American Journal of Environmental Protection

2017; 6(6): 144-155

http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ajep
doi: 10.11648/j.ajep.20170606.12
ISSN: 2328-5680 (Print); ISSN: 2328-5699 (Online)

Evaluation of Accidental Atmospheric Releases of Chlorine

and Butane from a Mobile Source Using ALOHA and
MARPLOT
Noura Mohammad Al-Sarawi
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Florida International University, Miami, USA

Email address:
[email protected]

To cite this article:

Noura Mohammad Al-Sarawi. Evaluation of Accidental Atmospheric Releases of Chlorine and Butane from a Mobile Source Using ALOHA
and MARPLOT. American Journal of Environmental Protection. Vol. 6, No. 6, 2017, pp. 144-155. doi: 10.11648/j.ajep.20170606.12

Received: November 16, 2017; Accepted: November 24, 2017; Published: January 17, 2018

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the extend of the threat zone of two mobile accidental atmospheric
releases of chlorine and butane on the I-95 Highway by estimating the downwind dispersion of the chemical plumes using the
numerical model ALOHA (Area Locations of Hazardous Atmospheres) and by graphing the boundaries of the threat zone
using MARPLOT (Mapping Application for Response, Planning, and Local Operational Tasks). In addition, to assess the risk
of exposure at two points of interest from the chlorine accident, and to measure the extent of the flammable zone; the area
where a flash fire or a vapor cloud explosion could occur at some point after the release begins, resulting from the butane
accident. Moreover, the aim is to study the stability class effect on indoor and outdoor concentrations and its effect on distance
of the flammable zones. The paper conclude that the stability class has a significant effect on the prediction of the size of the
toxic threat zone under different atmospheric dispersion conditions. In addition, the size of the area impacted after a chemical
release depends on the characteristics of the chemical along with the meteorological and atmospheric conditions.
Keywords: Hazardous, Mobile Accidents, Atmosphere, Chlorine, Risk Analysis, Numerical Model

2016 (Table 1) [13]. Highway accidental spills may cause

1. Introduction severe harmful effects on people exposed instantaneously to
Over one million hazardous material shipments are carried the release, resident living nearby, and even kids attending
mostly by trucks, containing toxic and flammable liquids or schools near the area. Numerical dispersion models and the
gases daily in the United States [1]. According to the U.S. prediction of fate and transport of chemicals released into the
Department of Transportation Pipeline and Hazardous atmosphere is a very crucial research area because of the
Materials, 4,533 in transit accident, 289 in transit storage, threats on human health and the environment accompanied
3,292 loading, and 8,361 unloading spills occurred only in by accidental release of hazardous substances.
Table 1. Highway HAZMAT Summary by Transportation Phase in 2016.

Transport Phase Incidents Hospitalized Non-Hospitalized Fatalities Damages

In transit 4,533 1 22 7 $36,084,608
In transit Storage 289 1 0 1 $876,652
Loading 3,292 2 20 0 $3,183,282
Unloading 8,361 9 88 0 $3,511,812

The numerical dispersion model ALOHA is a user-friendly release [11]. ALOHA was developed by the United States
Gaussian approach used to estimate the downwind dispersion Environmental Protection Agency and the National Oceanic
of a chemical cloud based on the toxicology and physical and Atmospheric Administration to assist chemical
characteristics of the released chemical, atmospheric emergency planners and responders. It can simulate the
condition, and specific circumstances of the accidental dispersion for over 900 chemicals and is primarily used in the
145 Noura Mohammad Al-Sarawi: Evaluation of Accidental Atmospheric Releases of Chlorine and Butane from a
Mobile Source Using ALOHA and MARPLOT

