15 Welding Merged

Anyagtudomány és Technológia Tanszék
Welding
Balázs Varbai, PhD, EWE/IWE
Classifying joining processes
2
Historical overview
Iron pillar of Delhi, erected in Delhi, India Elihu Thomson in 1885
about 310 AD
First welded road bridge in the world in 1928
Welding nowadays
4
Classifying the welding processes
• Based on the source of energy used to create joint

• Based on the filler material type
• Based on the protection of the weld
• Based on the level of mechanizing or automation
• Based on the technological parameters.
Most frequently the source of energy is the classifying criterion.
Another possible arrangement
6
Creating a weld bead
MATERIAL ENERGY
CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION
BY PHASE BY PRESSURE BY ENERGY
LIQUID SOLID THERMIC OTHER

WITHOUT
PRESSURE
W. PRESSURE THERMOMECHANIC MECHANIC
Creating the weld bead – pressure

processes
8
Resistance spot welding
Crystallization under force

creates the weld.
Higher joint strength
Basic manual processes
10
Manual metal arc welding
11
Roles of the flux covering
• Stabilizing the arc (K, Na, Ca decreases the emission energy and
the ionization potential)
• Evolving gas (organic matters, for example cellulose (C6H10O5)n
and from CaCO3)
• Deoxidizing, denitridizing (Mn, Si, Al, V, Ti, etc.)
• Alloying (alloys depending on base material, in the form of ferro-
alloys as Fe-Si, Fe-Ti, Fe-Cr etc.)
• Making up the slag (from rutile, from organic materials, from SiO2
and MnO etc.)
• Decrease the cooling speed, metallurgical processes
• Increase the melting rate (melting efficiency can reach 220 %)
12
Applications based on the type of
flux covering
• Acid flux electrode should be applied when the welding position is
simple but the penetration to be reached is high.
• Cellulose flux electrode is used for tubes root pass welding
(transmission line tubes).
• Rutile flux electrode is used for „around the house” type of works
and when the expected mechanical properties are at medium
level.
• Basic electrodes are used for constructions where mechanical
properties are important and high.
Nowadays flux mixtures are used as electrode covering
13
Welding parameters
• Wire diameter: de=1,5 ÷ 6 mm

• Current: I = 30 ÷ 500 A (I = (30÷60) x de, A)
• Arc voltage: U = 20 ÷ 50 V (U = 0,04 I + 20, V)
• Welding speed: vweld= 80 ÷ 200 mm/min
• Pull out length: Lpull= 100 ÷ 400 mm.
Pull out length means the length of the weld seam that can be
made with the efficient length of the electrode.
By the pull out length, the cross section of the weld and the
heat input (welding speed) can be well controlled.
14
Welding power sources
DC and AC current can be applied produced by:
• Welding transformers U power source
electric arc
• Welding rectifiers
L1 > L
• Welding generators
L
working point I
ΔI
Characteristics: internal control
15
Application of manual arc welding

• Widely used in every segment of the industry, because of its
simplicity, and low price. Practically there is suitable electrode for
every type of material, easy to learn the procedure and does not
require high capital investment.
• On-site welding
• For surfacing and repair welding most welding materials are available
in the form of flux covered electrodes.
• Disadvantage is the low melt-off efficiency, the rather strong
contribution of the human factor, and it is hard to apply for non-
ferrous metals.
16
MMA welding
MMA welding
17
Basic gas shielded processes
18
Shielding gas welding processes
• Gas tungsten arc welding
• Gas metal arc welding
• Plasma welding
These are semi-automated processes (if the filler material

feed is automated).
Wire
19
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
20
Applying impulse welding
tcicle = tbase + timp

current
timp
tbase
time
Impulse welding enables well

controlled heat input.
21
GTAW applications
• Non ferrous- and light metals, high alloyed steels (tool

repairs and pile up welding, corrosion resistant steels).
Cylindrical welded seams on tubes, also for root pass at
unalloyed and low-alloyed steels.
• Application constraint:
• Small melt-off efficiency
• Needs highly qualified personnel with practice.
• Cannot ensure proper gas shielding at windy places.
22
TIG welding of Ti
TIG welding of
titanium
23
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

processes
Metal active gas welding (MAG)

Metal inert gas welding (MIG)
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
24
Gas shielded metal arc welding
25
Power source for GMAW

L1 L0
U power source
U1 L2
U0
U2
L2 L0 L1
I1 I0 I2 I
L2 < L0 < L1
26
GMAW application
•CO2 shielding gas

-Unalloyed and low alloyed mass steel
construction
- DBTT = 0 °C
•MAG
- Mass steel construction DBTT = - 20 °C
- Robot supported operations
•Flux cored wire
- Mass steel construction DBTT = - 60 °C
- High alloyed steels, surfacing
•MIG
- Non-ferrous and light metals
- High alloyed steels, surfacing
27
Resistance welding
28
Resistance heating
• The Joule heat is generated by the current running
through the work pieces (direct heating) and this heat is
proportional with the resistance (R) and the current (I):
th
Q =  RI 2 dt
0
• The second option is to apply induced current, called

indirect heating.
29
Resistance welding: advantages

and applications
• Workpiece dimensions between wide limitations:
• Overlapping plates: s = 0,005 … 30 mm
• Butt welded rods: D = 0,01 … 350 mm
• Crossing rods: D = 0,01 … 80 mm
• Almost every material can be welded
• The welding process is fully mechanized, well
controllable and can be automated.
30
Resistance welding: advantages
and applications
• Welding quality is high and stable
• Heat affected zone is small, so the microstructure
change and remaining deformation is negligible
• High productivity
• Material and energy saving is an additional advantage.
Disadvantages
• Expensive welding equipment
• Equipment calibration, setting and maintenance needs
highly qualified personnel
• Big amount of scrap when settings are incorrect
• Problem with the mechanical characteristics in some cases.
31
Resistance spot welding
32
Process of creating a welded spot
The top electrode approaches the work piece, electrodes are pressed to the work
piece, after the preset time the current flows, the material starts to melt in a lens
shaped volume.
The melted volume is increasing, if the current is on for too long time, the melted
material can be spattered, after the proper time and post keeping the top electrode
moves away.
33
Simple working order
F
I
tes th tu t
Pressing the electrodes onto the work piece (F), presetting

time (tes) has passed, the current (I) is turned on, after the
welding time has expired (th) the pressure is kept for the post
keeping time (tu). Main welding parameters are I, F, th , the
pre and post keeping times are supporting parameters.
34
RSW automotive industry
RSW automotive
industry
35
Thank you for your attention
36
References
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hWqLM7
wz61g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MAVPabt
SvAA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QEWEMC
wSMuw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7R2JtlcOf
Bo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uxViZYNo
qcA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N5AYZxsn
DuM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zc3Fu1AV
Cjc
37
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Forming
Materials Engineering
BMEGEMTBGF1
2021 Fall semester
Plastic deformation
lattice defects
Ideal lattice: no defects
Real lattice: defects
• Vacancy, interstitial atom 0D

• Dislocation 1D
• Grain boundaries 2D
• Precipitations 3D
A. G. Guy, Essentials of Materials Science, McGraw-Hill Book W. G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure
Company, New York, 1976, p. 153. and Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure, p. 77. 2
Interstitial vs. substitutial
Plastic deformation
lattice defects
Plastic deformation
Mechanical properties ~ plastic deformation
• hardness, toughness, yield stress
• formability
Mechanism of the plastic deformation:

• slip of the dislocation
(slip plain and slip direction)
4
Plastic deformation
lattice defects
A linear crystallographic
defect or irregularity within a
crystal structure that
contains an abrupt change in
the arrangement of atoms. A
dislocation defines the
boundary between slipped
and unslipped regions.
Bright-field image of dislocations in a silicon

crystal taken at an accelerating voltage of 200 kV.
(a) A black line (indicated by arrow "a") shows a
dislocation line running parallel to the specimen
surface.
(b) A black zigzag line (indicated by arrow "b")
exhibits a dislocation running oblique to the
specimen surface. The zigzag contrast is created
by a dynamical diffraction effect.
https://www.jeol.co.jp/en/words/emterms/search_result.html?key
word=dislocation 5
Elastic and plastic deformation

Elastic deformation
• after the load is removed, no deformation remains
• no rearrangements in the atomic order
Plastic deformation
• deformation which remains after load is removed
• atomic rearrangements (change of neighbours)
6
Plastic deformation – slip of
dislocations
Slip plane
Deformation of crystals occurs by slip of lattice planes, motion of

dislocations
Edge dislocation Screw dislocation
Dislocation glide
Dislocation glide during in situ TEM straining at 400 °C of 304 stainless steel. Video speed is increased 5x.
8
Deformation of a single crystal
Stress (pressure)
Driving force for slip:

Tensile stress leads to resolved shear stress
in slip system
No shear stress: slip direction or slip plane

normal are perpendicular
to the tensile axis
Maximum shear stress: slip plane and slip direction

are under 45° to the tensile axis.
In single crystals:
Slip starts on slip system with highest  active slip system
Deformation of
crystalline materials
Stress
polycrystal
single crystal
stage
stage
stage
only one slip multiple cross
system operates slip and climb
multiplication and
interaction of dislocations
Deformation
10
Deformation of
a polycrystalline materials
Alteration of the grain structure of a polycrystalline metal as a result of plastic
deformation.
(a) Before deformation the (b) The deformation has

grains are equiaxed. produced elongated
grains.
11
Flow curve
The flow curve describes the stress-strain relationship in the region in which metal
forming takes place. For most metals at room temperature, the stress-strain plot
indicates that as the metal is deformed, its strength increases due to strain hardening.
The stress required to continue deformation must be increased to match this increase
in strength. Callister: Materials Science and Engineering, 7th ed.
12
Flow curve
flow curves – cold deformation flow curves – hot deformation
Yield stress
Yield stress
Plastic strain Plastic strain
https://www.researchgate.net/publication
/250196836_Modeling_of_the_hot_defor
mation_behavior_of_boron_microalloyed
_steels_under_uniaxial_hot-
compression_conditions/figures?lo=1
13
Forming limit diagram
• Used in sheet metal forming for predicting forming

behavior of sheet metal.
• A minimum of the curve exists at the intercept with the
major strain axis or close thereby, the plane strain
forming limit.
crack
safe
14
Forming limit – bulk materials
At every point in a stressed body

Different deformation there are at least three planes, called
routes principal planes, n, called principal
Failure strain
directions, where the corresponding

stress vector is perpendicular to the
crack plane, and where there are no
normal shear stresses. The three
stresses normal to these principal
planes are called principal stresses.
upsetting torsion tension
Stress state index

2
15
Classification - temperature
Cold working
– Temperature < 0.3 * melting point in deg. K
– In practice for most engineering metal this means
room temperature
– Work hardening is dominant
Hot working
– Above the recrystalization temperature
– Temperature > 0.5 (or 0.6) * melting point in deg. K
– Strain rate sensitivity more important
Warm working
– Temperature between 0.3 and 0.5 of melting point
– Flow stresses somewhat less than cold working
16
Classification – workpiece type
Sheet metal forming

–Input material: sheet form
–Thickness changes very small
–Stresses: tensile
Bulk forming
–Input material in the form of bars, billets, etc.
–Thickness of material usually substantially
reduced
–Stresses: compressive
17
Classification –
primary / component process.
Primary forming processes

–Processes predominantly for producing
materials for further processing
–Examples are rolling, drawing, extrusion, etc.
Component producing processes

–Processes for producing component parts
–Input materials produced by primary
processes
–Examples are forging, deep drawing, stretch
forming, etc.
18
Range of forming processes
 Free forming
–Tool does not contain the desired shape
 Two dimensional forming
–Point contact between tool and work material
–Two relative motions required to produce geometry
–Incremental forming processes
 One dimensional forming
–Line or surface contact with work material
–Only one relative motion required to produce
geometry
 Total forming
–Tool contains the desired geometry
 Process kinematics within each group differentiates the
different processes
19
Forging techniques
Cold warm and hot forging depending on the temperature
Grain flow control
Open die Closed die

