring in own
bias.
• Demand characteristics: participants behave in a socially desirable way to live up to expectations.
Knowledge of this can be good (behave according to what's expected) or bad (know what's going on so
sabotage experiment)
• Situational variables: how participants will react in the experimental environment

Research Designs
• Data is collected using one or more investigation designs. A design is the way in which an investigation is set
up or designed.
• Type of design chosen depends on the hypothesis or question of the researcher.
• Three types:
1. Experimental
2. Observational
3. Qualitative

Experimental designs
Different variations of experimental designs due to sampling of the population:

 Independent groups design

Control group and experimental group are randomly allocated. Most common type to make it representative.
 Matched participants design
Deliberately allocating participants with similar characteristics to each group i.e., two highest scoring
participants on a memory test > one placed in group A, the other in group B.
 Repeated measures design
Uses same participant/s who are exposed to different experimental conditions e.g., Little Albert study an
example of this.

Experimental independent groups design

• Used to test whether one variable or factor influences or causes a change in another variable.

Controlled Experiment:

 Control group: does not receive the treatment (IV)

 Experimental group: does receive the treatment (IV)
 Presence of control group provides standard of comparison against which the researcher can compare the
group’s results in order to determine if the IV had an effect.
  Often, participants do not know which group they are allocated to. This is to ensure participants expectations
don’t influence the results. Process called single-blind procedure.
 When both the participants and experimenter are unaware of the allocation of the IV, it is called a double-
blind procedure.

Controlled Setting

 Experimental designs are usually (but not always) conducted in controlled conditions such as a laboratory.
 Not always conducted inside > may be done outside but still in a controlled area.
 E.g.: examining the effects of coffee on reaction times. Participants kept in laboratory to observe the effects of
caffeine on their reaction to certain stimuli.

Random assignment/random allocation

 Participants are just as likely to be in the experimental group as the control group.
 Goal is to obtain groups that are as alike as possible in terms of characteristics before the IV is introduced.
 Can conclude that any change in behaviour, thoughts or feelings is as a result of IV.

Essential characteristics of experimental design

• Presence of a control group
• Random assignment/allocation (independent groups design)
• Hypothesis testing
• Pre and post testing
• Replication of the experiment
• Cause and effect relationship established between IV and DV

Advantages and disadvantages of experimental design

Advantages
• Maximises control over extraneous variables affecting the DV due to highly controlled nature.
• Can determine cause and effect relationship between IV and DV (if the IV caused and effect on the DV).
• Controlled setting allows for easier replication of the experiment.
Disadvantages
• May be unethical to manipulate certain variables or randomly allocate participants.
• Controlled setting may make it inapplicable to real world (lacks external validity).
• May not represent entire population.

Observational designs
• Used when pre-existing criteria or characteristics are present, such as gender, ethnicity, job status etc.
• Experimenter may choose observational because:
• Too costly to set up experimental design
• Want to examine pre-existing characteristic anyway
• Too unethical to manipulate IV
• E.g., too unethical to randomly allocate children into groups to play violent video games if never been
exposed to them. Would use children who have already played violent video games and children who
have never played them previously.
Have some characteristics which are similar to an experimental research design.

 Both have IV and DV

 Can still have control group
 Both can be done in a controlled way
However, different to experimental in that:

 IV is NOT manipulated
  Groups are NOT randomly allocated
 Usually done in natural setting of participants for a naturalistic observational design
 Can’t imply causation with observational
Essential characteristics of observational designs

• Independent variable is NOT manipulated > pre-existing or too unethical to change

• Allows for research in a natural setting
• Can determine associations between variables but CAN NOT determine cause and effect due to lack of
control from researchers
•
Advantages and disadvantages of observational designs

Advantages
• Allows study of variables that are too unethical, impossible, or too costly to manipulate i.e., violent video
games etc.
• Human behaviour can be observed in natural setting
• May allow for bigger sample sizes
• More likely to have higher external validity