simulation of accidental release of hazardous substances and 3. The model is less reliable for conditions of low wind
the dispersion of chemical vapor [9]. ALOHA allows for the speed or very stable atmospheric conditions.
source to be defined in one of four ways (direct source, The rest of the limitations are not to be concerned about
puddle source, tank source, or pipe source) in order to model since the study did not look at point of interest very close to
various accident scenarios. ALOHA deals specifically with the source, Miami’s topography is fairly flat so there is no
human health hazards associated with inhalation of toxic need to account for terrain steering effects, for both scenarios
chemical vapors, thermal radiation from chemical fires, and pure chemicals was choose so there is no need to model
the effects of the pressure wave from vapor-cloud explosions evaporation of chemical constituents in a mixture or solution,
[5]. Yet, ALOHA have some limitations that the user should and since the release is instantaneous, there is no need for
be aware of. According to ALOHA Guidance Report, the more than one hour dispersion prediction and the predicted
model limitations are: dispersion is less than 6 kilometers. The strengths of the
1. Results are less reliable for conditions of low wind model can be summarized as user friendly, contains
speed or very stable atmospheric conditions. informative visuals, and designed to minimize operator
2. Results have high uncertainty very close to the source. errors.
3. ALOHA does not allow for one or more years of The model predicts the concentration of the chemical in the
meteorological data to be input and processed so that atmosphere and the plume boundaries then share the resulting
statistical methods can be employed to determine the threat zone simultaneously with MARPLOT. Threat zone
50th percentile (median) or 95th percentile represent the area where the ground level concentration
(unfavorable) concentration results. exceeds the range entered as the level of concern. MARPLOT
4. ALOHA does not model the initial momentum of the is a mapping application that can be used with ALOHA to
release. provide a visual of the extend of the plume using variety of
5. ALOHA does not account for the effects of fires or base maps. The importance of ALOHA simulation results is
chemical reactions. that they provide consequence analysis and risk assessment.
6. ALOHA does not account for terrain steering effects. Results of the simulation could serve as a useful guide to
7. ALOHA does not model dispersion effects associated create rescue plans, emergency responses, and neighborhood
with building wakes. warnings to ensure safety of all the people in the area.
8. ALOHA does not model the evaporation of chemical ALOHA have very powerful integral databases. It includes
constituents in a mixture or solution. data files with physical, chemical, and toxicological
9. ALOHA limits predictions to one hour after the release properties for hundreds of pure chemicals and some common
begins or to distances up to ten kilometers (6 miles). chemical solutions [5]. A chemical name, CAS registry
10. ALOHA does not model processes that affect the number, molecular weight, and toxicological data are
dispersion of particles, such as deposition from included for every chemical in the data file. These are the
gravitational settling [10]. minimum data required for the Direct Source option and the
The model strengths are: Gaussian dispersion model in ALOHA. For other modeling
1. Provide an assessment of the threat zones using options, such as source strength, heavy gas, and modeling for
information that is commonly available to respond fires and explosions require more extensive datasets. Full
during an emergency. datasets are available for about half the chemicals in the data
2. Designed to be easy to use so that responders can use it file; the additional physical property data required were
during a spill event. extracted from the DIPPR data compilation, a proprietary
3. Designed to minimize operator error. database containing physical constants and formulas for
4. Navigation through the model input screens is designed temperature dependent properties (American Institute of
to be intuitive and quick. Chemical Engineers) [5]. Data are available for the following
5. User input data is checked for consistency and properties: critical temperature, critical pressure, critical
reasonableness scenarios. volume, freezing point, normal boiling point, vapor pressure,
6. Results are presented graphically. liquid density, gas density, heat of vaporization, heat of
7. Provide methods for estimating the release and combustion, liquid heat capacity, and vapor heat capacity.
volatilization rate of chemicals for many common Therefore, the model accounts for all the physical and
accident scenarios. chemical difference between the chemicals.
8. Runs quickly on small computers that are easily After evaluating historical accidents and related statistical
transported and affordable for most users sources sponsored by the United States Department of
9. Designed to predict hazards associated with spills of a Energy, chlorine has the highest percentage of fatality risk
scale that are typical of transportation accidents [10]. from exposure to spills and leaks (Figure 1). Therefore, for
It is believed that the model’s limitations affecting the the purpose of this study, the first scenario involves an
predicted results from the simulations are: accident of a transport truck carrying four 62-kilograms
1. The model does not account for fires and chemical chlorine cylinders in the truck bed. The cylinders were
reactions. damaged during the collision and simultaneously release
2. The model does not account for gravitational settling. their contents.
 American Journal of Environmental Protection 2017; 6(6): 144-155 146

According to the U.S. Department of Transportation

Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Intelligence Portal,
accidents involve the transport of flammable–compostable
liquids have the highest percent among other categories of
hazard class accidents (Figure 2). Therefore, the second
simulation involves an accident of transport truck that
resulted in the leakage of 10,000 gallons of butane.
The objectives of this study are to evaluate the
consequences of the accidental atmospheric release of
chlorine on two points of interests, which are a residential
area and a university campus, and to analyze the flammable
threat zone resulting from the leakage of a liquefied
petroleum gas (butane). In addition, is to study the stability
class effect on indoor and outdoor concentrations, and its
Figure 1. Distribution of Total Fatality Risk as a Result of Exposure to Spills effect on distance of the flammable zones.
and Leaks (Bernatik, et al. 2007).