+ Simple and inexpensive dies + Relatively good utilization of material
+ Small quantity + Better properties than open-die
forgings
-Limited to simple shapes + Dimensional accuracy
-Low production rate + High production rates
-High degree of skill required + Good reproducibility
- High die cost
- Not economical for small quantities20
Open die forging - stages
(a) forge hot billet to max diameter
(b) fuller: tool to mark step-locations
(c) forge right side
(d) reverse part, forge left side
(e) finish (dimension control)
[source:www.scotforge.com]
21
Ring forging and rolling
22
Open die forging
Open die forging
Ring rolling
23
Closed die forging
24
Forge rolling
https://www.tradekorea.com/product/detail/P711035/ZGD-1000-
Automatic-forging-roll-for-connecting-rod-forging.html?RLGOODS=D46- 25
165x1200%20Cross%20Wedge%20Roll%20for%20Crankshafts%20Forging
Closed die forging
Forging steps of a connecting rod
26
Closed die forging – technology
sequence
1. Prepare a slug, billet, by shearing, sawing, or cutting.
(clean surfaces e-g by shot blasting)
2. For hot forging, heat the workpiece in a furnace and then descale
it (wire brush, water jet, or steam)
3. For hot forging: preheat and lubricate the dies
For cold forging: lubricate the blank
4. Forge the billet in dies and in the proper sequence. (+ material
removal (e.g. flash) by trimming, machining, or grinding.
5. Clean the forging and the dimensions
6. Additional operations: straightening, heat treating
7. Machining and grinding to final dimensions and specified
tolerances.
8. Inspection: external and internal defects.
27
Forging – grain flow
Quality of forged parts
Surface finish/Dimensional control: better than casting (typically)
Stronger/tougher than cast/machined parts of same material
28
Closed die forging
Closed die forging
29
Extrusion processes
Hot and cold extrusion
Forward and backward extrusion
Extrusion of other shapes
Drawing of rod and wire
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Aluminum- https://tr.pinterest.com/pin/4265
Extrusion-Die-Mould-China-Moulds_60169109589.html 75395938085457/ 30
Direct and indirect extrusion
31
Extrusion of a seamless tubes
using an internal mandrel
using a spider die
32
Aluminum extrusion
Aluminum extrusion
33
Impact extrusion
https://www.plastprintpack.fairtrade-messe.com/en/Impact-
Extrusion-our-core-expertise,p1546107
http://www.ashfield-
extrusion.co.uk/products/technical/ 34
Impact extrusion
Impact extrusion
35
Drawing
The cross section of a long rod or wire is reduced or changed by
pulling it through a draw die.
https://www.estevesgroup.com/produc https://www.3betterdiamond.com/diamond-materials/wire-drawing-
ts/wire-drawing-dies/tc-drawing-dies die/pcd_wire_drawing_die.html 36
Wire drawing
1. Descaling: machining, sand
belt
2. Lubrication
3. WC wire drawing dies
4. 4.6 mm  1.3 mm after 11
dies
5. Storing  cooling (24 h)
6. Tensile, torsion tetst
7. Straightening
8. Spring making
37
Wire drawing
Wire drawing
38
Tube drawing
1. Annealing  softening
2. Pickling  cleaning, lubrication
3. Pointing  reducing diameter for
drawing
4. Drawing
5. Anneling, repeating
6. Final annealing
7. Straightening
8. NDT: eddy current testing
9. Cutting
10. Final checking (dimensions, quality,
etc.)
11. Shipping
39
Tube drawing
Tube drawing
40
Rolling techniques
https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/cold-rolling-
mills-for-sheet-strip-coils-6942320788.html
https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/5 41
47084/view/rolling-a-rail-at-a-steel-mill
Hot rolling process
DOI: 10.18178/ijmerr.7.2.126-130 42
Flat rolling
Material flow in the rolling gap
tgα < µ
Fx Tx
43
Flat rolling
44
Hot rolling steps
1. Heating up the slab ~1200 °C
(also dissolve carbides, nitrides)
2. Mill scale cleansing: high
pressure water (160 bar)
3. Roughing mill: 220  30 mm in
a 4 high rolling mill in 5 passes
4. Surface cleansing during the
roughing mill process
5. Vertical rollers  width
6. Rolled up in a coil box: save
space, temperature equalization
~1150 °C
7. Mill scale removal
8. Finishing male: 6 passes, 1.8
mm, cooling rate
9. Cooling ~ 700 °C Uplooper
10. Coiling
45
Hot rolling
Hot rolling
46
Shape and ring rolling
https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/hot-
rolling-mills-17279419655.html
https://americanalloyflange.com/rolled-rings/ 47
Thread rolling
Reciprocating flat dies
https://youtu.be/MvWmH3Dr52o
Roller dies
48
Seamless tubes and pipes by
rolling
1. Billet is cut and heated up to
~1250 °C
2. Barrel type piercing (Mannesmann
effect)
3. Finishing mill
4. Heated up in an induction furnace
5. Reducing mill (stretching for
proper outside diameter)
6. Heat treatment
7. Straightening
8. Finishing (quality check,
hydrostatic test, eddy current,
ultrasonic testing
9. Coating, marking
10. Bundeling
49
Seamless pipe production

Seamless pipe production
50
Shearing
https://youtu.be/hBMQck1Y3EQ 51
Punching and blanking

Parting
https://youtu.be/HBa1wDv-6bU 52
Fine blanking
http://precomp.se/en/technology/technology-
areas/fineblanking 53
Deep drawing
54
Deep drawing
55
Deep drawing defects
Flange wrinkling Wall wrinkling Cracking Earing
56
Spinning
Mandrel
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rqNRRqAjk6g 57
https://youtu.be/43N44ICyuEU
Rubber pad forming

The outer surface of the sheet is protected from damage or
scratches: no contact with a hard metal surface during forming.
58
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M7JLO0BcI14
Hydroforming
• Aluminium, brass, low alloy steel, and
stainless steel into lightweight, structurally
stiff and strong pieces.
• One of the largest applications of
hydroforming is the automotive industry.
• Sheet hydroforming
• Tube hydroforming
https://www.wardsauto.com/industry/schuler-
hydroforming-expertise-draws-auto-maker-interest
59
Hydroforming of a chassis part
Hydroforming of a chassis part
60
Thank you for your attention!
61
References
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1OW4ld8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fOkCKOW
xRzo pUr0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EXbiEopD
J_g https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AuuP8L-
WppI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oHH5rqtY
drY https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B1gcSyqL
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDyWyD kA0
P3cvs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AW_sgdZ
gFCU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iiGlq7408
ME
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RE0gz9cD
9u8&feature=youtu.be
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zlueIHudt
4k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=doX-
uXOFoLY&feature=youtu.be
62
Casting, Powder Metallurgy

BMEGEMTBGF1
2021 Fall semester
Outline
• Solidification of metals
• Fluid flow, effect of cooling rate
• Cast defects
• Metal casting processes
• Sand mold casting
• Shell-mold casting
• Investment casting
• Evaporative-pattern casting
• Permanent mold casting
• Pressure die casting
• Centrifugal casting
2
History
• B.C. 3000-1500 Bronze age (tin-bronze)
• B.C. 224 Colossus of Rhodes (32 m high, bronze)
• 1252 Great Buddha, Japan(120 t (9% Sn, 20% Pb))
• 1400 Yongle Great Bell (China, Beijing) 46 t, 120 dB-20 km)
• 1586 Tsar cannon

• 1709 Cast iron bridge
(USA Coalbrookdale)
• 1735 Tsar Bell (193 t)
Casting process
The casting process basically involves:
(a) pouring molten molten metal into the mold cavity
(b) solidification and cooling of the metal in the mold
(c) removing the part from the mold
4
Efficiency and energy consumption
Utilization of the mat. Process Energy consumption
Casting
Powder metallurgy (1kg product)
Cold and warm forming
Closed die forging
Machining
https://www.machinedesign.com/materials/metals/article/21834820/reap-
the-benefits-of-modernday-powder-metallurgy
5
Solidification of pure metals and

eutectic alloys
Latent heat
Solidification takes place at a constant temperature
Pure metals and eutectic alloys - good castability
6
Solidification of alloys
time
columnar dendrites („tree shape”)
Solidification takes place in a

temperature range
Dendritic solidification
8
Shrinkage
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45917826_On_the_predict
ion_of_shrinkage_defects_by_thermal_criterion_functions
9
Shrinkage
Risers (feeders):
reservoirs of molten metal prevent porosity due to shrinkage
mold cavity
Gating system (sprue, runners, gates) sand casting: traps contaminants
10
Sand casting
Minimize turbulence and
Cope (flask) formation of air bubbles.
Pattern
Core-prints
Drag (flask)
The controlled entrances
Slow down and smooth from the runners into
Core out the flow (uniform). the mold cavities.
Casting
11
Sand casting
• Molding sands + Binders
• Refractoriness
• Chemical inertness
• Permeability (to exhaust gases)
• Surface finish
• Cohesiveness
• Flowability
• Collapsibility
• Availability/cost
12
Sand casting
Sand casting
13
Shell molding
Sand + 2.5 - 4 % 175-370⁰C
resin binder
14
Shell molding
Shell Molding Process
15
Evaporative-pattern casting (Lost-

foam Process)
polystyrene pattern
Coating with
water-based
refractory slurry
& drying
polystyrene pattern evaporates

upon contact with molten metal
The degradation products from the polystyrene are vented

into the surrounding sand.
16
Investment (precision) casting
wax can be recovered
and reused
17

Advantages Disadvantages
• Excellent surface finish • It can be difficult to cast
objects requiring cores.
• High dimensional accuracy • This process is expensive, is
usually limited to small
• Intricate parts are castable casting, and presents some
• Almost any metal can be cast difficulties where cores are
involved.
• No flash or parting lines • Holes cannot be smaller than
1/16 in. (1.6 mm) and should
be no deeper than about 1.5
times the diameter.
• Investment castings require
longer production cycles
compared to other casting
processes.
18
Investment Casting Process
19
Permanent mold casting

2 halves of a mold: made from materials with high
resistance to erosion and thermal fatigue,
(cast iron, steel, bronze, graphite,
or refractory metal alloys)
Mold cavity and gating system
are machined into the mold
+ cores made of metal or sand aggregate
The molds are clamped together
heated to 150° - 200°C
The process is used mostly for aluminum,

magnesium, and copper alloys, gray iron,
lower melting points
Steels: graphite or heat-resistant metal molds.
Good surface finish, close dimensional tolerances,

uniform and good mechanical properties,
and at high production rates.
https://batesvilleproducts.com/process/ 20
(Pressure) Die casting
Hot-chamber process
Dies are cooled by circulating water or oil: Pressure: up to 35 MPa
- to improve die life
- rapid metal cooling
(reducing cycle time)
Cycle times: 200 - 300 shots per hour for zinc

21

Cold-chamber process
Pressure: 20-70 MPa
22
Pressure die casting
Fémalk Zrt.
23
Centrifugal casting
http://essenaluminium.com/services/centrifugal-casting-products-
manufacturers-in-india/ 24
Centrifugal casting
Centrifugal Casting of Ductile Iron Pipe
25
Metal casting processes overview

Evaporative Invest- Permanent Centri-
Sand Shell Plaster Die
pattern ment mold fugal
Non- Non-
material All All All
ferrous ferrous
Weight
0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.001 0.1 <0.01 0.01
Min
Max No limit 100+ 100+ 50+ 100+ 300 50 5000+
accep-
Surface good acceptable good Very good good good good
table
Shape
complexity
good good good good Very good good Very good good
Dim. +0.005 - +0.001 -

1.6-4 mm +0.003 +0.005 ±0.015 0.015
tolerance 0.01 0.005
Min.
3 2 2 1 1 2 0.5 2
thickness
Min. 10-
1 100 500 10 10 1000 10 000
quantity 10 000
26
Metal casting processes
Process /
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10 000 100 000
mass (kg)
Sand Ra =100 μm
Shell Ra =10-25 μm
Investment Ra < 10 μm
Permanent
Ra = 10-50 μm
mold
Die Ra =1.6 - 10 μm
27
Powder metallurgy
• Components are made of metal powders

• Reduce the need of metal removal
• Materials that cannot be melted or formed in other
ways (WC)
• Very high alloying content (HSS)
https://www.pm-review.com/introduction-to-powder-metallurgy/why-
powder-metallurgy/ 28
Powder metallurgy
Steps Processes
1. Powder blending • Powder forging
Press and sinter + hot forging
2. Die compaction
• Hot isostatic pressing
3. Sintering Powder in sealed can, 0.7 Thom,
1. Coining 100 MPa
2. Heat treatment • Metal injection moulding
Powder + binder injection moulded (green),
heated (brown) and sintered
• Electric current assisted sintering
Electric current to densify powders
• Additive manufacturing
SLS, SLM, EBM
29
Powder manufacturing
• Sponge iron process
Fe3O4 ore is mixed with coke and lime and placed in a silicon carbide
retort. The filled retort is then heated in a kiln, where the reduction
process leaves an iron “cake” and a slag.
• Atomization
Forcing a molten metal stream through an orifice at moderate
pressures. Gas, liquid is introduced or centrifugal process.
30
Powder compaction + Sintering
• Die pressing
Presses are used (hydraulic, mechanical, servo-electrical)
• Isostatic pressing
In hot isostatic pressing (HIP) compact formation and sintering occur
simultaneously.
• Sintering
During this process, the surfaces of the particles are bonded and
desirable properties are achieved.
https://www.grandviewresearch
.com/industry-analysis/powder-
metallurgy-market
31
Powder metallurgy
Powder Metallurgy
32
33
References
• https://youtu.be/S07fPo45BvM
• https://youtu.be/UBeUp-oP7Lk
• https://youtu.be/WhS1ziBDxag
• https://youtu.be/TVsJlWEzZY8
• https://youtu.be/3G2sBqXkRT8
• https://youtu.be/N4-kfSD6XJI
34
Cast Irons
BMEGEMTBGF1
2021 Fall semester
Outline
Properties of cast irons
• Microstructure, C = 2.1 ~ 6.67%
• Mechanical properties
1) Carbon content
2) Cooling rate of the casting
3) Alloying elements
Types
• Gray cast iron
• White cast iron
• Nodular cast irons
• Malleable cast irons
2
Carbon content
• Degree of solution
%
. . % %
• T>1 Hypereutectic Ledeburite + Pr. Cementite
• T=1 Eutectic Ledeburite
• T>1 Hypoeutectic Ledeburite + Pearlite
Cooling rate
• Slow cooling rate

Iron + Graphite
section size > 10 mm
• Quick Cooling rate

Iron + Cementite
section size < 10 mm
4
Alloying elements
• Graphite producing elements

Co, P, Cu, Ni, Ti, Si, C, Al
• Carbide producing elements

W, Mn, Mo, S, Cr, V, Mg, Ce
• The microstructure depends on:

