Module – Bridges-Part-I

Learning Objectives
In this module we will study about various kinds bridge circuits.
1. First we will study about Bridge Control Circuits and various types bridges
that are used for measuring unknown resistance.
2. Under DC Bridges will study about Wheatstone bridge, its circuit design and
its sensitivity
3. Then we will study about Kelvin double bridge and how it is used for
measuring resistances less than 1 ohm.

Introduction
This module is aimed to study various methods involved in measurement of unknown
resistance. The choice of suitable method for measurement of resistance depends on
number of factors. First would range of resistance to be measurement, i.e. low,
medium and high. Other factor may be required for accuracy of measurement,
working conditions, etc. Another important factor to be considered is the resistance of
the conducting material with rise in temperature as well as absorption of moisture,
where material is hygroscopic. From the point of view of measurements, resistances
can be classified as –
(i) Low Resistances. Resistance of 1 ohm and under are included in this
category. Measurement of low resistances is required for determination of
resistance of armatures, and series field windings of large machines,
ammeter shunts, cable lengths, contacts, etc.
(ii) Medium Resistances. Resistances ranging from 1  to 100 k fall into this
category.
(iii) High Resistances. Resistances above 100 k are included in this class.
The measurement of high resistances is required for determination of (a)
Resistance of high resistance circuit elements; (b) Insulation resistance of
components and built-up electrical equipment of all types;(c) Volume
resistivity of the material and (d) Surface resistivity.
For measurement of resistances belonging to the above-discussed categories various
bridge-controlled circuits are used.
Bridges Controlled Circuit

A Bridge controlled circuit is an electrical circuit where two parallel branches are
interlinked via by a third branch at an intermediate point between the parallel
branches. Initially bridge circuits were designed for laboratory purposes but now
similar circuits are used for linear & non-linear measurements, power conversion,
instrumentation and filtering. In simpler terms, besides measuring impedances, bridge
circuits are also used for altering signals from transducers with associated current and
voltage signals
There 2 types of bridge circuits –

(1) D.C. Bridges – They use D.C voltage and are used for measuring resistances
whereas
(2) A.C Bridges are used over alternating voltage (A.C. circuits) and measure
impedances consisting capacitances and inductances.

There are 2 types of D.C. bridge-

1. Wheatstone Bridge 2. Kelvin Bridge

And

The various types of A.C. bridges are –

1. Capacitance comparison bridge 2. Wein Bridge
3. Inductance Comparison Bridge 4. Resonance Bridge

D.C. Bridges

Wheatstone Bridge

The earliest example of bridge circuit is Wheatstone Bridge. In 1833, it was Samuel
Hunter Christie who came up with the concept of bridge circuit which was known as
Diamond method due diamond like shape of the electrical circuit. It was 10 years later
in 1843 Charles Wheatstone introduced few modifications and promoted it as a better
method to measure resistance of an unknown resistor. Besides digital multimeters, a
Wheatstone bridge can be used for measuring resistances down to milli-ohms range.
Circuit diagram for the Wheatstone bridge can be seen in figure 1.
 Figure. 1 – A typical Wheatstone bridge cicuit

A Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistors, where R1 and R3 are of know values,
R2 is variable resistor and Rx is the resistor whose resistance is to be determined. The
branch that interlinks the two branches has Galvanometer Vg to measure current flow
between the two branches. If the current between the two branches is not zero,
variable resistor is adjusted to bring the current flow to zero between point D & B.
Now, according to Kirchhoff’s second law the net voltage in the loops ABDA and
BCDB should be equal to zero. The equation for both loops can be written as
For loop ABDA
(I3.R3) – (Ig.Rg) – (I1.R1) = 0 ----(1)
For loop BCDB
(IX.RX) – (I2.R2) + (Ig. Rg) = 0 ------(2)
when net flow between point D & B is zero, i.e. when bridge is balanced, Ig=0, then
I3.R3 = I1.R1 ----(3)
and
IX.RX = I2.R2 ------(4)
Now according to Kirchhoff’s first law the net current at point B is given by
I3 – IX + Ig = 0 -----(5)
and at point D is given by
I1 – I2 - Ig = 0 ------(6)
Therefore when bridge is balanced and equation 3 & 4 are divided and as we
rearranged them, we get –
 𝑅3 .𝑅2
𝑅𝑋 = ------(7)
𝑅1
Briefly, the values of unknown resistor Rx can be determined when values of other
three resistors R1,R2, R3 are know to us. It should be noted that the relationship
between the resistances will still hold true even if battery and galvanometer are
interchanged.
Now we look into the advantages of the Wheatstone bridge.
Advantages
Since the net current across point B &D is null (zero), this type of DC bridge is also
known as null type DC bridge. Here inaccuracies that may arise due instrument
calibration can be easily avoided as galvanometer is simply used for measuring zero
current. Another advantage of this method is that any errors due to fluctuations in
emf source can be avoided, as the balance of current is quite independent of the emf
source. At reduced sensitivity, this system has range of resistance from 1 to 10,000
ohms and can be further extended.

