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Lentil flour: nutritional and technological properties,

in vitro digestibility and perspectives for use in the
food industry
Annalisa Romano, Veronica Gallo, Pasquale Ferranti and
Paolo Masi

The use of lentil flour in bakery (bread, cake, crackers), quality [2]. Furthermore lentil requires less water and can
extruded (pasta, snacks) and other products (dressings, soups, tolerate drought stress better than other crops making
dairy and meat products) is gaining attention of food they well adapted to water scarce soil [3].
technologists and of industry as well as popularity among
consumers due to an excellent and balanced nutritional Lentil cotyledon is lens-shaped and may have a wide
composition. This research interest has extended our range of colours (yellow, orange, red or green) as reported
knowledge of nutritional and functional properties (solubility, in Figure 1, even though the most traded classes are the
emulsification, gelation, foaming) of lentil flour, which, in turn, red and green ones. They have been classified as soft
has disclosed its technological potential for preparation of seed-coated pulses and require a short preparation time
high-quality foods (gluten free bakery, yogurt and meat [4
] (e.g. no soaking required), but a longer cooking time,
products). However, addition of lentil flour may introduce which limits their usage in European and Western coun-
technological problems and novel allergens. This review covers tries [5
]. Lentils can be also classified in two types based
the use of lentil flour in food preparations, with focus on protein on their seeds size: Chilean/large-seeded (>50 g per
and starch digestibility and on the challenges to design lentil- 1000 seeds) and Persian/small seeded (50 g per
based products with improved quality. 1000 seeds), which is a crucial parameter influencing
the techno-functional properties of lentil flour (LF) [6].
Address Lentils are usually used for human and domestic con-
Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, sumption in the form of cooked whole seeds or split
Via Università 100, Portici, 80055 Naples, Italy
cotyledons or processed into various ingredients (e.g.
Corresponding author: Romano, Annalisa ([email protected]) flour) for the uses in different food applications [Figure 1].

In the last years an increased trend in lentil consumption

Current Opinion in Food Science 2021, 37:157–167
has been observed, that is due to a better knowledge of its
This review comes from a themed issue on Food chemistry and excellent nutritional composition and potential health-
biochemistry
beneficial effects associated with a decreased risk of
Edited by Lilian R Barros Mariutti chronic diseases (e.g. obesity, type-2 diabetes, hyperten-
sion, cancer and cardiovascular diseases), mainly in
elderly Mediterranean population [7].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2021.04.003 Lentil composition varies significantly with genetic and

2214-7993/ã 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
environmental factors, but overall, the crop contains a
high number of nutritional components and is gluten free.
In details, lentil is known as poor man’s’ meat, since it is a
cheap source of proteins (21–31%) [8] representing an
important food resource for developing countries, low-
income people, vegetarian and vegans [9
]. Lentil pro-
Introduction teins contain all the essential amino acids (39.3 g of
Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) is a pulse crop belonging to essential amino acids per 100 g of proteins) and are rich
the Fabaceae family which is primarily produced in in lysine, leucine, arginine, aspartic and glutamic acid.
Canada and India (2.09 MT and 1.62 MT in 2018) (FAO- However, they are limited in sulfur-containing amino
STAT, 2020; URL: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/ acids (methionine and cysteine) and tryptophan, and thus
QC/visualize), ranking fourth in the global grain legumes the consumption of lentils mixed with other plant protein
production after bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), pea (Pisum sources, such as cereal grains, represents an efficient way
sativum L.) and chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) [1]. Lentil to obtain an adequately well-balanced amino acid profile
like other legumes is considered a sustainable crop [10]. The total carbohydrate content in lentil seeds
because it can fix atmospheric nitrogen and thus reduces (62–69%) includes primarily starch (35–53%), with low
the use of fertilizers for cultivation and enhances soil glycemic index (GI) value (21–22) [5
,11], followed by

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158 Food chemistry and biochemistry

Figure 1

Lentils (Lens culinaris Medik.)