- Carbon and Silicon content
- Section size (cooling rate)
Maurer diagram
Gray cast iron
(Stable)
Ferrite + Graphite
White cast iron

(metastable)
6
Microstructure
Hypoeutectic white cast iron Hypereutectic white cast iron

Perlite and ledeburite Primer cementite and ledeburite
Gray cast iron Gray cast iron

Ferrite and graphite Ferrite, perlite and graphite
Greiner - Klingenstein diagram

C + Si %
Ferrite + Graphite
Pearlite +
Graphite
Ledeburite+ 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Pearlite L+P+G Wall thickness (mm)
At a given C + Si % the graphite producing elements’ effects

increases with increasing section size
8
8
Mechanical properties of cast iron
Strength
Tensile
(MPa)
400
100
Ferritic Pearlitic
microstructure microstructure
Graphite’s effect on tensile strength

- graphite produces notch effect
- graphite excludes parts in the matrix
9

Disadvantage of cast iron
- gray cast iron has low strength
- gray cast iron has no plastic strain = brittle
Graphite forms in gray cast iron
irregular
lamellar vermicular
spheroidal
crab tempered spheroidal
10
• Advantage of cast iron

- good compressive strength
- high damping capability (tool machines)
- good machinability
- good wear resistance (graphite as lubricant)
- lower cost
11
Utilization of gray cast iron
12
Increasing the strength of cast iron
1. Increase the perlite amount in the matrix

2. Modify the shape and distribution of the graphite
flakes
3. Alternating the graphite’s geometry from flake to
spheroidal graphite
13

Increase the perlite amount in the matrix
Ferrite + Graphite
ASTM A438 Rm (ksi) Rm (MPa) T

Class 20 150 1
30 200 0.94
35 250 0.88
14
Modify the size and distribution of graphite flakes
FeSi and CaSi as centers of crystallization (nucleation)
Method: Overheating the molten iron and alloy
FeSi ~0.5% CaSi 0.5~1%
- finer flakes
- higher strength
ASTM A438 Rm (ksi) Rm (MPa) T

Class 40 300 0.8
50 350 0.76
60 400 0.72
15

Alternating the graphite’s geometry from flake to
spheroidal graphite
Ductile or Nodular cast iron
Mg and Si alloying
Mg alloying by Fe-Cu-Mg and Fe-Ni-Mg
Si %
F + Sph +
Ferrite + Graphite flakes
Ferrite + spheroidal
C=3.5%
+ Graphite flakes
Graphite flakes
F + P +Sph +
gr.
Graphite flakes
F + P + Sph.
F + Sph. + Carbides
Mg %
16
Microstructure
Ductile cast iron

Ferrite and spherical graphite
20 µm
spherical graphite
in gray cast iron
Ductile cast iron

Ferrite, Perlite and spherical graphite
17
Utilization of ductile cast iron
18
Ductile or nodular cast irons
ASTM A395 Rm (MPa) Re (MPa) El (%) structure
Grade 60-40-18 400 250 18 Ferrite
Elongation (%)
Yield Stress (ksi)
Tensile strength (ksi)
Grade 80-55-06 600 370 6 F+P

Grade 100-70-03 700 420 3 P (AQ)
Grade 120-90-02 800 480 2 M (Q+T)
19
Malleable cast iron

Convert iron-carbibe to
temper carbon
increases the ductility
Whiteheart malleable iron is

made by using an oxidizing
atmosphere to remove
Blackheart malleable iron is Has a matrix, according to carbon from the surface of
made by annealing white iron the grade specified, of white iron castings heated to
in a neutral atmosphere, at a pearlite or other a temperature of 1000° C.
temperature of 940° C. transformation products
Cementite  graphite nodule of austenite.
https://www.britannica.com/technology/iron-
processing/The-metal#ref622852
http://www.totalmateria.com/articles/Art96.htm 20
Black heart malleable cast iron
Ferritic structure with temper carbon
ASTM A47 Rm (MPa) Re (MPa) El (%)
Grade 325-10 400 130 10
Ledeburitic - pearlitic structure

T (°C)
940 °C
Slow cooling to
neutral Iron carbide dissociates to Fe and C
prevent
atmosphere pearlite formation Austenite transforms to ferrite and
graphite
723
Ferrite + temper carbon
100 12 – 48 hours
time
21
White heart malleable cast iron

Ferritic structure with low carbon content
ASTM A47 Rm (MPa) Re (Mpa) El (%)
Grade 450-06 310 175 6
Grade 600-04 420 250 4
Grade 800-02 550 340 2
Grade 900-01 650 430 1
T (°C)
1000°C
Ledeburitic-perlitic structure
oxidizing C = ~ 3%
atmosphere
723 Iron carbide dissociates to Fe and C
Carbon diffuses to the surface and

burns there.
100 25 -100 hours time Ferritic structure , low carbon
C = ~ 0.1%
22
Microstructure
Black heart cast iron

Temper-carbon in ferrite matrix White heart cast iron
Preparation of White Heart Malleable Cast Iron in Na2O-K2O-SiO2 Oxide Molten

Salt Hiroaki Yamamoto, Kenji Shinzaki, Masao Morishita and Koichiro Koyama 23
Pearlitic malleable CI
• Higher strenght but

lower ductility than
ferritic types
• Weldable, but post-
weld heat treatment is
required
• Heat treatable, 50 – 55
HRC
• Shafts, agricultural
machinery, cranks
https://www.slideshare.net/usamatahir66/cast-iron-amp-its-structure 24
Utilization of malleable cast iron
25
26
Classification of steels
BMEGEMTBGF1
2021 Fall semester
Classification according to
1) Steel production methods (old category)

2) Structure at room temperature
3) Content of alloying elements
4) Purpose of utilization
2
Content of alloying elements
Plain (carbon) steels

Because of the steel making process contains
unavoidable elements
Mn < 0.8 % Si < 0.6 % Cr, Ni, Cu <0.3 %
Mo, W < 0.2 % Al, Ti, V, Nb < 0.05 %
Alloyed steels
- micro alloyed steels Σ alloy < 0.1% (Ti, Ni, V, …)
- low alloyed steels Σ alloy < 5 %
- medium alloyed steels Σ alloy < 10 %
- high alloyed steels Σ alloy > 10 %
Structure at room temperature
austenitic
Alloy %
Alloy %
Ledebutitic
Ledebutitic
Semi-austenitic
Ferritic- Ferritic- Perlitic+

Perlitic+
perlitic perlitic Sec.Cem
Sec.Cem
• Ferritic • Ledeburitic
- Ferrite promoting element • Semi austenitic
• Semi ferritic
• Hipoeutektoidic • Austenitic
• Hipereutektoidic - Austenite promoting element
4
Structure at room temperature
• Perlitic
• Martensitic
• Austenitic
• Ferritic
• Bainitic
Utilization
• Structural steels
• Automotive industry, machine industry , steel structures
• Toughness is also a requirement
• C < 0,6%
• Tool steels
• Machining and forming tools
• Wear resistance, stiffness, hardness
• Hardenable, precipitation hardenable alloys
• Special steels and alloys

• For a specific purpose
• Heat resistance, corrosion resistance, etc.
6
Designation of steels
According to different standards

Most well-known standards:
• International Standard Organization ISO

• American Iron and Steel Institute AISI
• Society of Automotive Engineer SAE
• American Society for Testing and Materials ASTM
Designation of steels
Example: number (werkstoffnummer)

Material group
Steel group 1 – steels
2 – heavy metals
1.43 00 xx 3 – light metals
number 4 – nonmetallic
…
Auxiliary sign
8 – nonmetallic
9 – rest
8
Short designation
sign Application Area Main prop. e.g.

S Structural steel ReH (MPa) S235
P Pressure vessel steel ReH (MPa) P275
L Pipe steels ReH (MPa)
E Steels for machines ReH (MPa) E235
B Steels for concrete ReH (MPa)
… … … …
Auxiliary signs
Auxiliary signs
Temperature
Required impact energy
(°C)
10
Designation according to chemical
composition
Carbon steels: C10, C40, C90, C120
Alloyed steels:
14NiCrMo13-4
high alloy steels:
X8CrNiTi18-10
Alloying element Multiplication factor
11
Structural steels
A: hot rolled structural steels
B: flat steel products for
pressure vessels
Formability, weldability
C: Steels for cold forming
D: Heat treatable steels
E: Case hardening steels
F: Nitridable steels
Other types of steels
12
Structural steels
pressure vessels
13
A: Hot rolled unalloyed structural

steels
• For general purpose
• Hot rolled of forged state
• Certificate: Rm, ReH,
A, KV, chem. comp
• Can not be used in some cases
• Various types
• E.g.: S235JR
14
A: Normalized rolled, weldable,
fine-grained steels
• Normalized during rolling
• Grain size number
greater than 6
• Auxiliary mark:
• N: normalized
• L: impact energy
27 J at -50°C
• E.g.: S275N, S275NL
15
A: Thermomechanical rolled,
weldable, fine-grained steels
• Thermomechanical rolling: controlled recrystallization
during deformation
• Nb alloying increases the recrystallization temperature
• The grain refinement is promoted by Ti-alloying
• Auxiliary mark: M
• E.g.: S355M, S355ML
16
A: Thermomechanical rolled,
weldable, fine-grained steels II.
• Hydrogen resistant steels
• Problem: H makes the iron
carbide dissociate
• Higher temperatures speeds
up the process (T>200°C)
• Tensile stress speeds up the
process
• Solution: stabile carbide producing alloying elements

• Cr, Mo, V, W
• Better heat resistance, used in heat treated state
• Oil industry, refineries, hydrogen appliances
• HSLA steels
17
A: Atmospheric corrosion resistant

(weathering) steels
• Atmospheric corrosion
• Cu, Cr, P, Ni, Mo
alloying (low content!)
• Forming of phosphate,
sulfate, hydroxide
compounds – closes
the pores, the
corrosion stops.
• Passive layer, red-
brown color, < 0.3 mm
• E.g.: S235J0W,
S355J0WP
18
A: Sheets and bands from quenched
and tempered, high strenght steels
• Welded structures for high load at low or environment
temperature.
• Containers, bridges cranes etc.
• Auxiliary mark: Q
• Weldable but susceptible to cold cracking
• E.g.: S460QL
19
Structural steels
pressure vessels
20
B: Plain and alloyed steels for
elevated temperatures
• Plain steels (e.g.: P235GH)
• Yield stress or creep strength is
given
• Steam boilers, pressure vessels
• Up to ~400°C-
• Alloyed steels(e.g.: 12CrMo9-
10)
• Mn, Mo, Cr, V, Nb and Si, Ni for
weldability
• boilers, heat exchanger,
chemistry appliances, flanges,
fasteners
• Up to ~500-530°C
21
B: Weldable fine-grained
normalized steels
• Three sub-classes
• Room temperature quality (P…N)
• T > -20°C
• Heat resistant quality (P…NH)
• T= -20…400°C
• Sub-zero toughness (P…NL1 and P…NL2)
• Not brittle even at T=-40 or -50°C
• Grain size number is greater than 6
• Welding: carbon equivalent
22
B: Ni alloyed steels with specified
low temperature properties
• The impact energy is prescribed for structures
• Below -60°C Ni alloying
• FCC lattice not sensitive to embrittlement
• Selection according to temperature and thickness
• Acceptable impact energy even at -200 °C
• Cooling and cryogen technology
• E.g.: 11MnNi5-3, 12Ni14, X7Ni9
23
B: Weldable fine-grained
thermomechanical rolled steels
• Nb alloying to increase the recrystallizations
temperature
• Ti alloying to grain refining
• V and Mo alloying to strengthen
• Auxiliary mark: M
• E.g.: P355ML1
24
B: Weldable, fine-grained heat
treatable steels
• Three sub-classes
• Room temperature quality (P…Q)
• Heat resistant quality (P…QH)
• Sub-zero toughness quality upto -40°C (P…QNL1),
down to -50°C (P…QNL2)
• Micro alloying elements for grain refining and
strengthening (Ti, Nb, V, N, B)
• Weldability is influenced by: thickness, input energy,
design, welding process, electrode
25
B: Stainless steels
• Ferritic steels
• Weak corrosive environment; pressure vessels, food industry
appliances
• Up to 350°C 155-215 MPa yield stress
• Martensitic steels
• Pump parts, valves, turbine impellers
• Up to 300°C-ig 530-580 MPa yield stress
• Austenitic steels
• Wide range of application
• From -196 to 600°C applicable (FCC, no susceptibility to
embrittlement after solution heat treatment, there is no
DBTT)
• Ferritic-austenitic (duplex) steels
26
Structural steels
pressure vessels
27
C: Cold rolled flat products from

low carbon steels for cold forming
• Low carbon content, ferritic steel
• Very low alloy content (+Al, Ti)
• DC01…DC06, : A, or B – surface
quality
• A: surface insufficiency (e.g.
scratch) allowed
• B: no surface imperfection
allowed
• Surface roughness grades
• b: Shiny, g: semi-shiny, m: normal,
r: rough
• E.g.: DC01Am
28
C: Cold rolled flat products from
low carbon steels for cold forming
• With less than 600 mm, thickness lass than 10 mm un-
alloyed and alloyed steel band
• Designation:
• Annealed (A)
• Cold rolled (C )
• Skin passed (LC)
reducing the possibility of formation of flow lines
• Surface quality MA, MB and MC
• E.g.: DC03C440MB
29
C: Hot rolled high strength steel