Precautions- that should be taken when working with a wheatstone bridge

While measuring an unknown resistor one should take the following precautions
1. Galvanometer should be well shunted, in order to avoid violent deflection
during early stages of balancing operation and one should reduce the shunt
resistance as bridge approaches the balancing position. This also increases
sensitivity of galvanometer.
2. One should always switch off battery before the galvanometer key and open
after it; this will reduce any induced emfs due to rapidly changing current in
case resistor under test is inductive. This too will prevent any violent
deflections in galvanometer
3. Measurements should also be conducted by reversing the battery and mean of
two should be taken as correct value. This will avoid any errors due to
thermoelectric emfs.

Now we look into the Sensitivity of the system

Sensitivity of Wheatstone Bridge
In a slightly unbalanced bridge, sometimes it is desirable to know galvanometer
response. This helps in selecting a galvanometer sensitive to unbalance in a specific
bridge arrangement. It is used to determine minimum unbalance that can be observed
with a given galvanometer for a specified bridge plus it helps in determining
minimum deflection to be expected for a given unbalance.

Figure. 2 – A Wheatstone Bridge

By solving bridge circuit for the small unbalance one can calculate Bridge sensitivity,
SB. Let us assume bridge in figure 2 is perfectly balanced such that

𝑃 𝑅
= ---------(8)
𝑄 𝑆

and to create small unbalance, the resistance of R is changed to R + R. Then open
circuit voltage (e) for the given bridge can be written as

𝑬 𝑬
𝒆 = 𝑬𝑨𝑫𝑪 − 𝑬𝑨𝑩𝑪 = 𝑰𝟐 (𝑹 + ∆𝑹) − 𝑰𝟏 . 𝑷 = (𝑹 + ∆𝑹) − 𝑷
𝑹 + ∆𝑹 + 𝑺 (𝑷 + 𝑸)

Then
𝑹+ ∆𝑹 𝑷
𝒆 = 𝑬[ − ] ------------(9)
𝑹+ ∆𝑹+𝑺 𝑷+𝑸

This can be further rewritten as

𝑹 + ∆𝑹 𝑹
= 𝑬[ − ]
𝑹 + ∆𝑹 + 𝑺 𝑹 + 𝑺
 𝑃 𝑅 𝑃 𝑅
∵ = 𝑜𝑟(𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠) =
𝑄 𝑆 𝑃+𝑄 𝑅+𝑆

by further solving and rearranging the above equation we get –

𝑬𝑺∆𝑹
≃ ----------------- (10)
(𝑹+𝑺)𝟐
For a balanced bridge, while solving for the above equation, the second and higher
order terms in power expansion may be neglected.
Now the Voltage Sensitivity Sv of a galvanometer is defined as the change in scale
units per unit change in voltage in the galvanometer circuit when the total resistance,
seen from the galvanometer circuit, is that required for the specified damping,