Green Red Brown Yellow

Milling

Lentils Flour

Moisture Content: 10-14%

Carbohydrates: 51.1% Dietary fiber: 13.8%

Starch: 48.8% Proteins: 22.7% Soluble fiber: 0.9% Food
Soluble sugar: 1.8% Insoluble fiber: 0.9%
Applications
Lipids: 1%
Cholesterol: 0%

Current Opinion in Food Science

Flour from lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.): composition and outstanding applications in novel food production.

high concentrations of dietary fibres (5–20%) [11,12] and be found in the seed coat and thus it could be reduced in
oligosaccharides. Furthermore, lentils are rich in micro- LF by pre-treatment methods such as dehulling (physical
nutrients such as vitamins (mainly vitamin B9/folate), removal) and grinding/milling (size reduction) of whole or
zinc (4.8 mg/100 g) and iron (7.5 mg/100 g). Lentils also decorticated seeds (4). More recently, however, a number
represent an abundant source of phytochemicals, many of of these compounds (e.g. saponins, phytic acid, lectins)
which have been identified as potential chemopreventive are attracting considerable interest in the fields of bio-
candidates. Among these, phenolics (760 mg GAE/100 g), chemistry, medicine, pharmacology, and nutrition as a
which are present in much higher concentrations than in result of their beneficial anticancer, antimicrobial proper-
other legume species can contribute to their high antioxi- ties in humans [15].
dant, antidiabetic, anti-obesity, anticancer and anti-
inflammatory properties [13]. These properties are not Lentil is among the plant foods causing allergic reactions
only linked to the phytochemicals but also to bioactive in pediatric patients in the Mediterranean area, especially
peptides (e.g. lectins, defensin), proteins (e.g. trypsin and in Spain and Turkey, and in Asia. This may reflect the use
protease inhibitors) and saponins (34 mg/100 g of lentils). of lentil as a weaning food in Spain as well as in the Asian
Most of these compounds are classically known as anti- continent. The symptoms of allergic individuals after
nutritional factors (ANFs) which can inhibit the activity eating lentil range from relatively mild symptoms. How-
of digestive enzymes or sequester nutrients, thereby ever, approximately 20% of patients allergic to these
making them unavailable for digestion [14
]. The amount legumes present with severe and systemic symptoms,
of ANFs in lentils is reported to be reduced or inactivated although isolated cutaneous reactions are most common.
by different preprocessing and processing methods (e.g. Lentils contain a variety of allergenic proteins (mainly
cooking, fermentation, soaking, germination, or mechan- belonging to the storage protein family) which are often
ical methods such as dehulling and milling) [4
,13], which heat-stable and protease resistant. They may be respon-
helps to remove the major obstacles in the consumer’s sible for IgE-mediated hypersensitivity reactions that can
mind about including lentil-based products in their diet. hit the cutaneous, cardiovascular, respiratory, and gastro-
In particular, the greatest part of ANFs (e.g. tannins) can intestinal tracts of consumers causing symptoms such as

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 Food uses, properties and in vitro digestibility of flour from lentils: a review Romano et al. 159