flat products for cold forming
• For cold forming, hot rolled, weldable high strength,
alloyed
• Thermomechanical or normalizing rolled
• Low perlite steels (Ti, Nb, V) – HSLA
• E.g.: S420NC, S460MC
• Formable, shearable, bendable, machinable
• Welded structures, automotive industry
30
Dual Phase steels
• Very hard martensite finely distributed in soft ferrite
matrix
• Good strength, good formability
• Wheels, car body, bumper, wires, building structures
https://www.phase-
trans.msm.cam.ac.uk/2008/
dual.html
31
Transformation Induced Plasticity

steels
• TRIP steels
• Ferritic-austenitic-bainitic microstructure after hot
forming
• Austenite transforms to martensite during further
forming
• car body, vehicle industry
https://www.ispatguru.com/trip-steels/ 32
DP / TRIP treatment
Ferrite Ferrite
Bainite Bainite
33
Interstitial Free steels
• IF steels
• Pure ferrite matrix
• Extra low content of alloying elements
(30-60 ppm)
• Good deep drawability, formability, no ageing
• Household appliances, vehicle overlay parts
34
Bake Hardening steels
• BH steels
• Low carbon content
alloys, precipitation
hardenable at ~200°C
• Increases the yield stress
by ~40 MPa though
precipitation hardening
(C and N)
• E.g.: after forming during
painting
• Vehicle body elements https://automotive.arcelormittal.com/product
s/flat/HYTSS/BH
35
Structural steels
pressure vessels
36
• Must be strong enough and
resistant to dynamic impacts
• Fasteners, pins, joints, beam
structures, wrenches, axle,
cardan cross, gears, etc.
• Unalloyed and alloyed steels
• Purpose of alloying:
• Increase the trough hardening
diameter
• Increase toughness, decrease
DBTT
• Improve fatigue resistance
• Decrease softening during
tempering
37
D: Unalloyed Heat treatable steels
• Only carbon, no additional alloying element (except

elements from production)
• Higher toughness, lower strength
• Small trough hardening diameter
• Wear resistance can be improved by surface quenching
• Rm: 500…1000 MPa,
ReH: 300-580 MPa, A: 20-11%, Z: 50-20%
• designation: Cnn, where nn = C%
• Auxiliary marks: E: S < 0.035%,
R: 0.020 % < S < 0.040%
38
D: Alloyed Heat treatable steels I.
• Mn (1.4-1.65%)
• Cheap
• Increased through hardening diameter
• Susceptibility to over heating and embrittlement
during tempering (fast cooling necessary)
• Must not be used for parts with service temperature
below 0°C
• E.g.: 28Mn6
39
D: Alloyed Heat tretable steels II.
• Cr (up to 2%)
• Most common alloying
element
• Strongly Increases the
through hardening diameter
and yield stress
• Good surface hardenability
• For low to middle stresses,
engine parts, axles
• E.g.: 34Cr4
40
D: Alloyed Heat treatable steels III.
• Cr-Mo (up to 2% Cr, 0.9-1.2% Mo)

• Mo eliminates the embrittlement during tempering
• Cr and Mo are strong carbide-forming elements,
tempering at higher temperatures (~600°C)
• Significant strength and good toughness
• For middle sized part for high fatigue and impact
loads.
Axles, parts with teeth
• E.g.: 50CrMo4
41
D: Alloyed heat treatable steels IV.
• Cr-V (0.7-1.1% Cr, 0.1-0.2% V)

• Similar to Cr-Mo steels
• A little cheaper but worse ductility
• For middle sized part for high fatigue and impact
loads.
• E.g.: 51CrV4
42
D: Alloyed heat treatable steels V.
• Ni-Cr-Mo(-V)
(0.7-1.1% Cr, 0.1-0.2% Mo)
• Large sized parts where the fast cooling
can not be realized.
• Ni decreases the ductile to brittle
temperature (DBTT)
• Mo eliminates the embrittlement
during tempering
• Through hardening diameter
increases significantly (~150 mm)
• Engine parts, crankshaft, quenched
& tempered state
• E.g.: 36NiCrMo16
43
D: Alloyed heat treatable steels VI.
• Boron steels
• Mn, Mn-Cr alloying, B micro alloying
• Through hardening diameter increases significantly
• Delivered generally in hot formed state
• Good toughness
• E.g.: 20MnB5, 27MnCrB5-2
44
Structural steels
pressure vessels
45

• Carbon content below 0.2%
• Tough core and wear resistant surface layer
~1% C in the surface layer, 60-63 HRC
• Can be used up to the diameter of ~80 mm (through
hardenability)
• Heat treatable steels have higher
strength for the same toughness
• No carburizing for fatigue
loaded parts, 35-45 HRC
46
E: Unalloyed case hardening steels
• Small size parts for modest loads

• Pins, gear pumps
• Hardness: 55-60 HRC
• Up to 20-30 mm size
• E.g.: C10, C15
47
E: Alloyed case hardening steels
• Alloying elements are the same as those of heat

treatable steels
• Low carbon content, C<0,2%
• Cr-Mo alloying for middle sized and loaded parts (bush,
pin, gears)
• Susceptible to overheating, up to the diameter of
40-60 mm
• Mn-Cr-Mo alloying for highly loaded parts (gears, chain
wheels, axles)
• Up to the diameter of 70-80 mm
• Ni-Cr-Mo alloying for extreme strong dynamic loads
tough core, high surface hardness
48
Structural steels
pressure vessels
49
• They are basically heat treatable
steels
• Aim: very hard wear resistant
surface layer
• Addition of nitride-forming
elements (Cr, Al, V, Ti)
• Results: wear-resistant, hard,
better fatigue-resistance.
Sensitive to high local pressures
• E.g.: 34CrAlNi7-10
50
Structural steels
pressure vessels
51
Other structural steels

• Free-cutting steels
• Steels for roll-bearings
• Spring steels
• Steels and nickel alloys for
cryogenic and Low-
Temperature application
• Heat resistant steels and
nickel alloys
• Steels and alloys for valves
of internal combustion
engines
52
Free-cutting steels
• For high
performance
machining cells
• Aim: brittle chip
• S and S+Bi alloying
• E.g.: 11SMn37,
10S20, 44SMn28
53
Steels for roll-bearings

• High wear resistance and fatigue
limit
• Carbon content 0.85-1.1% -
hardness
• S < 0.015%, P < 0.025%,
O < 0.,002%
• Polishing – fatigue
• Quenching, cooling to lower
temp. (-30°C), low temperature
tempering – 62 HRC
• E.g.: 100Cr6, 100CrMnMoSi8-4-6,
19MnCr5, 18NiCrMo14-6
54
Spring steels I.
• Storing of elastic energy
• High yield stress (1000-1350 MPa) and acceptable
ultimate tensile strain are necessary (6-8%)
• Heat treatable steels, 0.4-0.7% C-content, low
temperature tempering (450-480°C)
• For different purposes
55
Spring steels II.
• Heat treated springs from hot rolled steels by forming

• Si alloying, ReH increases
• Cr-V, Cr-MoV high performance, high dynamic loads
• E.g.: 38Si7, 60SiCrV7, 60CrMo3-2
• Cold rolled narrow steels trip for heat treatment
• Good surface quality, Rm up to 2100 MPa
• E.g.: C75S
• Corrosion resistant steels strip for springs
• For corrosive media
56
Steels and nickel alloys for cryogenic, low-
temperature and heat resistant application
• Unalloyed / alloyed (corr. resistant too)

• Applicable up to 900°C
• Mo: carbide-forming increases strength
• The corrosion must be taken into
account beside of heat-loading.
• E.g.: 42CrMo5-6, 25CrMo4, NiCr20TiAl
(Ni alloy), X10CrNiMoMnNbVB15-10-1
• Ni alloying for low temperatures

• E.g.: 41NiCrMo7-3-2, X8Ni9,
X6CrNi18-10
57
Heat resistant steels and Ni-alloys

I.
• Problem: Oxidizing of steels’
surface over 500°C
• Austenitic, ferritic, austenitic-
ferritic steel
• Creep resistance and strength are
the characteristic properties
• Alloying with Cr, Si, Al
• Applicable even at 900°C
• Grain coarsening can be a problem
• Ni based superalloys (not iron
alloys!)
58
Heat resistant steels and Ni-alloys
II.
• Ferritic
• Susceptible to grain coarsening and embrittlement at 350-
550°C and over 900°C, better in S-containing environment,
e.g.: X10CrAlSi18
• Austenitic
• Grain coarsening is not significant even at higher
temperatures, between 600-800°C the σ-phase causes
brittlement, e.g.: X10NiCrAlTi32-21
• Austenitic-ferritic
• Not common
• In oxidizing S-containing environment,
e.g.: X15CrNiSi25-4
• Ni alloys
• Jet engines, rocket industry, e.g.: NiCr23Fe
59
Steels and alloys for valves of

internal combustion engines
• Homogeneous microstructure, high
alloying, calculable thermal expansion
• Loads: unsteady temperature,
corrosion, oxidation, fatigue,
strike, wear
• Bars, wires
• Hot formable, hard to machine
• Main types
• Martensitic valve steel e.g.:
X40CrSiMo10-2
• Austenitic valve steel e.g.:
X50CrMnNiNbN21-9,
NiFe25Cr20NbTi
60
Hadfield steels
• aka Mangalloy
• Austenitic, high alloyed Mn
steels
• ~1.2%C, ~0.4 Si, ~12.5% Mn
• Impact wear resistance,
hardening during wear (cold
forming)
• Inner not-hardened layer gives
good toughness
• For dynamic and wear loads
• Railroad switches, excavator buckets
61
Corrosion resistant steels

• A: Ferritic corrosion resistant steels
• B: Martensitic corrosion resistant steels
• C: Austenitic corrosion resistant steels
• D: Duplex (austenite + ferrite) corrosion resistant steels
62
A: Ferritic corrosion resistant
steels
• The alloying element forms a
cohesive, non-porous surface layer
preventing the further oxidation.
• Max 0.08% carbon in ferritic corr.
resistant steels and ~13% Cr
• ReH ~280-320 MPa, A=18-20%
• Good formability and weldablility
• Good corrosion resistance in wear and modest corrosive
media: food industry, milk industry
• For some purposes: semi-ferritic steel
• increased strength (chemical industry)
• E.g.: X2CrTi12, X6CrMo17-1, X2CrMoTi29-4
63
B: Martensitic corrosion resistant

steels
• Higher strenght: higher C
content & heat treatment
• Heat treatment: quenching +
tempering
• C content: between 0.08%
and 1.2%
• Surgery blades, scalpel,
needles, food industry blades
• E.g.: X12Cr13, X105CrMo17,
X7CrNiAl17-7
64
C: Austenitic corrosion resistant
steels
• Ferritic corrosion resistant steels
does not have good resistance
against strong acids.
• Austenitic steel
• C<0.03% + ~18% Cr + ~10% Ni (Mn,
Cu, N)
• Cr-cardibes form at grain boundaries
by slow cooling at 600-800°C, which
spoils the corrosion resistance
• Can prevent by alloying of Ti and Nb
• Difficult to machine
• E.g.: X10CrNi18-8, X3CrNiMo17-13-3
65
D: Duplex corrosion resistant

steels
• High Cr and Ni content
• ~40-60% austenite at room temperature
• Higher strength
• Better stress-corrosion resitance
• Some grades can be applied as heat resistant steel as
well.
• E.g.: X2CrNiN23-4, X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4
66
Corrosion resistant steels
67
Tool Steels
• A: Unalloyed tool steels
• B: Hot forming tool steels
• C: Cold forming tool steels
• D: High speed steels
https://cdn.thefabricator.com/a/plate-rolling-gets-
hot-1502110780.jpg?size=1000x
68
General requirements
• Hardness, wear resistance

• Toughness
• Heat resistance
• Resistance against thermal fatigue
• Appropriate through hardening diameter
69
A: Unalloyed tool steels
• 0.45-1.25% C content
• 0.45% C – 54 HRc
• 1.25% C – 62 HRc
• Only base alloying and impurity elements (Mn, Si, S, P)

• For hand tools
• E.g.: C90U, C100U
• U mark: un-treated state
70
B: Hot forming tool steels
• Service temperature over 200°C, but hardness and heat

resistance even at 600°C (38-46 HRc)
• Main alloying elements: Cr, Mo, W, Ni, Co
• Carbide compounds– hardness at high temperatures
• Closed-dies for forging, die-casting dies
• E.g.: 55NiCrMoV7, X40CrMoV5-1
71
C: Cold forming tool steels
• Main alloying elements: Mn, Cr, Mo, V, W, Ni

• To increase through hardening diameter and improve
• Strength
• Wear resistance
• Hardness
• Heat-treated. Service temperature at room

temperature (maximum 150-180°C)
• E.g. Cutting and punching tools
• E.g.: 95MnWCrV5, X210CrW12
72
E: High speed steels
• For high performance machining. 62-64 HRc hardness

at ~600°C
• Main alloying elements : W, Mo, V, Co
• Special heat treatment methodology (precipitation
hardening)
• E.g.: HS6-5-2, HS10-4-3-10
73
74
Iron and steel making

Ores
Metals: rarely exist in pure state  mostly in
ores
Ore: Metallic and other compounds, mostly
oxides
Metallic content: Iron ores: 30 - 70 % Fe

Copper ores: 0.1 - 0.8 % Cu
Molybdenum: 0.01 - 0.1 % Mo
Four basic way to gain the metallic parts from ore:

Reduction by carbon
Electrolytic way
costs
Metallotermical process
Dissociation
2
From ores to metals
1) Reduction by carbon MeO + C  Me + CO