Disadvantages
• Cannot infer cause and effect relationship between variables as greater chance of extraneous variables
• Hard to replicate study if doing naturalistic observation
• Observer bias can negatively affect the results

Qualitative designs
• Used to gain rich, in-depth qualitative data about a topic.
• Three main types:
• Focus group
• Delphi technique
• Interviews
Focus groups

 A group interview that obtains data through discussion between research participants.
 Participants encouraged to talk with one another, ask questions, exchange personal experiences and points of
view etc.
 A facilitator guides the discussion to make sure everyone expresses their views in a respectful way, and keeps
the conversations targeted, constructive and beneficial for the research.
 A note taker will keep notes on the discussion, either through writing or typing. Can also record discussion to
take notes later so nothing is missed.
 Usually between 6 – 10 people however can be bigger.
 Key feature: participants are not experts in field of study.

Delphi technique
• Uses a series of self-administered questionnaires and feedback to obtain the opinion of experts in the
field of interest.
• Usually, data is in written format.
• Experts do not need to be together to give data to researcher
• Questionnaires used to gain consensus on topic of focus.

Interviews
• Can be structured i.e., general conversations with prompts, or structured with strict questions the interviewer
can’t deviate from.
• Usually, a combination of both i.e., semi-structured > questions written ahead of time an asked however
follow up conversations encouraged with permission.
• Can get lengthy qualitative data however sample is usually very small.
Advantages and disadvantages of qualitative designs

Advantages
• Can be much more convenient
• Can gain significant rich, verbal data
• Very useful if little is known about a topic. Can start with qualitative data and then from findings, develop
other designs
• Can get reliable information if using Delphi Technique
• Allows opinions to be expressed on complex issues
Disadvantages
• Cannot generalise results due to subjective nature
• Presence of facilitator and/or others can affect what is said
• Personal bias/extraneous variables can affect data with all types

Research methods
• Tools or techniques psychologists use to obtain data. In other words, type of data collected.
• Three types:
1. Objective quantitative
2. Subjective quantitative
3. Qualitative

Objective

 Free from bias/opinion/personal interpretation

Subjective

 Can be altered by bias/opinion/personal interpretation

Quantitative

 Data using numbers

Qualitative

 Data using words, language, pictures

Objective Quantitative Measures
Standardised Tests
• Scores on test have the same meaning with the same questions.
• Used the same way on each occasion.
• Also referred to as ‘standardisation’

Physiological Measures
• Measure of body functions e.g., heart rates, galvanic skin response, blood pressure etc. Sometimes a
polygraph machine used

Behaviour Counts
• Specific behaviour frequency recorded during a given period of time

Subjective Quantitative Measures

Rating scales
• Participants select their response from a fixed statement.
• Likert scale frequently used.
• ‘Psychology is awesome’
• 1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=neutral, 4=disagree, 5=strongly disagree

Self-reports – with fixed response answers (e.g., yes/no answers, multiple choice answers or rating scales) They
allow the opportunity to ask the same questions of a large portion of people.

Observations – researchers using a scale/checklist will observe targeted behaviour from their perspective.

Advantages and disadvantages of quantitative measures

Advantages

 Usually done in controlled conditions so more likely to be valid

 Can be directly verified if objective, improving validity
 Can get substantial data in a short amount of time
Disadvantages

 Doesn’t explain results, only shows numbers

 Still may be bias if it is subjective
Qualitative Measures
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Pictures
• Descriptions
• Any data using language, pictures etc.

Advantages and disadvantages of qualitative measures

Advantages

 Provides rich and deep data about research topic

 Can get expert opinion with Delphi technique
 Useful if little is known about topic – researchers starting point
Disadvantages

 Usually quite subjective, even if using Delphi technique

 Unable to be verified in controlled setting
Measuring and Presenting Data
Descriptive statistics

 Statistics that are used to organise and describe quantitative data so that they can be interpreted.
 Often summarised by determining a single numerical score that can describe the data for whole group. This is
called central tendency.
 Most common measures for central tendency are:
o Mean
o Median
o Mode