𝐸𝑆∆𝑅
Galvanometer deflection 𝜃 = 𝑆𝑣 𝑒 = 𝑆𝑣
(𝑅+𝑆)2

Therefore, the bridge Sensitivity SB can be defined as the deflection of the

galvanometer per unit fractional change in the unknown resistance, which can be
written as
𝜃 𝐸𝑆𝑅 𝑆𝑣
𝑆𝐵 = = ------------(11)
∆𝑅 ⁄𝑅 (𝑅+𝑆)2
Now we look into a variant of wheatstone bridge- that is kelvin bridge
Kelvin Bridge
Minimum resistance that can be measure accurately with Wheatstone bridge is 1 ohm.
To measure a resistor having value below 1 ohm a Kelvin Bridge is used. A Kelvin
bridge is also know as Kelvin double bridge and Thomson bridge is some countries. A
Kelvin bridge has two extra resistors that form a second set of ratio arms, hence
named double bridge. This modification eliminates the effect of contact and lead
resistance while measuring a low resistance. Here resistors within the range of 1 ohm
to approximately 1 micro-ohm can be measured with high accuracy. This modified
form of Wheatstone bridge is shown in the following figure 3.
 Figure 3. Circuit Diagram for Kelvin Bridge

Here X is the resistor of unknown resistance and Resistor S is a standard resistor of

same order of resistance and the same or the higher current rating as compared to
resistor under test. P, Q and small p,q are non-inductive resistors with two ratio arms
similar to Wheatstone bridge interlinked via galvanometer G between points F & K.
A Rheostat along with an Ammeter is there for convenience only.
During the measurement ratios P/Q and small p/q are varied until galvanometer reads
zero. When both the ratio arms are balanced we get the following equations according
to the Kirchhoff’s second law for the two meshes AHFKBA and FEDCKF –

I1.P – I2.p – I.X = 0 -------(12)

This can be written as
Or I.X = I1.P – I2.p -------(13)

And I1.Q –I2.q –I.S =0 -------- (14)

This can be written as
Or I.S = I1.Q – I2.q --------(15)

By dividing equation 13 & 15 we get –

𝑝
𝑋 𝐼1 .P – 𝐼2 .p 𝑃(𝐼1 − 𝐼 ) 𝑃
𝑃 2
= = 𝑞 = Since small p/P= small q/Q
𝑆 𝐼1 .Q – 𝐼2 .q 𝑄(𝐼1− 𝐼2 ) 𝑄
𝑄
Hence the value of unknown resistance X = S. (P/Q) ----------- (16)

Operation of Kelvin Double Bridge

The method of operation of the kelvin bridge is slightly different from what is
described earlier for wheatstone bridge. During the measurements, P,Q, small p & q
are know and fixed standard resistances and their temperature coefficients are also
know. The resistance are of such values that P/Q=small p/q. Here, P is taken equal to
small p and Q is taken equal to small q and the ratio P/Q= small p/q is made
approximately equal to X/S.
In case approximate value of X is unknown, then it can be either determined with
voltmeter –ammeter method or by potentiometer method. Thereafter, the unknown
resistance X is shunted by a variable resistance (whose value is known) and to obtain
the balance, the value of the shunting resistance is adjusted.
With shunting of unknown resistance X by a variable resistance of value r, a balance
is obtained and the equation 16 can be written as-
X prime
1 𝑃
𝑋′ = 1 1 = 𝑆 -------------- (17)
+ 𝑄
𝑋 𝑟

Then..
𝑋.𝑟 𝑃
or = 𝑆 ----------------- (18)
𝑟+𝑋 𝑄
In this equation the values of P,Q,R,S and r are known, therefore value of unknown
resistance can be determined by substituting these values.
Here again the supply current is reversed and the average value from the two
observations may be taken as correct value. This helps in eliminating any errors due
to thermo-electric emfs.
The bridge’s sensitivity is determined by noting the smallest variation in the shunting
resistance r that can cause an observable deflection in the galvanometer. The ratios
P/Q & small p/q are made exactly equal by adjusting the lead resistances, which are
used for the connections.
Summary
In this module we studied about various kinds bridge circuits.
1. First we looked into Bridge Control Circuits and various types bridges that are
used for measuring unknown resistance.
2. Under DC Bridges will studied about Wheatstone bridge, its circuit design and
its sensitivity
3. And in the end we studied about Kelvin double bridge and how it is used for
measuring resistances less than 1 ohm.
Module-2_Unit-3_NSNT