FeO + C  [Fe] + {CO}
molten metals gas
2) Electrolytic way Al2O3  Al23+ + 3O2-

on the cathode: Al3+ + 3e-  Al costs
3) Metallothermical process
TiCl4 + 2Mg [Ti] + 2MgCl
4) Dissociation MeX  [Me] + [X]

only at high energy level
3
The law of mass action

Determines the direction of the reaction from the dynamic
equilibrium of the intial materials and the product
↔
Example: desulfurization
ℎ
!" # ℎ
4
The law of distribution
Shows the distribution of an element in different phases
$ ℎ
!" # ℎ
$! → & Oxidation
$" & → Reduction
• The process takes place until the equilibrium is restored

• The slag has a great importance (basic, acidic)
Iron and steel making processes
Blast
furnace
Steel making
plant
Rolling mill
Wrought steel
6
Production line of steel
Limestone
Secondary
Sintering
process
Iron ore
Blast furnace
Coal Oxygen
Coke oven
furnace
Scrap steel Electric arc

furnace
7
Production line of iron
Limestone
Secondary
Sintering
process
Iron ore
Blast furnace
Coal Oxygen
Coke oven
furnace

furnace
8
Iron making
Purpose: Iron ore  Pig iron
ore types: Fe3O4 magnetite ~ 70 % Fe
Fe2O3 hematite ~ 70 % Fe
FeCO3 siderite ~ 50 % Fe
+ tailings: silicates, sand, other non ferrous

MnO, Al2O3, P2O5, etc
Cost cost of pig iron

cost of
Total cost concentrating
vs.
cost of blast
Ore quality furnace
30 ~ 70 % Fe % in ore
9
Blast furnace
Dimensions:
Diameter: 4 - 10 m
Height:25 - 30 m
Volume:
300 – 5000 m3
Throat
For 1000 t of iron:
2000 t ore + 800 t coke +
500 t limestone + ~ 4000 t hot air
Belly
Bosh
10
Processes in blast furnace
Charge moves down (6-8 hours)
- Preheating by gas coke burns more efficient
Formation of CO: 2C + O2  2CO
CO reacts with iron ore: 3Fe2O3 + CO  2Fe3O4 + CO2
- Coke reduces CO2 in the gas
C + CO2  2CO
- CO reduces the surface of the iron ore Indirect reduction
FeO + CO  Fe + CO2
- Slag producing by limestone, dolomite
CaCO3  CaO + CO2
MgCO3  MgO + CO2
- In the bosh the coke burns
C + O2  CO2 + Heat
- The coke reduces the molten ore. Direct reduction
FeO + C  Fe + CO
- Molten limestone + other slag components produce eutectic slag
Slag floats over molten iron
11
Thermodynamics
Ellingham’s diagram for oxides
Line for CO has a negative slope

 the stability of CO increases
with increasing temperature
Oxides below the carbon line

can be reduced by carbon
Reduction of FeO from 690 °C

MnO from ~ 1400 °C
SiO2 from ~ 1550 °C
12
Processes in blast furnace
Carbon reduces the oxides:
FeO + C  [Fe] + {CO}
MnO + C  [Mn] + {CO}

SiO2 + 2C  [Si] + {2CO} alloying elements
P2O5 + 5C  [2P] + {5CO}

SO2 + 2C  [S] + {2CO} impurities
in molten iron gas
In blast furnace carbon can reduce S, P, Cr, Mn, Si, Fe 70-90%

Ti 10-20%
13
Desulfurization
• Sodium carbonate based slag
Na2CO3 + [FeS] + 2 [C] = (Na2S) + [Fe] + 3 {CO}
Na2CO3 + [FeS] + 0,5 [Si] = (Na2S) + [Fe] + 0,5 (SiO2) + {CO2}
• Calcium oxide (quicklime) based slag

CaO + [FeS] + [C] = (CaS) + [Fe] + {CO2}
CaO + [FeS] + 0,5 [Si] = (CaS) + [Fe] + 0,5 (SiO2)
• Calcium carbide
CaC2 + [FeS] = (CaS) + [Fe] + 2 [C]
• Magnesium
Mg + [FeS] = (MgS) + [Fe]
14
Dephosphorization
• Basic furnace interior wall is required

• In the slag (CaO) and (FeO)
• The slag must be removed periodically
4 (CaO) + 5 (FeO) + 2 [P] + 5 [C] = ((CaO)4P2O5) + 5 [Fe] + 5 {CO}
15
Product of blast furnace

The traditional shape of the molds used for pig iron
• Slag on the top ingots was a branching structure formed in sand, with
many individual ingots at right angles to a central
• Molten iron on the channel or "runner", resembling a litter of piglets being
bottom suckled by a sow. When the metal had cooled and
hardened, the smaller ingots (the "pigs") were simply
• Near eutectic broken from the runner (the "sow"), hence the name
(~ 4 % C) "pig iron". - Wikipedia
• ”Pig iron”
16
Blast furnace tapping
Blast furnace tapping
17
Production line of steel
Limestone
Secondary
Sintering
process
Iron ore
Blast furnace
Coal Oxygen
Coke oven
furnace

furnace
18
Steelmaking
decrease carbon content
Pig iron Steel
and impurities
Worldsteel Association: World Steel in Figures 2020 19
Steelmaking steps
1. Charging
2. Deoxidating
3. Alloying
4. Casting
5. Refining
20
1. Charging
Purpose
• To decrease C, H, P content
• To increase heat
(lower C %  higher melting point)
Oxidation
• Oxygen content from air
(Bessemer, Thomas processes)
• Oxidation with slag (Siemens–
Martin aka. open hearth, electric arc
furnace)
• Oxygen converter, argon – oxygen
decarburization, AOD
Worldsteel Association: World Steel in Figures 2020 21
2. Deoxidating
Purpose
• To reduce increased [O] content due to charging
Deoxidizing elements
• Mn, Si, Al, (Ca, Ti, Zr, Mg, etc.) (remember Ellingham’s
diagram)  Slag formation
• [FeO] + Me  Fe + (MeO)
Vacuum deoxidation
• Reducing partial pressure
• CO is forming, which is removed by vacuum
22
2. Deoxidized steel
Rimmed
• Little or no deoxidizing element
• P, S segregation in the middle  „pure” Fe rim around
• <0.25 % C, <0.6 % Mn
• For cold-working: bending, heading, drawing
Capped
• Starts as rimmed
• Cap = covering the ingot, or deoxidizing element
• Less segregation and impurities
• Sheet and strip metals, because of good surface
conditions
23
2. Deoxidized steel
Semi-killed „The fairly high oxygen and low silicon content
means that the steel has only been partially
• Mostly deoxidized but CO deoxidized, yielding a semikilled steel. The
blowholes phosphorus content is slightly higher than normal,
while the sulfur content is quite high,
• 0.15 – 0.25 % C accompanied by a low manganese content.”
• For rolling and drawing
Killed
• Completely deoxidized
• Mn, Si, Al
• Shrinkage defects
• Alloy steels,
stainless steels,
C > 0.25 %
• For casting
24
2. Deoxidized steel
Killed Capped Rimmed
25
3. Alloying
• Alloying elements are added Alloying element prices on

• Corrosion, heat resistance London Metal Exchange
• Resistance against creep https://www.lme.com/
• Strenghtening
• Formability, weldability
• During steel making, or as a secondary process
• Commonly in ladles, including deoxidation, degassing
• Usually in forms of bulk ferroalloys
Ferro manganese Ferro chrome Ferro nickel
26
Oxygen converters
Basic oxygen steelmaking, also known
as Linz–Donawitz-steelmaking or
the oxygen converter process
27
Oxygen converters
1. Molten pig iron is poured into the 5. Fluxes (burnt lime, dolomite)
ladle added to form slag 
2. Pretreating: desulfurization, basicity
dephosphorization 6. After 20 min. 0.3–0.9% C,
3. Charging: steel or iron scrap (25 – 0.05–0.1% Mn, 0.001–
30 %, high oxygen content), 0.003% Si, 0.01–0.03% S and
pig iron: 4% C, 0.2–0.8% Si, 0.08%– 0.005–0.03% P
0.18% P, and 0.01–0.04% S, all of 7. Pouring: steel and then slag
which can be oxidised by the
supplied oxygen except sulfur
(which requires reducing
conditions).
4. Lance "blows" 99% pure oxygen
over the hot metal  CO and CO2
forms, temp. 1700 °C
28
Argon oxygen decarburization
• For stainless steels and high grade alloys
• After initial melting the metal is then transferred to an AOD vessel
where it will be subjected to three steps of refining; decarburization,
reduction, and desulfurization.
• Argon is reducing the partial pressure of {CO} thus the
decarburization is more efficient
4 [Cr] + 3 {O2}  2 (Cr2O3)
(Cr2O3) + 3 [C]  3 {CO} + 2 [Cr]
Reduction
Reduction of (Cr2O3) with higher
affinity alloys as: Al, Si
Desulfurization
[S] + (CaO)  (CaS) + [O]
29
Electric arc furnace

A typical alternating current furnace is
powered by a three-phase electrical supply
and therefore has three electrodes.
350 – 800 mm diameter
1800 – 3600 mm length
Consumed after 5 – 8 hours
Graphite electrodes
30
• 0.25 – 350 tonnes capacity
• 100 – 600 Volts, ~ 40000 Amps
• Usually basic refractory walls: CaO, MgO (reducing S % and P %)
• Inert atmosphere  oxidation is done by scrap or oxygen lance
• At higher temperatures (> 3000 °C in the furnace) nitrogen
dissociates:
{N2}  2 (N)
• Disadvantage because of aging
• Advantage if alloying
• For 1 tonne of steel ~ 440 kWh
power is required
• Allows steel to be made from a
100% scrap metal feedstock
31
Charging
Electrodes
Tapping
32
Induction furnace
• Heat is applied by induction heating
of metal
• Heat is generated within the
furnace's charge itself
• Charge materials must be clean of
oxidation products and of a known
composition
• The temperature of the material is
no higher than required to melt it;
this can prevent loss of valuable
alloying elements
• Capacity ~ 1 kg – 100 tonnes
• Fe, steel, Cu, Al
33
4. Casting
Ingot casting
• Solidification: shrinking, crystallisation, grain-
arrangement, mircostructure, segregation
Casting individually Bottom pouring
• Simple, productive • Homogenous

• Spattering • Slow, oxidation
34
4. Casting
Continous casting
• Molten metal is solidified into a "semifinished" billet,
bloom, or slab for subsequent rolling in the finishing
mills.
1: Ladle. 2: Stopper. 3: Tundish.

4: Shroud. 5: Mold. 6: Roll support.
7: Turning zone. 8: Shroud.
9: Bath level. 10: Meniscus.
11: Withdrawal unit. 12: Slab.
A: Liquid metal. B: Solidified metal.

C: Slag. D: Water-cooled copper plates.
E: Refractory material
35
Casting
Ingot casting
Continous casting
36
5. Refining
• Remelting and solidification

• Decrease the dissolved gas content and the amount of
inclusions
• Produce a homogeneous fine-grained crystal structure
• Produce a homogeneous distribution of alloying elements
• Ladle metallurgy, ladle refining, or secondary
steelmaking
• Deoxidization
• Degassing
• Desulfurization - as low as 0.002%
• Microcleanliness
• Inclusion morphology
• Mechanical properties
R-H degasser
37
5. Refining
Vacuum arc remelting
• Starting ingot is
the electrode
• Vacuum
• Several kA
• Cu crucible
• Air gap
 no arc
• Stainless steels,
Ti-alloys
Alloy steels
38
5. Refining
Electro-slag remelting
• As-cast alloy as a
consumable electrode
• AC current
• New ingot is covered in
slag
• Metal droplets travel
through the slag to the
bottom
• Highly reactive slags
(calcium fluoride, lime,
alumina, or other
oxides are usually the
main components)
39
40
Fracture
Fracture failures
SS Schenectady – tanker a tank of molasses Silver bridge
2/5
Energy consideration of fracture
• The crack or flaw will remain stable (i.e. it will not grow) until the system
(balloon plus compressed gas) has stored in it enough energy that, if the crack
advances, more energy is released than is absorbed.
→ critical stress for fast fracture (for crack of a given size)

• a crack of length 2a in a material of thickness t advances by δa
requirement for fast fracture:
work done by loads ≥ change of elastic energy + energy absorbed at the crack tip
, : specific surface energy, unit:
Energy consideration of fracture

• requirement for fast fracture:
condition for fast fracture: (E: Young’s modulus)