Mean
• Most commonly used in central tendency.
• Also known as the ‘arithmetic average.’
• Adding values together then divide by the total number of values:
• 3, 4,5,7,2,3,5
• 3+4+5+7+2+3+5 = 29
• 29/7 = 4.1

Median
• Score found in exact middle of distribution
• Used when extreme outliers are present in distribution
• Calculated by placing values in ascending order and finding the middle number:
• 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 125 = 7
• 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10 = 6+7 = 13/2 = 6.5
• E.g., 3,4,6,7,8, 10, 125 outliers > the mean = 23.2 = skewed

Mode
• Most frequently occurring value in a set of scores.
• Only used when data is in categories.
• Calculated by counting which value occurs the most:
• 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 7 = 5 (occurs three times)

Data in graphic form to further make inferences about the data.

Graphs

 Line graphs and scatterplots indicates relationship between two variables in an experiment e.g., amount of
sleep a person has had and how tired they report feeling. Used in observational research
 Bar graphs: shows how frequently a particular category of data occurs by using a series of bars that do not
touch e.g., males vs. female responses. Used in experimental research.
 Histograms: show the frequency with which a particular score occurs in a set of data. Different to bar graphs
because the bars touch and represents continuous data, such as age and time. Used in experimental research.
Normal distributions
• Most of the data are located in the centre of the distribution, then tapers
out to a few extremely high or extremely low score either side of the
middle.
• Ideal result for researchers however hard to achieve due to more
extreme scores.

Skewed distributions
• Sometimes the scores are unevenly distributed and cluster to the left or
right of the graph.
• Positively skewed: a curve skewed to the left, indicating a clustering of
large number of ‘low’ scores.
• Negatively skewed: a curve skewed to the right, indicating a clustering
of large number of ‘high’ scores.

Dispersion
• Variability of the values around the central tendency (mean, median and mode).
• Range used to calculate difference between highest and lowest score in a set of scores.
• Standard deviation most common measure of dispersion.
• Standard deviation: average distance between scores in a distribution and the mean.

Standard deviation
• Normal distribution has the majority of scores fall in the middle, so the mean, median, mode have the same
value.
• Scores that cluster closely around the mean have a small standard deviation.
• Scores that are widespread from the mean have a large standard deviation.
• Example:
• A replacement teacher comes to a new school hoping for an easy day’s work. The teacher is offered either of
two classes, both with a mean IQ score of 100. the standard deviation for one class is 2, and the standard
deviation for the other class is 5.
• Since higher standard deviation means more variability in the data, the class with the SD of 5 may take more
effort because they vary more in ability.

Scatterplot correlations
Positive correlation: as one variable increases, so does the other
• E.g., higher revision time results in higher test
scores.
Negative correlation: as one variable increases, the other
decreases.
• E.g., higher avoidance behaviours result in lower
self-esteem scores
No correlation: no relationship between variables
• E.g., no relationship between gender and results in
Psychology exam, so gender not a factor in student
success

Content Analysis
• The process of collating and analysing qualitative data, most often from a focus group.
• Uses coding process to make sense of qualitative data:
1) Familiarity of data
2) Looks for reoccurring words, phrases, that relate to question (themes)
3) Examine themes to find consistencies, patterns
4) Identify common themes, label them
5) Count number of times themes occur in data
 6) Present frequency distribution

Evaluating Data
• An important goal in psychology is to obtain results that are both reliable and valid.
• Need to determine if data is high in validity (accuracy) and reliability (consistency).
• Also need to determine if the sample size is big enough to represent the population in question.

Types of Validity

Validity: The degree to which a research study has produced results that accurately measure what it claimed to
measure.

 Example: measuring your reaction time with a faulty stopwatch = low validity as not an accurate measure of
reaction time.
External validity: the extent to which the results found can be generalised to an entire population.
Ecological validity: the extent to which the results can be generalised to other situations or settings (e.g., real life).