erythema, urticarial, hypotension, arrhythmia, cardiac For these reasons, LF is usually subjected to one or more
arrest, bronchospasm, diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal processing methods, more or less intensive, which how-
pain. The major allergenic proteins reported in lentils are ever may positively or negatively affect the proteins and
the Len c 1, a 47-kDa vicilin belonging to the cupin starch properties (e.g. starch gelatinization and protein
superfamily and the allergen Len c 2 which is a 66 kDa denaturation) and hence their digestibility, resulting in
seed-specific biotinylated protein [16]. The potential ingredients with improved or impaired characteristics [20].
health risk for allergic consumers due to these allergens,
also in consideration of the demonstrated cross reactivity Interestingly, recent studies show that degree of milling
with the homologous allergens from more widespread [21,22] is positively associated with nutrients bioaccessi-
legumes such as peanut and soybean, have to be carefully bility since a very thorough milling process involves an
considered when proposing LF as ingredient for novel extended cell rupture [21] increasing nutrients bioaccessi-
food preparations. Very recently, the Len c 3 allergen, a bility, thereby helping the diffusion of digestive enzymes
non-specific lipid transfer protein cross-reacting with the [22] to the starch substrate. The lower digestion rate of raw
homologous peach allergen, has been isolated and char- flours with larger particle sizes is usually attributed to the
acterized [17]. The allergenic capacity of Len c 3 and the slower action of enzymes due to hindrance by larger of
effects of different lipid ligands on the protein stability protein body or cell wall fragments. Instead, the impact of
and IgE-binding capacity upon technological treatments heat treatments on in vitro digestibility of LF has not yet
and to simulated gastrointestinal digestion have been been well elucidated, as depending on the type of process
investigated [18], and these studies are opening applied (Table 2) and the food matrix examined.
new perspective for the production of hypoallergenic
LF-based foods. In particular, improvement of protein digestibility is
dependent on the hydrolysis of the indigestible proteins,
One major way in which lentils were used as ingredient in deactivation of protease inhibitors (ANFs), and improve-
food industry is in the form of flour, which is commonly ment of protein solubility. Food processes such as
used as a thickener, binder, gelling agent and/or stabilizer extrusion, cooking and baking may induce changes in
[8] in a broader range of food products due to its func- proteins secondary structure in LF, allowing the digestive
tional properties (Table 1). In fact, like other pulses enzymes to easily access the peptide bonds, thus leading
flours, LF possess good functional properties (e.g. solu- to a rapid protein hydrolysis [14
]. Consequently, it can be
bility, emulsification, gelation, foaming properties, water reasonably assumed that the high b-sheet content in raw
and oil absorption capacities), which may enhance and LF proteins is inversely associated with the protein
control the attributes of foods through different action digestibility. Furthermore, cooking may also inactivate
mechanisms (Table 1). On the other hand, lentil has a and/or reduce the content of ANFs such as protease
high lipoxygenase activity, which may result in the reduc- inhibitors which are known to decrease protein digest-
tion of shelf-life and in the production of off-flavors ibility. Conflicting and partial results are reported in the
during processing or storage of either crop or the derived literature [14
,19,23,24] about the impact of cooking on
flour for industrial use. All these factors have a deep the in vitro protein digestibility in LF (Table 2). Specifi-
impact on nutritional characteristics, digestibility, sensory cally, Nosworthy et al. [14
] investigated the effect of
and acceptability attributes of lentil-based products, and extrusion, cooking and baking on the in vitro protein
present industrial challenges that need to be dealt with quality of LF from red and green lentils measured by
modern technological approaches. the Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score
(PDCAAS) and reported that extruded flour both of red
In this review, key aspects related to presence of lentil and green lentils had the highest PDCAAS followed by
flour in the novel food formulations are discussed, with the cooked and baked samples. Besides red LF after all
special reference to protein and starch digestibility and to types of processing exhibited higher PDCAAS than the
the presence of allergens, as well as to the technological green ones. On the contrary, a decrease in protein
challenges faced by food industry to design lenti-based digestibility can be observed when LF is subject to
products with improved sensory and nutritional quality. hydrothermal treatment such as annealing (ANN) and
heat moisture treatment (HMT) (Table 2), probably
because of their structural rearrangements as well as
Lentil flour (LF): production process and the reorganization of the other flour components [23].
protein and starch digestibility Moreover, according to Drulyte and Orlien [20], cooking
LF production involves grinding/milling of whole or dec- (100 C, 25–35 min), baking (165.6 and 198.3 C, 35 min)
orticated seeds and fractionation of protein and starch-rich and extrusion (30–50 C, 70–90 C and 100–120 C) do not
components in order to utilize them in varieties of food affect the in vitro protein digestibility in LF. Only
products. The successful performance of LF as a food autoclaving (121 C, 7 min) causes a significant increase/
ingredient is closely related to the resulting technological, decrease in protein digestibility depending on the lentil’s
nutritional, and sensorial properties [19]. variety (Table 2).

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160 Food chemistry and biochemistry

Table 1

Overview of functional uses of lentil flour (LF) in food products

Functional Food products Addition range (%) Action mechanism Attributes

properties
Water
Baked goods
<30% in baked goods Lentil starch, fibre and proteins - Enhancement in viscosity
Absorption
Meat products
415% in meat products containing polar amino acids - Providing resistance to
Capacity
Dairy products (yogurt)
14% in yogurt create hydrophilic interactions dough expansion
(WAC) and hydrogen bonds with the - Better cooking quality
molecules of water. - Shelf-life extension