• fast fracture will occur when, in a material:
subjected to a stress , a crack reaches some critical size (2a) OR when material
containing cracks of size 2a is subjected to some critical stress .
2 → K K: stress intensity factor
2 : fracture toughness,
Y: numerical correction factor
: specific surface energy
fast fracture: K= [K]=[ ]= ⁄
4
Fracture
brittle - if the remaining (plastic) deformation ≈ 0
ductile - if the remaining (plastic) deformation is significant
ductility is a function of
temperature of the material
the strain rate
stress state
brittle
Engineering stress
ductile
Engineering strain
Fracture
• Fracture: crack formation + propagation
• Ductile fracture:
extensive plastic deformation in the vincinity of an advancing crack
stable: resists any further extension
slow
more energy is required to induce
• Brittle fracture:
always sudden, catastrophic
unstable: once started continues spontaneously
fast
6
Ductile fracture
cup-and-cone fracture
Initial Small cavity Coalescence Crack Final shear fracture

necking formation of cavities propagation at a 45 angle
to form a crack. relative to the
tensile direction
3/5
Ductile fracture
• Fractograph: topological features of the fracture surface
5/5
Brittle fracture
• Direction of crack motion nearly perpendicular to the applied force
• Flat surface
4/5
Intergranular-transgranular fracture
Transgranular fracture Intergranular fracture
10
Stress concentration
In the case of elliptical hole, through a
plate, oriented perpendicular to the
applied stress:
: maximum stress
* : nominal applied tensile stress
a: length of the major axis
+, : radius of curvature of the crack tip
Stress concentration factor:
→ stress raiser
11
Charpy impact test
12
Ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature
13
Effect of strain rate
dynamic test (40 000 mm/min)
Static test (1 mm/min)
14
Concepts
• Ductile fracture
• Brittle fracture
• Transgranular/ intergranular fracture
• Stress concentration factor
• Critical stress for crack propagation
• Fracture toughness
• Plane strain facture toughness
• Charpy test
• Ductile-to-brittle transition temperature
• Impact energy-versus-temperature behaviour
• State variables regarding fracture
15
Literature
William D. Callister, Jr.
Materials Science and Engineering

An Introduction, 9th edition, 2014
Failure
Chapter 8, p. 252-269
16
Materials Science and Tesing
Creep
Creep
Today’s topics
Time dependent and time independent
deformation mechanisms
Deformation mechanisms, characteristics of
creep
Creep resistant materials
Material testing of creep
Superplasticity
Time-dependent and time-dependent deformation
Deformation
constant
time
Time-dependent and time-dependent deformation
Creep: The deformation of the material increases while the load

remains constant.
Creep limit: Maximum stress which doesn't cause significant

deformation at the given temperature. (σT0.2)
Creep strength: Maximum stress required to cause a specified

amount of creep in a specified time. (e.g. σ 0.2/103 )
The creep is a typical high temperature phenomenon T>0.4 Tmelt.
Engineering application: service temperature of gas turbines:

1300ºC,
Passenger airplanes - long distance flights
General curve of creep
increase
deformation
increase
time time
A, m’- material constants, Qc- activation energy

k – Boltzman coefficient, σ - stress
Three stages of creep
I. Primary creep
the rate of deformation decreases with time. Dislocation density
increases, dislocation cell size decreases with time and
deformation.
II. Secondary creep (steady state)

The processes of hardening and recovery are in equilibrium.
III. tertiary creep

Recrystallization, coarsening of the secondary phase particles,
forming of voids and cracks.
Creep mechanisms
Depending on the temperature and stress different microstructural

processes takes place in the process of creep.
a) Dislocation slip
b) Deformation caused by diffusion
c) Recovery (climbing of dislocations)
d) Grain boundary sliding

Creep mechanisms
Effect of dislocation slip and climb
The plastic deformation causes hardening.

A network of dislocations is formed.
The hardening and recovery (climb) proceed parallel.
slip climb
source obstacle
Diffusional creep
Transport of matter by diffusion
Nabarro-Herring creep
diffusion through the grain

lattice
Coble creep
diffusion along the grain-
boundaries
Diffusion of point defects – grain boundary sliding
The migration of point defects along the grain boundaries.

It causes deformation within the crystals and voids on the grain
boundaries.
The sliding of grains reduces the voids
Grain boundary sliding
Principle mode of deformation
Grains emerges to fill

Original developing voids or
structure cavities.
G. B. sliding: core and mantle model
„Soft” grain boundary structure around „hard” grain interior
Accommodation zone
core
Diffusion of point defects – grain boundary sliding
Creep resistant materials
General equation of creep
Ai ,m”, n’ – material parameters Di – diffusion coefficient

G– shear modulus Ω – atomic volume
k – Boltzman coefficient b – absolute value of Burgers vector
d – grain size T – temperature
The creep resistance (at T=constant) can be improved by
decreasing of the diffusion coefficient → high melting point materials

increasing of the shear modulus
increasing of the grain size → single crystals
forming of second phase precipitations
Turbine blades
Creep testing
furnace
spec.
(hours)
Short term creep test (%/hour)

Creep testing: Extrapolation of the steady-state stage
After several measurements, the stress can be determined, which

causes 1% deformation under the prescribed time (105 hours)
 σ1/105
Larson – Miller method
Bulk nano-grained materials
Superplasticity
Ultra-fine and nano-grained materials
Microstructure
average crystallite size
Ultra-fine grained materials (UFG): 100-1000 nm

Nano-grained materials (NG): <100 nm
Mechanical properties
 High hardness and strength and good toughness

 Lower Young modulus
 Superplasticity
 Low transition temperature
NG materials - superplasticity
What is superplasticity?
 Long tensile elongations

 Typically over 500%
 Special conditions
Bi-Sn alloy: 1950% elongation.

Superplasticity
Superplasticity
Application possibility:
engineering purposes
 Superplastic forming
 For conventionally brittle materials
 Special conditions are necessary
Superplasticity
Microstructure:
Fine-structure superplasticity
Fine grain size: for metals less than 10 μm
for ceramics less than 1 μ m
The strain rate for superplasticity increases as grain size

decreases.
Superplasticity
superplastically deformed specimen

grain boundary sliding process
Superplasticity
Mechanism: grain boundary sliding
Grain-boundary structure:
 The grain boundaries between adjacent matrix grains should be high
energy
 Low-energy (i.e., low angle) boundaries do not slide
Sliding velocoty:
 Heterophase boundary (between two grains with dissimilar chemical
compositions): faster
 Homophase boundary between two grains with similar chemical
compositions): slower
Shape of grains: equiaxed not elongated

Superplasticity
Mobility of grain boundaries:

 Grain boundaries in superplastic alloys should be mobile
Stress concentrations during grain-boundary sliding:

 triple points,
 other obstructions:
• precipitations,
• impurities,
• or glassy phases (in case of ceramics)
along the grain boundary.
Immobile boundaries: cavities, cracks, material failure

Superplasticity
Conditions for superplastic deformation:
 Fine grain structure

 Increased temperature: T > 0.5 Tmelting (in Kelvin)
 Slow strain rate (slow deformation)
Superplasticity
Some superplastic alloy
Alloy Composition Temp. (°C) Elongation
Supral Al-6% Cu-0.4%Zr-0.3%Mg 400 - 480 1800
7475 Al 5.5%, Zn 2.0%, Mg 1.5%, Cu-0.2% 510 - 530 1400
Ti-6Al-4V Ti-6%Al-4%V 790 - 940 1400
Super
Ti-14%Al-20%Nb-3%V-2%Mo 940 - 980 1350
Alpha 2
Fatigue
Materials Science and Testing

BMEGEMTBGA1E
03/05/2021
Fatigue
Fatigue failure
• The 1862 Hartley Colliery Disaster was caused by the fracture of a steam engine beam and killed 220 people.
• The 1919 Boston Great Molasses Flood has been attributed to a fatigue failure.
• The 1948 Northwest Airlines Flight 421 crash due to fatigue failure in a wing spar root
• The 1957 "Mt. Pinatubo", presidential plane of Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay, crashed due to engine failure caused by metal fatigue.
• The 1965 capsize of the UK's first offshore oil platform, the Sea Gem, was due to fatigue in part of the suspension system linking the hull to the legs.
• The 1968 Los Angeles Airways Flight 417 lost one of its main rotor blades due to fatigue failure.
• The 1968 MacRobertson Miller Airlines Flight 1750 lost a wing due to improper maintenance leading to fatigue failure.
• The 1969 F-111A crash due to a fatigue failure of the wing pivot fitting from a material defect resulted in the development of the damage- tolerant approach for fatigue design.[53]
• The 1977 Dan-Air Boeing 707 crash caused by fatigue failure resulting in the loss of the right horizontal stabilizer.
• The 1979 American Airlines Flight 191 crashed after engine separation attributed to fatigue damage in the pylon structure holding the engine to the wing, caused by improper maintenance procedures.
• The 1980 LOT Flight 7 crashed due to fatigue in an engine turbine shaft resulting in engine disintegration leading to loss of control.
• The 1985 Japan Airlines Flight 123 crashed after the aircraft lost its vertical stabilizer due to faulty repairs on the rear bulkhead.
• The 1988 Aloha Airlines Flight 243 suffered an explosive decompression at 24,000 feet (7,300 m) after a fatigue failure.
• The 1989 United Airlines Flight 232 lost its tail engine due to fatigue failure in a fan disk hub.
• The 1992 El Al Flight 1862 lost both engines on its right-wing due to fatigue failure in the pylon mounting of the #3 Engine.
• The 1998 Eschede train disaster was caused by fatigue failure of a single composite wheel.
• The 2000 Hatfield rail crash was likely caused by rolling contact fatigue.
• The 2000 recall of 6.5 million Firestone tires on Ford Explorers originated from fatigue crack growth leading to separation of the tread from the tire.[54]
• The 2002 China Airlines Flight 611 disintegrated in-flight due to fatigue failure.
• The 2005 Chalk's Ocean Airways Flight 101 lost its right wing due to fatigue failure brought about by inadequate maintenance practices.
• The 2009 Viareggio train derailment due to fatigue failure.
• The 2009 Sayano–Shushenskaya power station accident due to metal fatigue of turbine mountings.
• The 2017 Air France Flight 66 had in-flight engine failure due to cold dwell fatigue fracture in the fan hub.
Fatigue
Fatigue
Fluctuating stress–time modes:
reversed stress cycle
repeated stress cycle
random stress cycle
Parameters to characterize fatigue

σ Repeated stress cycle σ max = σ m + σ a Maximum stress
Reversed stress cycle σ min = σ m − σ a Minimum stress
σ + σ min
t
σ m = max Mean stress
2
Repeated stress cycle
σ r = ∆σ = σ max − σ min Range of stress
σ − σ min Stress amplitude
σ a = max
2
σ (t ) = σ m + σ a f (t )
σ min
R= Stress ratio
σ max
6
The applied stress may be axial (tension–compression), flexural (bending),
or torsional (twisting)
The applied stress may be axial (tension–compression), flexural (bending),

or torsional (twisting)
8
S-N curve or Wöhler-curve
Steel, Mg Al, Cu
fatigue limit /endurance limit: stress level below which fatigue failure does not occur
fatigue strength: the stress level at which failure occurs for some specified number of cycles
fatigue life: the number of cycles that causes failure at a specified stress level
Problem
A cylindrical 70Cu-30Zn brass bar is subjected to
axial tension–compression stress testing with
reversed-cycling. If the load amplitude is 10,000 N,
compute the minimum allowable bar diameter to
ensure that fatigue failure will not occur at 10
cycles. Assume a factor of safety of 2.5.
10 → σ=115 MPa
10
Low and high cycle fatigue
11
Basquin’s law
High cycle fatigue of uncracked components,
σmax and |σmin |<yield stress, reversed stress cycle
∆! !"#$ − !"&'
a, C:constants
: number of cycle to failure
#
∆! (
12
Problem
• High cycle loading data from S-N curve (reveresed stress cycle):
!) 192 MPa → 10*
!) =167 MPa → = 6 · 10*
Estimate the maximum stress amplitude to ensure 10- cycle!
∆! # = (
(1) 2 · 192 · 10* # = (
(2) 2 · 167 · 6 · 10* # = (
1* 123
(2):(1) → 6# = 1 → 4 · log 6 = log → 4=0.077
123 1*
→ C = 2 · 192 · 10 * 6.6 = 1112
2 · !) · 10- 6.6 = 1112 → !) =134 MPa
13
Stages of fatigue failure

1. Crack initiation
small crack forms – stress concentration → at crack tips the stress level
exceeds the yield strength
due to surface scratches, sharp, fillets, threads, dents ……
or dislocation slip steps
14
1. Crack initiation
2. Crack propagation
beachmark – striation : characteristics to fatigue
striation: microscopic
striation= advance of a crack during one cycle;
sign of plastic def.
width increases with increasing stress range
beachmark (clamshell mark): macroscopic
due to interruptions during crack propagation
15
What happens during fatigue?

During each cycle, plastic deformation takes place
+σa
σr
ε
Δε
- σa
16
1. Crack initiation
2. Crack propagation crack initiation
3. Final failure
after the crack slow crack
has reached a critical propagation
size : fast fracture (clamshell
marks)
fast fracture
17
Statistical approach
1

(xi − x )
n 2
300 1 n  
x =  xi , s =  i =1 
250 т i=1  n −1 
 
MPa
200
1  1  x − x 2 
150 f ( x) = exp −   
Stressamplitudó

   
range
s 2π 2 s
100
50
0
4 5 6 7 8
10 10 10 10 10
ln N
18
Probability of failure
10 specimens: number of fracture
p=
σmax number of tests
σ5
1 9/10
σ4
3 7/10
σ3
σ2
5 5/10
σ1
8 2/10
9 1/10
Number of specimens that

fracture 107 have not fructured after
107 cycles
19
Probability of failure
Stress rangeσmax Stress rangeσmax

σ1
σ2
σk σ3
2.106 lg N 107 lg N
p = 0.99, 0.9, 0.5, 0.1, 0.01
20
Complex loading
∆σ, stress range
n1 W
∆σ1 n2 W
n3 W
n4 W
∆σ4 Wn1 Wn2 Wn3 Wn4 Wn
+ + + + .. + n = W
N1 N2 N3 N4 Nn
n
ni Miner’s Rule of cumulative
N1 N 2 N 3 N 4 
i =1 N i
= 1 Halmozódó
damage károsodás elmélete
Ni: number of cycles to failure at ∆σi : no failure is expected

ni: number of cycles for stress range ∆σi
21
Factors that affect Nf

1. Mean stress
Goodman’s rule: When a material is
subjected to a mean tensile stress, the
stress range must be decreased to
preserve the same Nf
22
2. Effect of frequency
350 10/s
300 32/s
100/s
250
(MPa)
300/s
200 1000/s
150
σmax
100
50
4 5 6 7 8
10 10 10 10 10
N
23

3. Effect of the surface
design factor:
eliminate by design any notch or geometrical discontinuity that
can act as a stress raiser and fatigue crack initiation site (grooves,
holes, keyways, threads; smaller the radius of curvature),
surface treatment:
polishing
shot peening – small, hard particles are projected at
high velocities onto the surface
case hardening – carburizing / nitriding process:
exposed to a carbonaceous or nitrogenous
atmosphere at elevated temperature
24
25
Literature
William D. Callister, Jr.