Reliability
• The extent to which an experiment yields the same results on repeated trails (so the degree of stability
exhibited when a measure is repeated under identical conditions.)
• For example: measuring height with a ruler and then double checked it, should get same result = high
reliability.
• A measure can be reliable without being valid, but a measure cannot be valid unless it is reliable.
• Biggest threat to validity and reliability are extraneous variables. Many different types as we have already
seen.
• Good researchers will try and eliminate and/or control these as much as possible before starting research.
• Also, researcher making impossible conclusions and not giving accurate instruction.

Sample and population

• Sample: a subsection or smaller group of research participants selected from a larger group of interest, called
the population.
• Population: entire group of research interest from which the sample is drawn.
• Example: researcher interested in television ratings in Adelaide. The population would be all people with
televisions. The sample would be the actual participants in the research.

Types of Samples
• Convenience Sampling: selecting the sample from a group of people the researcher has access to e.g., high
school teacher choosing sample from own classes. Very convenient but usually contains a range of bias.
• Random Sampling: Every member of the targeted population has equal chance of being selected. Most
desirable option for researchers > increases representativeness. Involves selecting names at random.
• Stratified Sampling: Breaks down target population into smaller groups, then random sample is chosen from
the smaller groups e.g., sample from school, select from males and females, year levels, different cultural
backgrounds etc.

Sample size
• Important to consider whether sample size is big enough to draw conclusions from.
• 30 participants used for attitudes towards migration?
• The more participants in a study, the more data can be collected = more consistent conclusions can be drawn.

Representativeness
• Important that participants represent the whole population in question.
• Studying societies attitudes towards migration:
• Using all female participants between 20 and 40 years
• Using both genders equally aged between 18-75
Ethics in Psychology
• Researcher must take into consideration obvious or potential ethical issues involved.
• Researchers’ responsibility that participants are not put under major physical, mental, emotional, financial
stress or harm.
• Researchers must follow five key ethical principles:
1. Informed consent
2. Voluntary participation
3. Confidentiality
4. Right to withdraw
5. Debriefing

Informed consent
• Participants need to be appropriately informed of the type of study and the reasons for the research prior to
agreeing to participate.
• Informed of all rights, risks and aim of investigation.
• Informed of right to withdraw.
• First language to participants.
• Must never involve bribery or coercion.
• Consent form essential.
• Participants under 18 must have parent/caregiver consent.

Voluntary participation
• Researcher needs to ensure that participants consent to be involved in the research voluntarily.
• Participants cannot be bribed, threatened, or coerced.
• No negative consequences for refusal.

Confidentiality
• Participants have the right to privacy so any details of their involvement cannot be disclosed unless written
consent is obtained.
• No personal information released (names, addresses etc.)
• Anonymity is acceptable
• Often ID numbers allocated to participants
• Applies to storage of data, access of data, publication

Right to withdraw
• Researcher must inform participants they may withdraw from the study at any time without explanation.
• Will not incur any negative consequences
• Sometimes researcher will withdraw participant/s themselves

Debriefing
• Occurs AFTER the investigation or experiment is completed
• Participants are debriefed of the purpose of the research
• Researcher explains process of what will occur with the data
• Answers any questions participants may have
• Informs participants of deception (if any)

Other ethical considerations

Accurate reporting
• Researchers have a duty to publish their results
• Give complete information about research
• Cannot fabricate results and/or take credit for other psychologists/researchers work

Deception
• Some investigation needs bias to establish data
• Only done if no significant physical, emotional, psychological, financial, or social harm is done
 • Only used if there is no other way to achieve aim of research
• Must be informed in debriefing

General wellbeing
• The wellbeing of participants needs to always be taken into account before, during and after any research
study.
• Researcher/s must ensure no general harm is coming to participant, nor any potential consequences after the
study is completed.
• Example: not ethical to make children eat unhealthy food to measure activity levels – children could stay
overweight which could impact on their health.

Use of animals in research

• Code of ethics in Australia is very strict.
• Researcher needs to consider:
• Welfare of the animal
• Use of animal justified
• Avoid pain and distress
• Know the correct maintenance, care, and handling of animal