Oil
Baked goods
<30% in baked goods Lentil proteins containing - Improvement in texture
Absorption
Meat products
415% in meat products nonpolar amino acids interact - Better cooking quality
Capacity with oil and hold it. - Enhancement in consumers
(OAC) sensory acceptability
- Shelf-life extension

Solubility
Baked goods
<30% in baked goods Interaction between the - Enhancement of

Pasta
Until 100% in pasta hydrophilic groups of proteins, emulsification
sugars, some vitamins and - Promotion of foaming
phytochemicals with water. properties
- Promotion of gelling
properties

Emulsification Control of:

Lentil proteins act as -

Baked goods
<30% in baked goods Creaming
emulsifiers by forming a film -

Meat products
415% in meat products Coalescence
around oil droplets dispersed in -

Salad dressing
311% salad dressing Flocculation
an aqueous medium, therefore
-Sedimentation
lowering interfacial tension.
Gelation
Cereal-based products
Until 100% in cereal-based Formation of gels from proteins - Improvement in texture

Meat products products or starch granules. Gel - Enhancement in consumers

Dairy products (yogurt)
415% in meat products formation can be induced by sensory acceptability

14% in yogurt physical and chemical agents.

Foaming
Baked goods
<30% Lentil proteins act as foaming - A better crumb structure and
properties agents migrating to the air- loaf volume
water interface and forming a
cohesive layer around the air
bubbles.

Berrazaga et al. [24] also reported the negative impact of microorganisms in the large intestine into short chain
LF addition in wheat pasta on the in vitro protein digest- fatty acids which are essential for colon health [25]. Food
ibility. In particular, the enrichment of wheat pasta with processing can positively or negatively affect starch gran-
LF led to significant changes in the protein network ules structure, leading to a redistribution of the different
structure, thus negatively affecting the protein digestibil- starch fractions: Rapidly Digestible Starch (RDS), Slowly
ity. This could be attributed to the higher covalently Digestible Starch (SDS) and Resistant Starch (RS).
reticulated protein network of lentil pasta compared to
the conventional one, which the due to the higher cyste- In first place, de-hulling and splitting of lentils signifi-
ine content and thus to the higher number of S–S bridges. cantly decreases RS concentrations compared to the
This is also evidenced by the lowest intestinal hydrolysis whole seeds. This is clearly due to the mechanical
degree of LF pasta compared to the other pasta samples removal of the hull which is more rich in RS and fibre
examined in the study. [25]. Furthermore, a positive association has been dem-
onstrated between the use of coarse LF (rich in intact
Concerning the in vitro starch digestion, lentil starch has a cells) and reduced glucose release upon simulated gas-
lower glycemic index (GI) than legumes and cereal trointestinal digestion [26
].
starches [5
], supporting the use of LF as an excellent
alternative to conventional cereal starches. LF is also a Regarding instead the effect of cooking on the LF starch
rich food source of prebiotic carbohydrates (low- digestibility, conflicting results are reported in the liter-
digestible carbohydrates) which are not digested in the ature probably because of the different process conditions
small intestine of humans, but instead fermented by used in the various studies. Generally, it has been found

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 Food uses, properties and in vitro digestibility of flour from lentils: a review Romano et al. 161

Table 2

The most recent data on the effect of process type on in vitro protein and starch digestibility of lentil flour (LF) (2018–2020). " indicates
increased digestibility, # indicates decreased digestibility. Empty cell denotes that information was not provided

Process Market class Process conditions Protein Starch References

of lentil flour (T; t) digestibility digestibility a
(LF)
Cooking
Red LF Lentils were soaked in water (1/1–1.5); No effect [18]
t = 1216 hours, then boiling (T = 100 C;
t = 25–35 min), freeze drying and milling
(hammer mill)
Green LF Lentils were soaked in water (1/1–1.5); No effect [18]
t = 1216 hours, then boiling (T = 100 C;
t = 25–35 min), freeze drying and milling
(hammer mill)
Red LF Lentils were soaked in water (1/4); t = 16 hours, " effect [14
]
then boiling (T = 100 C; t = 25–35 min), freeze
drying and milling (hammer mill)
Green LF Lentils were soaked in water (1/4); t = 16 hours, " effect [14
]
then boiling (T = 100 C; t = 25–35 min), freeze
drying and milling (hammer mill)
" RDS
LF and water (100/2) were mixed for t = 1 min, #
Red LF SDS [26
]
then boiling (T = 100 C; t = 20 min) # RS
" RDS
LF and water (100/2) were mixed for t = 1 min, #
Green LF SDS [26
]
then boiling (T = 100 C; t = 20 min) # RS
Baking
T = 198.3 C; t = 35 min
Red LF T = 165.6 C; t = 35 min " effect [14
]
T = 198.3 C; t = 35 min
Green LF T = 165.6 C; t = 35 min " effect [14
]
T = 198.3 C; t = 35 min
Red LF T = 165.6 C; t = 35 min No effect [18]
T = 198.3 C; t = 35 min
Green LF T = 165.6 C; t = 35 min No effect [18]