Materials Science and Engineering
An Introduction, 9th edition, 2014
Chapter 8.7- 8.11
Failure
270-281 pp.
26
Materials Science and Testing
Non-equilibrium
transformations of steels
1
Today…
• Equilibrium and non-equilibrium

transformations;
• The - non-equilibrium transformations
(perlitic, bainitic, martensitic);
• Basic heat treatments of steels;
• Connection between the microstructure and
mechanical properties of steels.
2
Fe-C phase diagram
Equilibrium
diagram
hypoeutectoid hypereutectoid
steels 3
Allotropic transformations of steel
Allotropic modification of Fe: -Fe, -Fe and δ-Fe.
For heat treatment of ferrous alloys, the -> and the ->
transformations are the most important. The former causes
specific volume decrease, the later increase.
→ phase transformation:
free energy, crystallization ability, diffusion.
G2 G1 N
N2
G NS
v2
G N1
NS v1
T1 G v1<v2
T2
T
T supercooling
T2 T1 A1
4
The phase transformation in time
Avrami equation:
1
y 
y  1  exp  kt n 
1
0.5 T is constant r  transforma tion rate
t 0 .5
t0.5  Q 
r  Aexp   
0  RT 
log (t)
Incubation time Transformation in time
5
Timing of - transformation
(C curve)
A1 Effect of undercooling
ΔT
temperature
T1 C-curve
T3
T2 Effect of diffusion
t3 t2 t1 log t
If the undercooling is larger, then the process starts

earlier. If the temperature is lower, the diffusion is
slower, that is the process is slower.
6
Isothermic time-transformation
curve (TTT) for eutectoid steel
800 Austenite (stable)
  A1
 
T(°C) A P
600 100% perlite
Perlite/bainite
 100%bainite border
  400 A B
Ms
200
10-1 10 103 105 Time (s)

1
Amount of pearlite t
0
7
Pearlitic transformation
Diffusion of
Cementite (Fe3C) C atoms
Austenite ()
Grain boundary  Ferrit ()

 
  
 
 
 Pearlite
Diffusion process Growing direction 
austenite %
with nucleation.
100 600°C 0
Perlite %
50 T high650°C 50
675°C
T low
0 100
Reaction rate 1 10 103 104
increases with the
Time (s)
undercooling (T). 8
Structure of pearlite
Ttransf right below A1: Ttransf far below A1:
larger T, faster diffusion smaller T, slower
diffusion.
10mm
Lower T, Higher T
coarse lamellae fine lamellae
9
Bainitic transformation
800 Austenite (stable)A

1
T(°C) A P
600 Perlite/bainite border
Upper bainite
400 A B
Lower bainite
Ms
200
Time (s)
10-1 10 103 105
1
Amount of bainite
t
10
Structure of bainite
Fe3C
 
350-550 ˚C 200-350 ˚C
Ferritic needles and Thin ferritic lamellae and elongated
elongated cementite cementite
The rate of transformation is determined by the diffusion
(and not the core formation). Due to the low temperature
a very fine structure is formed.
11
Spheroidite

A1 
T(°C) A
P (ferrite)
600
Spheroidite
400 B Fe 3C
A
(cementite)
Ms
200
10-1 10 103 105 Time (s)

60 mm
After longer time the structure of ferrite and cementite
changes (diffusion) and small Fe3C spheres are formed.
12
Martensitic transformation
Homogeneous phase () transforms into another
homogeneous phase (m), without core forming. Require
high cooling speed (quenching). Diffusionless
transformation.
A 1
T(°C A P
) 600
60 mm
400 A B 0% M
Ms 50% M
90% M
200
s Martensite need
10-1 10 103 105 Austenite
Amount of0.5
martensite
13
Bain model
z zm Lattice parameter
a
cm
am
y
xm Carbon %
x ym
Well defined crystallographic correlation between

the two lattices.
100m  1 10  ,  010m  110 , 001m  001

14
Carbon content dependence of
Ms and Mf
T
G
O
P S
Needle-like
Needle and lath
Ms
Lath
Mf
0.6 1.0 C%
15
Isothermal transformation of hypo
and hypereutectoid steel
Austenite (stable) A3 Austenite (stable)
800 Cementite
Ferrite A1 800 A1
T(°C) A T(°C) A
600 P 600 P
400 A B 400 A B
Ms Ms
200 M 200 M
10-1 10 103 105 10-1 10 103 105
Time (s) Time (s)
Proeutectoid Proeutektoid
ferrite cementite
16
Continuous cooling transformation
diagram of eutectoid steel
800 Austenite (stable)A
1
T(°C) A
End of continuous
600 perlitic
transformation
400 A B
Ms
Critical cooling
200 1 2 3 4
10-1 10 103 105 Time (s)
1. Quenching: Martensite
2. Perlite+bainite+martensite
3. Normalizing: fine pearlite
4. Softening: coarse pearlite 17
Basic heat treatment of steels
• Quenching
• Annealing
• (quenching+ tempering)
• Normalizing
18
Quenching
Austenitizing + heating + rapid cooling. Producing
martensitic structure.
Tempering
After quenching, heat up and keeping the martensite
below A1. Producing fine pearlite.
Annealing
Austenitizing + heating + very slow cooling (in furnace).
Producing soft structure.
Normalizing
Austenitizing + heating + cooling on air.
Producing fine uniform structure.
19
Starting temperatures
T
Quenching,
˚C
normalizing Acm
900
A3 Annealing (quenching)
800
700 A1
Spheroidizing
600
20
Continuous transformation of
hipoeutectoid steel
C = 0,45 %
2 1-quenching
2-normalizing
3-annealing
1
21
Continuous transformation of
hipereutectoid steel
C=1%
1-quenching
2-normalizing
3-annealing
1 2 3 22
Tempering
Decreasing MPa
the brittleness 1800 Rm
and the
9 µm
internal 1400 %
Rp0.2
stresses of 60
martensite. 1000 A 50
40
T 30
Taustenite 200 400 600
A1 T (°C)
Ttempering
.
Very small Fe3C particles in
Martensite the ferritic matrix.
t
23
Martempering of eutectoid steel
A1
T(°C) A
P
600
Ttempering
400 B
A
Ms
200 Transf.
Mf
M log t
Modified quenching method, which results less residual
stress and cracking.
24
Austempering of eutectoid steel
A1
T(°C) A
P
600
400 B transformation
A
Ms
200
Mf
log t
Producing bainite. High strength, high ductility.
25
Mechanical properties
MPa Hypo Hyper Hypo Hyper

% 8100
0
1100 hardness HB
Impact energy (Izod, ft-lb)

100
Impact energy, J
Rm 900 300
A
450
0
700
Rp0.2 50
200
500 00
300 100
0
0 0.5 1 C% 0 0.5 1 C%
Fine pearlite
26
Hypo Hyper Hypo Hyper
Fine perlite 90
320
spheroidite
240 Coarse 60
A%
perlite Coarse
HB
160 spheroidite 30 perlite

Fine perlite
80 0
0 0.5 1 C% 0 0.5 1
C%
600 martensite
400
HB
200 Fine perlite
0
0 0.5 1 C% 27
Summary of heat treatments
Austenite()
Slow cooling Medium cooling Rapid cooling
Perlite Bainite Martensite

+Fe3C discs/needles
(diffusionless
+Fe3C layers
transformation)
tempering
martensite
Toughness
Strength
bainite tempered
fine perlite martenzit
coarse perlite + very fine
Fe3C particles
szferoidit
General tendencies
28
topics
• Non-equliblium • Martensitic transformation
transformations • Bain model
• Influencing factors • Needle and lath martensite
• Avrami equation of • quenching
transformation
• Tempering
• Isothermal time-temperature
transformation diagram (TTT) • Quenching and tempering
• Continuous cooling • annealing
transformation diagram(CCT) • Normalizing
• Incubation time • Martempering
• Perlitic transformation • Austempering
• Fine and coarse perlite
• Bainitic transformation
• Upper and lower bainite
29
Materials Science and
Testing
Fe-C Equilibrium Diagram

Today’s topics
• Introduction
• Structure of Fe-C equilibrium diagram
• Stable (graphite) system
• Meta-stable (carbide) system
• Phases in the system
• Microstructure elements
• Transformations during cooling
• Solution of tasks (together and
individually)
Fe-C dual diagram
Peritectic Corner
liquid
delta
ferrite
δ
γ
austenite
In the followings
• The carbon contents are given in mass %.
• We do not deal with the peritectic corner.
• You have to be able to draw up the rest of the

diagram with the characteristic temperature
and concentration data.
Terminology
• Hypoeutectoid alloys ….... 0,0 < C < 0,8 %

Hypereutectoid alloys …... 0,8 < C < 2,1 %
• Hypoeutectic alloys ……... 2,1 < C < 4,3 %

Hypereutectic alloys …….. 4,3 < C < 6,7 %
• Alloys with less than 2,1 % carbon content are

called as steels and the ones with higher carbon
content are called also as cast iron.
Task 1
Draw up the Fe–Fe3C equilibrium diagram
with the characteristic temperature and
concentration data.
(See slide 3 for the answer)

Phases in the meta-stable system
• Liquid (liquid solution)

• The liquid iron solves the carbon with no limit.
• Delta ferrite (solid solution) – δ

• BCC lattice, limited solubility (max. 0,1 % C at 1493ºC)
• Austenite (solid solution) – γ FCC lattice, limited solubility

(max. 2,1 % C at 1147ºC)
• Ferrite (solid solution) – α

• BCC lattice, limited solubility (max. 0,02 % C at 727ºC)
• Cementite / iron-carbide (met. compound) – Fe3C
• Ratio of the Fe and C atoms in the lattice is 3 to 1 (6,7 % C).
Phases in the meta-stable system
l
l+g l+c
g
a+g l+g+c
g+c
a+g+c
a
a+c
g - austenite l - liquid
a - ferrite c - cementite
Fe Fe3C
Area of Phases
Liquid Austenite
Cementite Ferrite
Microstructures 1.
Ferrite – C = about 0 % Austenite – C < 0,1 %

Task 2
Draw a sketch of the Fe – Fe3C diagram with the
transformation lines. Write in the phases present
into the various areas.

Typical cooling curves
liquid
liq. + cem.
γ + liq.
Ro
Zo Y
DoF = 2-Phases+Components
Microstruct. elem. of meta-stable system
Homogenous microstructure elements

• delta ferrite - d (solid solution)
• austenite - γ (solid solution)
• ferrite - a (solid solution)
• primary (I.) cementite – Fe3C (from liquid)
• secondary (II.) cementite – Fe3C (from austenite)
• tertiary (III.) cementite – Fe3C (from ferrite)
Non-homogenous microstructure elements
• – ledeburite (eutectic) – from saturated liquid
• – perlite (eutectoid) – from saturated austenite
Areas of homogenous microstructure
elements 1.
austenite ferrite
Areas of homogenous microstructure
elements 2.
primary cementite secondary cementite tertiary cementite

Areas of non-homogenous microstructure
elements
saturated liquid
saturated austenite
perlite ledeburite
Areas of microstructure elements 1.
Liquid
γ + liq.
Pr. cem + liq.
Perlite + Perlite + led. +

sec. cem. sec. cem.
Areas of microstructure elements 2.
Task 3
Draw a sketch of the Fe – Fe3C diagram with the
transformation and signing lines. Write in the
present microstructure elements into the various
areas.

Sketches of typical microstructures for
20ºC
ferrite perlite sec.cem. ledeburite prim.cem.

