ALIA NAZIRA

CATABOLISM

∆ Catabolism is the process of

o Refers to all chemical reaction that breaking down complex substances
occur in a living organism into simple substances
o The processes in metabolism involve ∆ Releases energy
the conversion of food into energy ∆ For instance, the breakdown of
in the form of ATP, and the glucose during cellular respiration to
formation of carbohydrate, protein, generate energy
lipid and nucleic acid ∆ Catabolic reaction

ANABOLISM
There are two types
» Anabolism is the process of
⌂ Catabolism
synthesising complex molecules from
⌂ Anabolism
simple molecules
» Uses or absorbs energy
» For example, the formation of
glucose during photosynthesis
» Anabolic reaction

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ALIA NAZIRA

❑ There are enzymes that do not

follow the naming system
→ An enzyme is an organic catalyst that ▪ Trypsin
is mostly made up of proteins and is ▪ Pepsin
produced by living cell organisms ▪ Renin
→ Not all enzymes are synthesised from
proteins
→ The substances needed for an enzyme
reaction are called substrates
→ Substrates will bind with enzymes at 1 Enzymes act rapidly
a specific site known as the active 2 Enzymes are biological catalysts that
site and form an enzyme-substrate speed up biochemical reactions
complex 3 Some enzymes need cofactors to
work more efficiently (e.g., a
cofactor is vitamin B and magnesium
ion)
4 Enzymes are only required in small
quantities and are reusable
5 The structure of enzymes remain
unchanged and are not destroyed
after a reaction
❑ The International Union of 6 The reaction of enzymes are specific.
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Only substrate that fit the form
(IUBMB) in the 1960s introduced the completely with an enzyme in an
enzyme nomenclature is based on the active site can combine
substrate or reaction it catalyses 7 Most of the reactions catalysed by
❑ The name of the enzyme is derived by enzymes are reversible
adding ‘-ase’ to the name of the 8 Enzyme activity can be slowed down
substrate it catalyses or stopped by enzyme inhibitors (e.g.,
❑ For example, ‘-ase’ is added to heavy metal such as lead and
substrate is the lactase enzyme, mercury)
which catalyses the hydrolysis of
lactose

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ALIA NAZIRA

1 Ribosome is the site of protein

synthesis
2 Proteins synthesised by ribosome
enter the lumen of the rough
INTRACELLULAR ENZYMES endoplasmic reticulum and are
transported through it
• Intracellular enzymes are enzymes 3 Once it reaches the end of the rough
that synthesised in a cell for its own
endoplasmic reticulum, the membrane
use
buds off to form transport vesicles
• For example, the hexokinase enzyme 4 The transport vesicle that contains
that is used in the glycolysis process proteins moves towards the Golgi
during cellular respiration apparatus and the fuses with it
- Glycolysis originates from the 5 In the Golgi apparatus, the proteins
words ‘glucose’ and ‘lysis’ are modified into enzymes and
(breakdown) secreted in secretory vesicles that
- Glycolysis is the breakdown of are formed from the tip of the Golgi
glucose by the hexokinase apparatus
enzyme to produce energy and 6 Secretory vesicles will move towards
pyruvate the plasma membrane and fuse with it
EXTRACELLULAR ENZYMES to secrete extracellular enzymes

ꚛ Extracellular enzymes are enzymes

that secreted outside the cell
ꚛ For instance, the trypsin enzyme is
produced by the pancreatic cells and
secreted into the duodenum to break THE ‘LOCK AND KEY’ HYPOTHESIS
down polypeptides
Most enzymes are complex proteins
PRODUCTION OF EXTRACELLULAR ENZYMES made up of polypeptide chains that
are folded into three-dimensional
structures
This three-dimensional structure has
an active site with a specific
configuration that complements a
specific substrate molecule
The binding of a molecule substrate
on an active site of enzymes is
specific like a ‘lock and key’
combination
The enzyme is represented by a ‘lock’
and the substrate is represented by a
‘key’
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Most reactions inside the cell require Enzymes function by lowering the
high activation energy activation energy
Activation energy is the energy By doing so, the rate of biochemical
needed to break the bond in the reactions in the cell is accelerated
substrate molecule before reaction
can occur