Extrusion
T = 30–50 C,
Red LF T = 70–90 C No effect [18]
T = 100–120 C
T = 30–50 C,
Green LF T = 70–90 C No effect [18]
T = 100–120 C
T = 30–50 C,
Red LF T = 70–90 C " effect [14
]
T = 100–120 C
T = 30–50 C,
Green LF T = 70–90 C " effect [14
]
T = 100–120 C
Autoclaving
LF T = 121 C; t = 7 min " #: variety- [18]
dependent
Hydrothermal
treatments
Annealing # RDS

"SDS
Whole LF T = 65 ; t = 24 hours # effect " RS [22]
" pGI
Heat moisture # RDS
treatment " SDS
Whole LF T = 65 ; t = 24 hours # effect " RS [22]
" pGI
a
RDS: rapidly digestible starch; SDS: slowly digestible starch; RS: resistant starch, pGI: predicted glycemic index.

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162 Food chemistry and biochemistry

Table 3

Recent reports about the applications of Lens culinaris Medik flour (LF) in food technology (2018–2020). " indicates increase of the
considered property, # indicates decrease of the property. Empty cell denotes that information was not provided

Market class of lentil Foods Products Main results References

flour (LF) Applications
Technological and Nutritional Sensorial
physicochemical
Bakery
products
Whole LF # dough strength " protein content
# loaf volume at high
concentrations (up to
Wheat — lentil 20%) [35]
bread # baking quality at high " ash content
concentrations (up to
20%)
Germinated LF Wheat — lentil " hardness " sensory descriptors
# cohesiveness [36]
bread (overall acceptability)
Germinated " protein content
green LF " ash content " sensory descriptors
" total polyphenol (overall acceptability)
Crackers [29]
content for the 5% enriched
" antioxidant activity samples
Red LF " protein content
" dietary fibres content
Wheat — lentil " vitamins
" minerals [37]
bread
" intestinal immune
system
# level of expansion " protein content
during extrusion
process
Puffed snacks # microstructural [30]
appearance " dietary fibres content
# product textural
appeal
Pasta
Red LF " resistant starch content
" dietary fibres content
Gluten free " total polyphenol [32,38]
pasta content
# starch digestibility
Green LF Wheat — lentil " firmness " sensory descriptors [23,31]
pasta (colour acceptance)
Dairy
products
Red LF " water holding # moisture content
capacity
" viscosity " protein content
Fermented dairy # syneresis " dietary fibres content [40]
products (yogurt) " pH " total solids
# acidity " intestinal microflora
growth and functionality
Roasted and " viscosity
unroasted LF # syneresis " sensory descriptors
Fermented dairy
" pH (mainly for yogurt with [41]
products (yogurt)
# acidity unroasted LF)

Meat
products
LF " water holding
capacity
" hardness " sensory descriptors
Pork meat
" cooking yield " protein content (appearance and [9]
burgers
# product size reduction taste)
during cooking

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 Food uses, properties and in vitro digestibility of flour from lentils: a review Romano et al. 163