Microstructures 2.
1 2
Hypo-eutectoid alloy C = 0,2 % Hyper-eutectoid C = 1,4 %
3 4
Hypo-eutectic alloy C = 2,9 % Hyper-eutectic alloy C = 5,1 %

Phase and microstructure diagram for
20ºC
eutectoidic
cementite secondary
phases
eutectic
ferrite primery
proportional with
ledeburite
microstructur
ledeburite
e elements
100 %
proportional with
perlite pr. cementite
Microstructures 3.
Ferrite + ter. cementite C = 0,02 % Perlite (eutectoid) C = 0,8 %
Ledeburite (eutectic) C = 4,3 % Perlite (eutectoid) N = 5000 x

Cooling of 3% C alloy 1.
T l
L
l
1
g g+c
2
g
1147 L
3
4 P+c
727
5 a+c
s.c. L (g + c)
6
t
2,1 4,3
No. P F Phases Microstr. elements
l
1 1 2 l (l)
2 2 1 l+γ (l) + A
g
1147 3 3 0 l+γ+c (l) + A + L
4 2 1 γ+c A + L + s.c
727
5 3 0 γ+c+α A + L + s.c + P
6 2 1 c+α L + s.c + P
2,1 4,3
Task 4 (common)
Calculate the amount of phases in percentage
for a 3% C alloy at room temperature (slide 13,
point Y).
Phases in equilibrium at 20ºC:
ferrite (α) ... C = approx. 0 %
cementite (c) . . . C = 6,7 %
c a
0 0,02
0,8 2,1 3 4,3 6,7
a = ( 6,7 – 3 ) / ( 6,7 – 0 ) = 0,552 55,2 %
c = (3–0) / ( 6,7 – 0 ) = 0,448 44,8 %

Task 5
Calculate the amount of phases in percentage for
the 3% C alloy at 1000ºC temperature (point R on
slide 13).
The carbon content of austenite at this temperature

is 1,6 %.
Phases being in equilibrium at 1000 ºC (slide 8):
austenite (g) . . . C = 1,6 %
cementite (c) . . . C = 6,7 %
c g
0 1,6 2,1 3 4,3 6,7
g = ( 6,7 – 3 ) / ( 6,7 – 1,6 ) = 0,725 72,5 %
c = ( 3 – 1,6 ) / ( 6,7 – 1,6 ) = 0,275 27,5 %

Task 6
Calculate the amount of phases
in percentage for the 3% C alloy
at 727 + DT ºC (where DT→0).
Phases being in equilibrium at 727+ΔT ºC (slide 8):
austenite (g) . . . C = 0,8 %
cementite (c) . . . C = 6,7 %
c g
0 0,8 2,1 3 4,3 6,7
g = ( 6,7 – 3 ) / ( 6,7 – 0,8 ) = 0,627 62,7 %
= ( 3 – 0,8 ) / ( 6,7 – 0,8 ) = 0,373 37,3 %

Task 7 (common)
Calculate the amount of microstructure
elements in percentage for the 1,3 % C alloy
at room temperature (point Z on slide 13) .
Microstructure elements at 20 ºC (slides 17 and 20):
perlite (P) . . . . . . C = 0,8 %
sec. cem. (sc) . . . C = 6,7 %
sc P
0 0,8 1,3 2,1 4,3 6,7
P = ( 6,7 – 1,3 ) / ( 6,7 – 0,8 ) = 0,915 91,5 %
sc = ( 1,3 – 0,8 ) / ( 6,7 – 0,8 ) = 0,085 8,5 %

Task 8 (common)
Calculate the amount of microstructure
elements in percentage for room temperature
in the alloy containing 3 % carbon.
No. P F Phases Microstr. elements
f
1 1 2 f (f)
2 2 1 f+g (f) + g
g
1147 3 3 0 f + g +c (f) + g+ L
4 2 1 g+c g+ L + s.c
727
5 3 0 g+c+ a g+ L + s.c + P
6 2 1 c+ a L + s.c + P
4,3
2,1
Microstructure elements at 20 ºC (see slides 17, 20 and table on 36):
perlite (P) . . . . . . C = 0,8 % (from austenite)
sec. cem. (sc) . . . C = 6,7 % (from austenite)
ledeburite (L) . . . C = 4,3 %
Step 1: Microstructure elements at 1147 - ΔT ºC:

austenite (g) . . . . C = 2,1 % partial result
ledeburite (L) . . . . C = 4,3 % result
L g
0 0,02
0,8 2,1 3 4,3 6,7
g = ( 4,3 – 3 ) / ( 4,3 – 2,1 ) = 0,591 59,1 %
L = ( 3 – 2,1 ) / ( 4,3 – 2,1 ) = 0,409 40,9 %

Step 2: Calculation of the amount of sec. cementite (for 727+ΔT ºC),
precipitated from the austenite (which contained 2,1 %
carbon and had an amount of 59,1 % at 1147 ºC) :
austenite (g) . . . . . C = 0,8 %
sec. cem. (sc) . . . C = 6,7 %
sc g
0 0,02
0,8 2,1 4,3 6,7
g = ( 6,7 – 2,1 ) / ( 6,7 – 0,8 ) * 0,591 = 0,461 46,1 %
sc = ( 2,1 – 0,8 ) / ( 6,7 – 0,8 ) * 0,591 = 0,130 13,0 %
P=g P + sc + L = 46,1 + 13,0 + 40,9 = 100 %

Task 9
Draw the phase ratio diagram for 1000 ºC
temperature.
The phases at 1000 ºC:
austenite (g) austenite (g) + cementite
0 1,6 3 6,7
Task 5
27,5 %
100 %
austenite (g) 72,5 % cementite

Task 10
Draw the microstructure elements’ ratio
diagram for 1000 ºC temperature.
Microstructure elements at 1000 ºC:
g g + s.c. g + s.c. + L pr.c. + L
0 1,6 2,1 3 4,3 6,7
sec. cem.
100 %
austenite (g) ledeburite primary cem.
construction line
Task 11
Calculate the carbon content of an alloy in
which the amount of phases at room
temperature:
55,2 % ferrite + 44,8 % cementite.
Carbon content of the equilibrium phases at 20 ºC:
55,2 % ferrite (α) . . . . . . C = appr. 0 %
44,8 % cementite . . . . . . C = 6,7 %
cem. α
0 0,02
0,8 2,1 C 4,3 6,7
Carbon content of the alloy using the mixing rule:
C = 0,552 * 0 + 0,448 * 6,7 = 3,00 %

Task 12
Draw the free energy curves for 1000 ºC
temperature.
Phases at 1000 ºC: 0 – 1,6 % C . . . . austenite (g)
1,6 – 6,7 % C . . . austenite (g) + cementite
0 1,6 6,7
F
cementite
austenite (g)
austenite (g) + cementite

Microstructures 4.
Grey cast iron, polished Globural cast iron, polished
Grey cast iron, etched, G + P Globural cast iron, G + F + P

Microstructures 5.
Globural cast iron Fractured globural cast iron,

bigger magnification, G + F + P electron-microscopic picture
Phase transformations
Phase diagrams
Phase Transformation
Why is it important for us?
o Temperature, chemical composition and

pressure can change the properties of materials
o Understanding the development of the

microstructure
o Understanding what happens during heat

treating processes
Today’s topics
 Terminology of phase diagrams and phase

transformations
 Thermodynamics of phase transformations
 Phase diagrams
Terminology
Component:
Pure elements and/or compounds of which an alloy is composed.
e.g. in a copper–zinc brass, the components are Cu and Zn
System:
Series of possible alloys consisting of the same components,
but without regard to alloy composition
Solid solution
– consists of at least two different types of atoms
– the solute atoms randomly occupy either substitutional or interstitial
positions in the solvent lattice
Figures from Callister, Mat. Sci. and

Eng. An Introduction, 8th edition
Solubility limit
A maximum concentration of solute atoms that may dissolve in the solvent to
form a solid solution
The solubility of sugar in

a sugar–water syrup
Phase
A homogeneous portion of a system that has uniform physical
and chemical characteristics at all points.
Own distinct properties
• Chemical composition
• State of matter
(e.g. water+ice)
• Crystal structure
• …
1 phase
Homogeneous system:
2 phases single-phase system
Heterogeneous system:
two or more phases
Thermodynamics
Internal energy U: the energy needed to create the system
Enthalpy (H=U+pV): U+ energy required to make room for it
by displacing its environment
Enthropy (S): expression of disorder or randomness, the energy is
not available for work
Helmholtz free energy (F=U-TS)
Gibbs free energy (free enthalpy)(G=H-TS)
G
Equilibrium
A system is at equilibrium if its free energy is Gsolid
at a minimum under specified combination
of temperature, pressure and composition. Gliquid
At equilibrium conditions the characteristics
of the system do not change with time.
T
Phase Equilibrium
Entropy, S
disorder or randomness
Processes reduce the state of order
of the initial systems. S
A B
Gibbs phase rule
P + F = C + 2 or P + F = C + 1 (in case the effect of pressure is negligible)
P - number of phases
F - number of freedoms
C - number of components
Phase Diagrams
Phase or equilibrium diagram
Information about the phase structure of a particular system.
Parameters Information
 Temperature  State of the matter, crystal structure
 Pressure  Phase composition
 Composition  Chemical composition of the phases
Several different varieties are existing.

(e.g. composition-Temperature, pressure-Temperature)
For mechanical engineering practice generally the composition-Temperature

version is used, as the effect of pressure is negligible.
Phase Equilibrium
Equilibrium
Two component system (A-B),
(ideal solution: exchanging any two atoms does not change the enthalpy)
A B
Composition
Phase Equilibrium
Metastable state
Often the state of equilibrium is never completely achieved because the
rate of approach to equilibrium is extremely slow.
 non-equilibrium or metastable state.
Metastable state or microstructure may persist indefinitely

(changes only extremely slight)
Often, metastable structures are of more practical significance than

equilibrium ones (see next time at the Fe-C system).
Phase Equilibrium
Phase Equilibrium
In an equilibrium system the ratio of phases is constant.
1
Phase Equilibrium
L liquid
a phase
T1
T2
L
L+ a T3
T4
a
CL Cα T5
CL Cα
Phase Diagrams
One-component (or unary) phase diagram
Pressure–temperature phase diagram for H2O.
Note!
phases at
equilibrium
Phase Diagrams
Binary phase diagram (Composition-Temperature)
Transition from one phase to

another, or the appearance or
disappearance of a phase.
Copper–Nickel
C
C Alloy (1)
Point C:
T=1400°C
1 phase: L, liquid
B CNi=35%, CCu=65%
Alloy (2)
A Point A:
(1) (2) T=1100°C
(1) (2) 1 phase: α, solid sol. of Cu and Ni
CNi=60%, CCu=40%
Phase Diagrams
Copper–nickel phase diagram
Alloy (1)
Point B:
T=1250°C
2 phases: a + L,
C (solid + liquid phase)
Composition:
CNi=35%, CCu=65%
Mass fraction of phases
C
B Wα=? %, WL= ? %
Composition of phases:
a: CNi=? %, CCu=? %
A L: CNi=? %, CCu=? %
(1) (2)
Phase Diagrams
Copper–nickel phase diagram L
L
L
α
α
α
Phase Diagrams
Lever rule
~α ~L
CL C0 Cα
wt% of Ni wt% of Ni
in liquid phase in α phase
Mass fraction of phases

𝐶 −𝐶 𝐶 −𝐶
𝑊𝛼 = 𝐶0 −𝐶𝐿 𝑊𝐿 = 𝐶𝛼−𝐶0
𝛼 𝐿 𝛼 𝐿
The chemical composition

of the phases is changing
with the temperature.
Phase Diagrams
Liquid phase: 35% Ni
α phase: -

α phase: 45% Ni

α phase: 42% Ni

α phase: 37% Ni
Liquid phase: -
α phase: 35% Ni
27 45
Phase Diagrams
Inhomogeneous and equilibrium phase
Equilibrium solidification:
• only for extremely slow cooling rates.
• diffusional processes (diffusion rates are lower for lower temperatures and for
solid phases)
High cooling rate Low cooling rate

Inhomogeneous Equilibrium structure
structure
Phase Diagrams
Eutectic reaction Liquid phase α + β (solid phases)
Lead-Tin system
Phase Diagrams
Lead-Tin system
Phase Diagrams
Lead-Tin system
Phase Diagrams
Cu Zn
Phase Diagrams
Peritectic reaction g ( solid phase) + liquid phase d (solid phase)
Eutectoid reaction d ( solid phase) g + e (solid phases)
Copper–Zinc
phase diagram
E
Ceramic Phase Diagrams
The two components are compounds that share a common element
Similar to metal–metal systems
Al2O2 – Cr2O3
phase diagram

15 Welding Merged

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Anyagtudomány és Technológia Tanszék

Classifying joining processes

First welded road bridge in the world in 1928

• Based on the source of energy used to create joint

Most frequently the source of energy is the classifying criterion.

Another possible arrangement

BY PHASE BY PRESSURE BY ENERGY

LIQUID SOLID THERMIC OTHER

W. PRESSURE THERMOMECHANIC MECHANIC

Creating the weld bead – pressure

Crystallization under force

Higher joint strength

Basic manual processes

Roles of the flux covering

Nowadays flux mixtures are used as electrode covering

• Wire diameter: de=1,5 ÷ 6 mm

Characteristics: internal control

Application of manual arc welding

Basic gas shielded processes

These are semi-automated processes (if the filler material

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

tcicle = tbase + timp

Impulse welding enables well

• Non ferrous- and light metals, high alloyed steels (tool

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Metal active gas welding (MAG)

Power source for GMAW

•CO2 shielding gas

• The second option is to apply induced current, called

Resistance welding: advantages

Resistance spot welding

Simple working order

Pressing the electrodes onto the work piece (F), presetting

Thank you for your attention

Ideal lattice: no defects

Real lattice: defects

• Vacancy, interstitial atom 0D

Mechanism of the plastic deformation:

Bright-field image of dislocations in a silicon

Elastic and plastic deformation

Deformation of crystals occurs by slip of lattice planes, motion of

Driving force for slip:

No shear stress: slip direction or slip plane

Maximum shear stress: slip plane and slip direction

(a) Before deformation the (b) The deformation has

Forming limit diagram

• Used in sheet metal forming for predicting forming

At every point in a stressed body

directions, where the corresponding

Stress state index

Sheet metal forming

Primary forming processes

Component producing processes

Open die Closed die

(b) fuller: tool to mark step-locations

(c) forge right side

(d) reverse part, forge left side

(e) finish (dimension control)

Ring forging and rolling