2. Materials and Methodology

A. Acquisition of Meteorological Data
The most important meteorological conditions influencing
the dispersion of dangerous substances are direction and
speed of wind, stability class, and air temperature. In order to
simulate a real-life scenario, Miami International Airport
weather radar was used to gather meteorological data. The
month of interest is August. Shown in figure 3, temperature
is 86F (30C), wind direction is NW, and average wind speed
Figure 2. Incidents by Hazard Class in 2016 [7]. is 9mph (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Meteorological Data (windfinder.com).

B. Acquisition of Level of Contaminants (LOC) provides the option of user specified. For the first case
ALOHA uses the 60-minute exposure period of AEGL scenario of chlorine spill, since the release is instantaneous, it
(Acute Exposure Guideline Levels) as a default option for was decided to use the 10-minute exposure levels of AEGL
determining toxicity levels (Table 2). The model also to analyze the data with more confidence.
Table 2. Final AEGLs for Chlorine in ppm [6].

10 minutes 30 minutes 60 minutes 4 hours 8 hours

AGEL -1 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
AGEL-2 2.8 2.8 2.0 1.0 0.71
AGEL-3 50 28 20 10 7.1

C. Tank and Cylinder Dimensions Butane Tank - According to the HAZMAT Guide for First
Chlorine Cylinder - “The most common sizes are 100 lb Responders, butane tank truck capacity is 11,500 gallons
(45 kg) and 150 lb (68 kg)” (Figure 4). To resembles a real- (Figure 5). To resemble a real-life scenario, not all the
life scenario, it was supposed to be more realistic that not all material will be disposed due to the accident. It was also
the material is disposed due to the accident. It was decided decided that the accident will result in 10,000 gallon of
that the accident will result in 62 kg of chlorine release. butane release.
147 Noura Mohammad Al-Sarawi: Evaluation of Accidental Atmospheric Releases of Chlorine and Butane from a
Mobile Source Using ALOHA and MARPLOT

Figure 4. Chlorine Cylinder (3).

Figure 5. Butane Tank Truck Capacity [12].

D. Data Input
Location, Date and Time- From the location tab under site
data, Miami, Florida was chosen (Figure 6). From the date
and time tab (Figure 7), August 15, 2016 at 5pm was chosen
as the time the accidents occur.

Figure 7. Date and Time.

Atmospheric Conditions: Based on meteorological data

presented in figure 3, 9 mph wind speed and NW wind
direction was chosen (Figure 8). The maximum temperature
the model can represent is 29°C, which is very close to the
30°C average temperature according to the radar. The ground
Figure 6. Location Information.
 American Journal of Environmental Protection 2017; 6(6): 144-155 148

roughness was selected to be urban as the accident occurred

on the highway. Clear sky was selected for cloud cover as it
is usually sunny in Miami in the summer time.

Figure 10. Scenario (A) Release Specifications.

Scenario B: The second simulation involves an accident of

transport truck that resulted in the leakage of 10,000 gallons
of butane (Figure 11). The tank is 45 feet long and has a
diameter of 6.15 feet.

Figure 8. Atmospheric Conditions.

E. Infiltration Building Parameter

For the point source analysis, the contamination level was
examined at a residential area and a University Campus with
single storied building (building parameter) with sheltered
surroundings (trees, bushes, etc.) for the residential area
(house), and double storied building with sheltered
surroundings for the University Campus.
F. Source Setup
Scenario A: As mentioned earlier, the first scenario
involves an accident of a transport truck carrying four 62-
kilograms chlorine cylinders in the truck bed. The cylinders
were damaged during the collision and simultaneously
Figure 11. Butane Tank Size and Orientation.
release their contents. The first step is to choose chlorine
(Figure 9) in its pure form as the chemical that will be Figure 12 shows the butane state and temperature, and
released from the truck. figure 13 shows the chosen failure type, which is leaking
tank containing chemical that is not burning as it escapes to
the atmosphere.

Figure 9. Scenario (A) Chemical Information.

From the setup menu, direct source was chosen for this
scenario. A total of 250 kilograms (Figure 10) were released
into the atmosphere instantaneously. Figure 12. Butane State and Temperature.
149 Noura Mohammad Al-Sarawi: Evaluation of Accidental Atmospheric Releases of Chlorine and Butane from a
Mobile Source Using ALOHA and MARPLOT

Table 4. Scenario (A) Source Strength.