▪ When the temperature rises,

the kinetic energy of the
substrate molecules and
enzymes also increases
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ▪ This increases the frequency
of effective collision between
1) The rises of the temperature
the substrate molecules and
▪ At a low temperature, the
enzyme molecule
rate of reaction catalysed by
▪ The rate of reaction between
enzymes is low
enzymes and substrate
molecules increases
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▪ With every rise in temperature EFFECT OF pH

of 10○C, the rate of reaction
❑ The enzyme activity is influenced by
controlled by the enzymes will
the pH of the surrounding solution.
double until it reaches the
Generally, all enzymes react most
optimal temperature
effectively at their optimal pH.
2) Optimal temperature
❑ Most enzymes are most active in the
▪ At optimal temperature, the
range of between pH 6 and 8. For
enzyme reaction is at its
example, the salivary amylase works
maximum
at pH 6.8
▪ The optimal temperature for
❑ However, there are some exceptions.
enzyme reactions in the human
For example, the pepsin enzymes in
body is around 37○C
the stomach act at the optimal pH
3) Increases in temperature
range of between 1.5 and 2.5. The
▪ After reaching the optimal
trypsin enzyme in the duodenum, on
temperature, any further
the other hand, only works well in an
increase in temperature will
alkaline medium, at a pH of around
reduce the enzyme activity
8.5
rapidly until it stops at 60○C
❑ The change in pH value changes the
▪ At this temperature, the
change (ion H+) of the active site of
enzymes become denatured as
enzymes and the substrate surface.
the chemical bonds in the
As a result, the enzyme-substrate
enzyme molecules break at
complex cannot be formed.
extreme temperatures
❑ When the pH of the environment
▪ The enzymes are unable to
returns to the optimum level, the
retain the three-dimensional
charge on the active site will be
form
restored. The enzyme will return to
▪ The active site of enzymes
function as normal.
changes
❑ The extreme change in the pH value
▪ The substrate does not
will break the structural chemistry
complement the active site of
bond and change the active site of
enzymes
enzymes.

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ALIA NAZIRA

THE EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE

CONCENTRATION

→ If the concentration of enzymes is

fixed, while the concentration of
substrate is increased, the reaction THE EFFECT OF ENZYME CONCENTRATION
rate controlled by enzymes will also A. When the concentration of enzyme
increase, leading to an increase in increases, the rate of enzyme
products created reaction will increase because of the
1. The increases of substrate presence of more active sites that
concentration are ready for catalytic action
o When substrate concentration B. If the concentration of an enzyme in
increases, the opportunity for one reaction is doubled, the amount
an effective collision between of substrate converted to products
the substrate and enzyme per unit of time is also doubled with
molecules also increases. the condition that there is an excess
o The reaction rate continues supply of substrate
to increase until it reaches C. At the maximum rate, the
the maximum level. The rate concentration of the substrate
of reaction is constant becomes the limiting factor. The rate
2. When at maximum level of reaction can only be increased by
o At the maximum level, the adding more substrate.
concentration of enzymes
becomes a limiting factor. The
reaction rate can only
increase when the
concentration in enzymes
increases.
o After reaching the maximum
level, all active sites of
enzymes are saturated with
substrate and are involved in
the catalytic reaction.
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ꚛ Immobilized enzymes are enzymes ◊ Digestive enzymes are used in the

that combine with inert and insoluble medical sector
substances to increase the resistance ◊ Lactase enzymes are used in lactose-
of enzymes towards change in free milk
factors such as pH and temperature ◊ Pectinase and cellulase enzymes are
ꚛ With this method, the enzyme used in juice production
molecules will remain in the same ◊ Protease enzyme separates the fish
position throughout the catalytic skin
reaction ◊ Amylase, lipase, protease and
ꚛ Then, be separated easily from its cellulase enzymes in bio detergent
product ◊ Trypsin enzyme extracts fur from
ꚛ This technology is known as animal hide to make leather product
immobilized enzyme technology

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