Table 3 (Continued )
Market class of lentil Foods Products Main results References
flour (LF) Applications
Technological and Nutritional Sensorial
physicochemical
LF " protein content
" release of free amino
Beef steaks " firmness acids after the in vitro [42
,43]
gastrointestinal digestion
" free fat content
Soups
Whole red, " protein content
green and " dietary fibres content
yellow LF " fat content
" ash content
" minerals content [44]
" total phenolic content
" antioxidant activity
" lactic acid bacteria

an increase in the RDS content and a significant decrease or chemical-physical interactions with other food constitu-
in the SDS and RS content after cooking in a boiling water ents [10].
bath for 20 min [27
]. On the other hand, when whole LF
is subjected to hydrothermal treatments such as ANN and Regarding flour granulometry, a fine particle size is gen-
HMT, a significant reduction in the amount of RDS erally associated to greater starch damage, lower water
together with a rise in the SDS and RS fractions can absorption capacity (WAC), and higher peak and final
be observed. Since RDS is the starch fraction that is viscosities compared to coarser fractions [35]. Whatever
rapidly and totally digested in the gastrointestinal tract the milling technique (hammer, pin, roller, or stone
and it is associated with fast elevation of postprandial milling) or its extent (fine or coarse flour), the health
plasma glucose, a decrease in the RDS content can be properties attributed to lentils are usually kept in LF,
positively related to a reduction in the expected glycemic representing a promising functional ingredient for numer-
index (eGI) [23]. ous food applications (Figure 1 and Table 3).

Comparing flour from different lentil varieties such as red A number of food applications have been performed using
and green, it appears that after cooking red LF samples several market classesof LF, as reported in Table 3. Basedon
has significantly lower RDS content and higher RS con- these ingredients, the technological, nutritional, and senso-
tent than the cooked green LF due to the higher total rial properties of the final product differ. Thanks to its dense
flavanol index of red lentils compared with the green nutritional composition, food enrichment with LF usually
ones. In fact, phenolic compounds, and, in particular, the leads to an improvement of the nutritional properties, result-
flavanols, are known to be the major contributors to the inginanincreaseofproteins,dietaryfibres,totalpolyphenols,
a-glucosidase inhibitory activity which implies reduced ash, minerals, and vitamins content [28].
starch digestibility.
Currently, the application of LF in bakery (bread,
Application of lentil flour as novel ingredient in cake, crackers) [5
,29,30,36–38] extruded (pasta, snacks)
the food industry [24,31–33,39,40] and other products (dressings, soups, dairy
The uses of LF as a food ingredient (Table 3) are based its and meat products) [5
,9,41,42
,43–45] has gained in popu-
techno-functional and nutritional properties [9,28–33]. Gen- larity among researcher and consumers worldwide.
erally, these properties are closely related to the flour com-
position (proteins, complex carbohydrates and fibres con- Because of their balanced fat and protein content, LF also
tent) as well as to the flour particle size [21]. In particular LF represents an excellent choice for the development of
proteins functionality is mainly linked to their amino acid novel GF products, more performing and healthy than the
composition and sequence, net charge, hydrophobicity [4
] conventional ones, that have in general low protein and
while starch functionality is associated to the amylose and high fat content [38,40,46
].
amylopectin ratio together with their physical organization
within the granule [34]. It is therefore clear that the LF Because of their large consumption all over the world,
proteins and starch functionality is largely dictated by their baked goods and pasta represent an excellent base for the
structural and physico-chemical properties as well as by enrichment with highly nutritious raw materials such as
physicochemical changes induced by food processing [6] LF. Overall, the replacement of wheat flour (WF) with

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164 Food chemistry and biochemistry