Total Amount Released 250 kg

Release Duration 1 minute
Release Rate 4.16 kg/sec
This chemical may flash boil and/or
Note
result in two phase flow

Time duration of 10 minutes AEGLs was executed to

determine the Levels of Concern (LOCs) for chlorine. Figure
15 shows the three toxic levels of concern concentrations.
NOAA’s Office of Response and Restoration classified the
levels of concern as follows:
1. AEGL-3 is the airborne concentration, expressed as
parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per cubic meter
(mg/m3), of a substance above which it is predicted that
the general population, including susceptible
individuals, could experience life-threatening health
Figure 13. Type of Butane Tank Failure.
effects or death.
Figure 14 shows the cause of the leak, which is a 2. AEGL-2 is the airborne concentration (expressed as
rectangular opening 20 inches long and 0.5 inches wide. ppm or mg/m3) of a substance above which it is
Table 3 shows a summary of the two scenarios. predicted that the general population, including
susceptible individuals, could experience irreversible or
other serious, long-lasting adverse health effects or an
impaired ability to escape.
3. AEGL-1 is the airborne concentration (expressed as
ppm or mg/m3) of a substance above which it is
predicted that the general population, including
susceptible individuals, could experience notable
discomfort, irritation, or certain asymptomatic
nonsensory effects. However, the effects are not
disabling and are transient and reversible upon cessation
of exposure.

Figure 14. Area and Type of Butane Leak.

Table 3. Summary of the Two Scenarios.

Scenario A B
Chemical Chlorine Butane
Total Amount Released 250 kg 10,000 gallons
Model of Release Direct Release Leaking tank
Temperature 29C 29C
Humidity 50% 50%
Cloud Cover Clear Clear
Figure 15. Scenario (A) Toxic Level of Concern.
Wind Speed 9mph 9mph
Atmospheric Stability Class D D
Ground Roughness Urban Urban After that, toxic threat zone graph showing the boundaries of
the dispersive plume was created using ALOHA, and is shown
in figure 16. It shows in the figure that the plume spreads to 3.7
3. Results and Analysis miles. Table 5 summarize the results of dispersion using data
Scenario A from the threat zone graph. Figure 17 shows MARPLOT map of
The first scenario source strength is summarized below in the dispersion using satellite base map.
table 4.
 American Journal of Environmental Protection 2017; 6(6): 144-155 150

Figure 16. Scenario (A) Toxic Threat Zone.

Table 5. Scenario (A) Threat Zone Summary.

Threat Zone Distance

Red 1576 yards
Orange 2.2 miles
Yellow 3.7 miles

Figure 17. Scenario (A) MARPLOT.

151 Noura Mohammad Al-Sarawi: Evaluation of Accidental Atmospheric Releases of Chlorine and Butane from a
Mobile Source Using ALOHA and MARPLOT

There is a neighborhood located in a very close proximity threat zone. Since Universities are also a major concern
from the highway. MARPLOT was used to create a point of because of the presence of many students attending, it was
interest in this residential area to examine the severity of the important to look at the estimated threat on campus. Figure
exposure. Figure 18 shows the point of interest that was 20 shows the second point of interest which resembles
created, which resembles a house. By examining figure 19, Barry’s University campus. By examining Figure 21, you can
you can see that the outdoor concentration line rises above see that the outdoor concentration line rises above zero about
zero about one minute after the release begins, then remains 3 minutes after the release begins, then remains above zero
above zero for about 3 minutes. According to the estimates, for about 5 minutes. According to the estimates, the outdoor
the outdoor concentration may reach a maximum value of concentration may reach a maximum value of 15.3 ppm,
177 ppm, above the 10-min AEGL-3 value for chlorine (50 above the 10-min AEGL-2 value for chlorine (2.8 ppm). On
ppm). On the other hand, the estimated maximum indoor the other hand, the estimated maximum indoor concentration
concentration at this location is 2.39 ppm, just above the 10- at this location is 0.267 ppm, which is below the 10-min
min AEGL-1 value for chlorine (0.5 ppm), but very close to AEGL-1 value for chlorine (0.5 ppm).
the 10-min AEGL-2 value (2.8 ppm).

Figure 20. Scenario (A) Barry University Exposure Threat Map.

Figure 18. Scenario (A) Residential Area Exposure Threat Map.

Figure 21. Scenario (A) Barry’s University Threat Graph.