Thin films of various materials have been the focus of much research owing to their vast applications in
electronic and optoelectronic devices. These applications stem from the ability to deposit stable thin films
of controlled morphology and thickness. The traditional procedures to produce thin films involving
casting and spin coating do not meet the requirements of advanced device technologies. With advanced
industrial requirements, uniform and stable nanometer thick films are needed. Additionally, many
functional materials are not soluble in the common solvents. In such cases, vapor deposition techniques
can be promising candidates to fabricate advanced functional devices. In this module, the participants will
learn:
- Vacuum deposition technique
- Physical vapor deposition technique
- Chemical vapor deposition technique
- Advantages and limitations of these techniques
- Applications of these techniques

1. Vacuum Deposition

Vacuum deposition is a group of various deposition techniques employed to deposit thin films or layers of
a material onto a substrate by atom-by-atom or molecule-by-molecule manner. The processing is carried
out at pressures lower than the ambient pressure (i.e., vacuum). The thickness of the deposited films
varies from atomically thin to a few millimeters. This technique can also be used to produce free-standing
films of a material. Consequently, alternate layers of different materials can also be deposited using this
technique, as an example, this technique can be used to produce optical coatings where layers of different
materials are present on top of each other.

Figure 1 Operating principle of vacuum deposition [2].

The purposes for depositing films under vacuum are:

- The particle density is greatly reduced; therefore, the mean free path during collisions is long.
 - Less contamination
- Low pressure plasma conditions
- Composition of the gas and vapor can be easily controlled
- Flow of the vapors can also be controlled

Condensing or depositing vapors can be produced by:

- Thermal evaporation
- Sputtering
- Arc vaporization, etc.

In reactive deposition (where certain chemical reactions occur during deposition process), the following
reactions can take place:
- the depositing species may react with a component of the gases present in the reactor (e.g., Ti + N
→ TiN)
- the depositing species may react with a co-depositing species (Ti + C → TiC).
The plasma environment activates the gases (N2 → 2N) and decomposes the precursor vapors (SiH4 → Si
+ 4H). The other uses of plasma include:
- Precursors can be vaporized by sputtering
- The substrate can be cleaned by ion sputtering
- To densify the structure and control properties (ion plating).

These processes can be classified on the basis of the type of vapor source employed in film deposition in
the following two categories:
1. Physical vapor deposition: this technique uses a solid or liquid vapor source
2. Chemical vapor deposition: chemical vapor
Vapor deposition processing includes techniques which deposit materials in a vapor state by condensation
process, chemical reactions, or certain types of conversion processes. The deposition process is known
physical vapor deposition (or PVD) if a liquid or solid source is used to create the vapor phase. However,
if vapors are produced by a chemical reaction, the process is chemical vapor deposition (CVD).
Generally, a combination of both these techniques is used.

1.1 Applications
Vacuum deposition techniques find diverse range of applications, such as:
- Electrical, semiconducting as well as insulating coatings.
- Optical coatings
- Reflective coatings
- Film lubricants
- Low emissivity glass coating, smart film coatings
- Diffusion barrier coatings, etc.

2. Physical Vapour Deposition Method

Physical vapor deposition (PVD) includes a group of vacuum deposition techniques employed to
synthesize thin films as well as coatings. In PVD, the material goes from a condensed phase (as
precursor) to a vapor phase and then back to the condensed phase (deposited as thin films). Commonly
used PVD techniques include sputtering, laser surface alloying, ion plating and ion implantation. It is
widely employed to produce thin films for mechanical, optical, chemical or electronic functions, such as
semiconductor devices including thin film solar panels, aluminized PET film for food packaging and
balloons, and coated cutting tools for metal working, etc. The most frequent coatings developed by this
technique are titanium nitride, zirconium nitride, chromium nitride, titanium aluminum nitride.

In PVD, the film is deposited over the entire exposed area of the object. It is basically a vaporization
coating method involving atomic scale transport of the material to be coated. The gas phase precursor
condenses onto the substrate, thereby creating the required layer. No chemical reactions occur during the
deposition process. The process is performed under vacuum and comprises the following steps (Figure
2(a)):

Evaporation
The target (material to be coated/deposited) is incident with high energy source like an electron/ion beam.
The atoms from target surface are removed, thereby vaporizing them.
Transport
The atomic vapours are carried from target surface to the surface of the substrate requiring coating.
Reaction
This step is introduced if the deposition is to be of compounds of target metal atoms such as metal oxides,
nitrides, carbides and the like materials. When the metal atoms of the target vaporize, they react with the
gas (intentionally introduced to react with target metal) during transport phase, thereby depositing
products of these metal atoms.
Deposition
It involves coating build-up on surface of the substrate. Based on specific method, certain reactions may
take place between the target material and reactive gases on the surface of substrate, concurrently along
with the deposition process.