LF causes an improvement in the nutritional profile of from lentil and other seeds has been used to increase the
the final product [21], with a reduction in total carbohy- protein content in steak samples restructured using trans-
drates content and a significant increase in proteins, total glutaminase. A previous study by Baugreet et al. [43] have
polyphenols, flavonoids, iron and zinc content and anti- already suggested that the inclusion of plant-derived
oxidant activity [23]. Moreover, the addition of LF in protein ingredients in restructured beef steaks results
wheat products such as pasta has been found to reduce the in improved physico-chemical properties. LF-enriched,
glycemic response [39]. This is probably be due to two restructured beef steaks were found to have a more
important factors: i) the reduction in total starch content compact structure and LF inclusion led to the presence
as well as the increase in resistant starch content; ii) the of more free fat as well as to the release of significant
action of ANFs which can inhibit a-amylase activity, amounts of free amino acids after the in vitro gastrointes-
thereby delaying the starch hydrolysis. In agreement with tinal digestion [44].
above, Fujiwara et al. [47
] used in vitro methods to assess
the eGI of five products (pasta, bread, cracker, granola A very recent and innovative Canadian study compared
bar, and cookie) after the incorporation of green and red nutritional and environmental benefits of beef burgers
lentil flour (up to 50%). The partial substitution of wheat reformulated with LF [48
] compared to all-meat bur-
flour with lentil flour led to a reduction of the eGI ger. Partial replacement of a lean beef burger with
although the differences between pulse variants and cooked lentil puree increased the nutrient density
the controls (containing 100% wheat flour) were not (measured through the nutrient balance score, that
statistically significant (P > 0.05). was >20% compared with traditional beef burger), as
well as fiber, folate, manganese and selenium content.
From a technological point of view, the incorporation of The amounts of disqualifying nutrients (fat, trans fat,
LF can have different effects depending on the food saturated fat, and cholesterol) in LF reformulated bur-
system in which it is incorporated (Table 1). For exam- ger were 17% less than the regular beef burger.
ple, the ratio of LF in the bakery goods formulation may Regarding sustainability issues, substitution decreased
influence dough rheology and consequently, physical the life cycle environmental footprint by 33%, and
and sensory characteristics of their baked goods. This reduced the production cost by 26%. This report high-
directly influences consumer acceptability of final pro- lights how nowadays the research in the food sector has
ducts. In particular, the use of LF in dough formulation to be carried out with a comprehensive vision embrac-
impair some rheological properties by decreasing dough ing technological, nutritional, economic and environ-
stability and strength and increasing the water absorption mental issues, and the results achieved underscore the
time, development time and degree of softening [36] high potential of innovation in the field of lentil-based
(Tables 1 and 3). On the other hand, the addition of high ingredients to contribute towards global sustainable
concentrations of LF to pasta may enhance its firmness development goals.
while does not affect other quality parameters such as
weight increase and cooking loss [32]. Recently, LF has LF has been also advantageously used in the manufacture
been also used to produce healthy and texturally appeal- of yogurt [41,42
] (Table 3). The addition of LF in
ing puffed snacks [31]. In this specific case, the high fortified yogurt leads to good results both in nutritional,
protein and fibre content of LF negatively affected technological and sensory terms. In fact, it represents a
technological features such as the level of expansion, good source of oligosaccharides (e.g. inulin and raffinose)
microstructure uniformity and the product textural who promote growth and functionality of the intestinal
appeal [31]. microflora. Meanwhile, LF provides great amounts of
proteins, glycoproteins, and complex carbohydrates, thus
Beside the cereal-based products, LF has been used to enhancing WHC, viscosity and syneresis of the final
improve the technological, nutritional, and sensory prop- product. Not least, the high buffering capacity of LF
erties of meat [9,43,44] and dairy products [41,42
]. The leads to an increase in pH and simultaneously to a
partial meat replacement with LF in low-fat burgers, can reduction in yogurt acidity. This promises a longer shelf
lead to a stronger water binding capacity which resulted in life and a better taste than the control (0% LF) which may
a rise in hardness and cooking yield as well as in a be particularly appreciated by the consumers. Therefore,
decrease of the diameter reduction and expressible liquid LF may represent a functional ingredient in the manu-
(liquid extracted by compression). These findings may be facture of yogurt to develop new probiotic and prebiotic
linked to the high protein content of LF (175 g/kg) which products.
in turn is responsible for its great water holding capacity
(WHC) and emulsifying properties. At the same time, the Finally, the uses of LF as food additive or adjuvant, or as
addition of LF caused a reduction in burger lightness and basis to produce improved materials in food technology
an increase in a* value due to the high carotenoid content. are increasing. A potential application of LF in the food
Moreover, sensory analysis revealed a good consumer industry is as a colouring component [32]. The addition of
acceptability both for appearance and taste [9
]. Flour 5–20% of red LF in durum wheat semolina pasta