After analyzing the threat zone of chlorine, it was decided

to look at the effects of stability classes (Table 6) on the
dispersion of the chemical plume. Stability classes (A, B, C,
Figure 19. Scenario (A) Residential Area Threat Graph. and D) represent unstable conditions, class D represent
neutral conditions, and classes E and F represent stable
Barry University is also located within the boundaries of
 American Journal of Environmental Protection 2017; 6(6): 144-155 152

conditions. Stability is usually estimated as a function of It was determined to analyze the flammable area of vapor
wind velocity and solar radiation [8]. So, unstable explosion for this scenario. Figure 23 shows the flammable
atmospheric conditions, will yield high turbulence, frequent level of concern for butane. ALOHA assumes that the threat
flocculation in wind directions, and strong solar radiation. On zone from a flash fire is closely related to the lower
the other hand, stable atmospheric conditions, will result in flammability or explosive limit threat zone (ground level
low turbulence, limited flocculation in wind direction, and concentration contour) for the cloud. Based upon
less solar radiation. Table 6 shows the specific state of each recommendations of the project external review team the
stability class. The comparison will be examined in this choice was made to use 60% of the lower flammability limit
section, and discussion will follow in the Discussion and as the level of concern in defining this threat zone [5].
Conclusions section of this report.

Table 6. Definition of the Atmospheric Stability Classes.

Stability Class Definition

A Extremely unstable
B Moderately unstable
C Slightly unstable
D Neutral
E Slightly stable
F Moderately stable

For the purpose of this comparison, the same exact

scenario was used with changing the stability class only. The
simulation run was performed 6 times for each stability class,
and results were tabulated and graphed as shown in table 7
and figure 22. The results show a pattern that the more stable
the atmosphere, the higher and more dangerous the
concentration.

Table 7. Stability Class effects on Outdoor and Indoor Concentration.

Figure 23. Scenario (B) Flammable level of Concern.
Stability Class
Concentration The flammable area red threat zone, which represent the
A B C D E F
(ppm)
60% LEL at a concentration of 9600 ppm, is estimated to
Outdoor 25.3 38 56.4 76.9 91.9 107
Indoor 0.522 0.522 0.775 1.11 1.41 1.66 extend 169 yards downwind (Figure 24). This is the area
where ALOHA predicts a flash fire or a vapor cloud
explosion could occur at some point after the release begins.
Figure 25 shows MARPLOT graph of the flammable threat
zone of a satellite base map.

Figure 22. Stability Class Effects on Outdoor and Indoor Concentration.

Scenario B
The second scenario, involving the butane leak, source
strength is summarized below in table 8.

Table 8. Scenario (B) Source Strength.

Total Amount Released 10,000 gallons

Release Duration 8 minutes Figure 24. Scenario (B) Flammable Threat Zone Graph.
Release Rate 3,392 kg/min
The chemical escaped as a mixture of gas
Note
and aerosol (two phase flow)
153 Noura Mohammad Al-Sarawi: Evaluation of Accidental Atmospheric Releases of Chlorine and Butane from a
Mobile Source Using ALOHA and MARPLOT

Figure 25. MARPLOT Flammable Threat Zone.

The stability class effect on the distance (Table 9) of the flammable threat zone shows similar pattern to its effect on outdoor
and indoor concentrations. That is, the more stable the atmosphere, the longer the distance of the flammable zone (Figure 26).

Table 9. Stability Class Effects on the Distance of the Flammable Zone.

A B C D E F
Red 37 yards 41 Yards 45 Yards 47 Yards 50 Yards 57 Yards
Yellow 132 Yards 140 Yards 150 Yards 154 Yards 160 Yards 181 Yards

Figure 26. Stability Class Effects on the Distance of the Flammable Zone.
 American Journal of Environmental Protection 2017; 6(6): 144-155 154

4. Discussion and Conclusions atmosphere, and therefore lower concentrations, and vice
versa. Therefore, the optimal condition of air pollution
Scenario (A) is a direct source case of chlorine release, dispersion is class A, which is the most instable
which allows to directly specify the amount of chemical atmospheric conditions. After comparing the simulation
vapors introduced into the air from a point in space. This results by changing 6 different atmospheric stability classes
option can be used with gasses denser than air, which is the for both scenarios, we can conclude that the stability class
case of chlorine. The accident simulation using ALOHA has a significant effect on the prediction of the size of the
resulted in 1576 yards of red threat zone, covering a part of a toxic threat zone under different atmospheric dispersion
residential area close to the road where the spill occurred. conditions [4]. In addition, the size of the area impacted
Being outdoor at the time the spill occurred, which means after a chemical release depends on the characteristics of
being exposed to 50 ppm of chlorine, could result in life- the chemical along with the meteorological and atmospheric
threatening health effects or death. Unfortunately, being conditions.
indoor will not create a shield and dodge the dispersive
plume in this case. People who were in the residential area
located within the red threat zone and were indoor at the time
of the spill were exposed to 2.39 ppm of chlorine and could
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