Current Opinion in Food Science 2021, 40:157–167 www.sciencedirect.com

 Food uses, properties and in vitro digestibility of flour from lentils: a review Romano et al. 165

enhances overall consumer acceptance, in particular References and recommended reading

colour descriptors [32]. In fact, red LF has generally lower Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review,
have been highlighted as:
luminance (L*) and higher (b*) values than wheat, prob-
ably due to the higher bran content which results in
of special interest
greater amounts of pigment [28].
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tions of lentil protein.
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has gained momentum in recent years. LF has been
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quality and overall consumer acceptance of foods, at physicochemical and sensory characteristics of low-fat burgers. In par-
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Cereal Chem 2019, 96:1126-1136 This article describes the addition of LF in yogurts in order to develop a
The paper shows that particle size of lentil flour is closely related to the new probiotic and prebiotic food products. The most interesting effect
glucose release upon simulated gastrointestinal digestion. In particular, was on sensory characteristics of fortified yogurt and on its acceptance
the larger particle size of lentil flour is associated with reduced glucose by consumers who positively appreciated yogurts with LF in comparison
release during digestion which was partially retained after baking or moist with plain yogurt.
— heat cooking.
43. Baugreet S, Kerry JP, Allen P, Gallagher E, Hamill RM:
27. Lu ZH, Donner E, Tsao R, Ramdath DD, Liu Q: Physicochemical Physicochemical characteristics of protein-enriched

and digestion characteristics of flour and starch from eight restructured beef steaks with phosphates, transglutaminase,
Canadian red and green lentils. Int J Food Sci Technol 2018, and elasticised package forming. J Food Qual 2018, 1–11.
53:735-746
The article provides useful information about starch digestibility of flour 44. Baugreet S, Gomez C, Auty MAE, Kerry JP, Hamill RM,
from eight Canadian red and green lentils before and after cooking. The Brodkorb A: In vitro digestion of protein-enriched restructured
impact of cooking on RDS (increase) and SDS and RS (reduction) content beef steaks with pea protein isolate, rice protein and lentil
are reported. flour following sous vide processing. Innov Food Sci Emerg
Technol 2019, 54:152-161.
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lentil fortified flours: health benefits, phsicochemical, 45. Göncü A, Çelik _I: Investigation of some properties of gluten-
nutritional and technological properties. J Mater Environ Sci free tarhanas produced by red, green and yellow lentil whole
2019, 10:1098-1106. flour. Food Sci Technol 2020, 40:574-581.
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Technological, nutritional and functional properties of wheat
Functional properties and predicted glycemic index of gluten
bread enriched with lentil or carob flours. LWT - Food Sci free cereal, pseudocereal and legume flours. LWT - Food Sci
Technol 2017, 78:361-366. Technol 2020, 133:109860

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 Food uses, properties and in vitro digestibility of flour from lentils: a review Romano et al. 167

The paper presents an extensive evaluation of chemical composition This report highlights how nowadays the research in the food sector has
(starch, phenolic and flavonoid content) and functional properties of to be carried out with a comprehensive vision embracing technological,
different gluten free flours among which green and red lentil flours. nutritional, economic and environmental issues, and the results achieved
Besides it explores the correlations between the flour characteristics underscore the high potential of innovation in the field of lentil-based
and their effect on glycaemic index (estimated in vitro). ingredients to contribute towards global sustainable development goals.
47. Fujiwara N, Hall C, Jenkins AL: Development of low glycemic 49. Tam N, Oguz S, Aydogdu A, Sumnu G, Sahin S: Influence of

index (GI) foods by incorporating pulse ingredients into cereal- solution properties and pH on the fabrication of electrospun
based products use of in vitro screening and in vivo lentil flour/HPMC blend nanofibers. Food Res Int 2017, 102:616-
methodologies. Cereal Chem 2017, 94:110-116 624.
Outstanding article that illustrates the impact of replacing cereals with LF
on colour, textural, structural, sensory and nutritional properties of five 50. Aydogdu A, Yildiz E, Aydogdu Y, Sumnu G, Sahin S, Ayhan Z:
cereal-based products, such as snacks, pasta, biscuits, cakes and Food Hydrocolloids Enhancing oxidative stability of walnuts
bread. by using gallic acid loaded lentil flour based electrospun
nanofibers as active packaging material. Food Hydrocoll 2019,
48. Chaudhary A, Tremorin D: Nutritional and environmental 95:245-255.

sustainability of lentil reformulated beef burger. Sustain 2020,
12:1-18

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