Figure 2 (a) Flowchart of the PVD technique, and (b) schematics of the setup used for PVD.

Figure 2(b) shows the experimental setup used for PVD technique. The experiment is performed in a
quartz or alumina (ceramic) tube. Depending on the application, the tube may be fitted either horizontally
or vertically. Before performing experiment, reaction chamber is evacuated at the pressure in 10 -4 to 10-7
Torr range. Then heating element is turned on and with a constant flow rate, carrier gas is introduced into
the chamber. Introduction of carrier gases increases pressure inside the chamber and it becomes ~200-500
Torr. Flow rate of carrier gas depends on structure of required nanomaterial because morphology of
produced nanostructure greatly depends on pressure of chamber and flow rate of carrier gas. After
achieving necessary conditions inside the chamber, gas flow and temperature of chamber are kept
constant for deposition time. Precursor materials are vaporized at high temperature, low pressure
conditions. These vapours are then transferred by inert gases to lower temperature zone, where they
progressively supersaturate. When they reach the substrate surface, nucleation and subsequent growth of
desired nanostructures takes place. The growth can be terminated by turning off the furnace. The reaction
setup is cooled to the surroundings by flowing inert gas through it.

2.1 Ion Plating (via plasma)

Metals including titanium, aluminum, gold, copper, and palladium are deposited on the surface of a
feature via plasma based ion plating. The thicknesses of the deposited layers vary between 0.008 to 0.025
nm. The advantages of this technique are good adhesion, surface finish, in-situ substrate cleansing before
coating and good control over the film geometry. However, its disadvantages include tight control of
process parameters, plasma contamination, and possible contamination of substrate and deposited layer by
the bombarded gas species. It is widely used in X-ray tubes, piping threads, turbine blades in aircraft
engines, steel drilling bits, etc.

2.2 Ion implantation

It does not create an overall new layer, but forms alloys with substrate surface, thereby altering the
chemical composition of the surafce. For instance, nitrogen is employed to enhance the wear resistance in
metals. Substrate cleaning prior to the deposition process is highly critical in this technique. As it works
on the species present on the surface of the substrate, therefore, it is highly prone to contamination led
problems. The process is carried out in room temperature and the time required for deposition depends on
substrate’s temperature resistance and the desired coating material.
Ion implantation chemistry is only limited by the number of elements which can be vaporized and ionized
within a vacuum chamber. Advantages are reproducibility, no posttreatment and low waste production. If
the coating is exposed to elevated temperatures, it cannot produce good finish. Limitations are
complications in quality control, insufficient know-how and equipments.
Typical applications include anti-wear coatings for high value components in biomedical devices, tools,
and gears and balls in aerospace industry. It is also used in semiconductor industry to deposit gold,
ceramics, etc. onto a variety of substrates (e.g., plastic, ceramic, silicon, gallium arsenide, etc.).

2.3 Sputtering
Sputtering alters the physical properties of any surface by etching mechanism. A gas plasma is created
between two electrodes, that is, the cathode (comprising the material to be deposited) and an anode
(which acts as the substrate on which deposition is required). Typical depositions are thin films with
thickness varying from 0.00005 – 0.01 mm. Typical depositions are of chromium, titanium, aluminum,
copper, molybdenum, tungsten, gold, and silver.
Applications include decorative coatings like watchbands, eyeglasses, and jewelry.
In comparison to other deposition techniques, sputtering is an economic and cost effective process and
thus, it is extensively used in numerous industries. It is widely used in electronics industry for producing
heavily sputtered coatings and films. Such coatings include depositing thin film wires on chips, recording
heads, magnetic and magneto-optic recording media, etc. Automotive industry uses sputtering to prepare
decorative films for plastic. In buildings, it is used to create reflective films for large pieces of
architectural glass. The food packaging industry uses sputtering to produce thin plastic films for
packaging.

2.4 Surface alloying

Surface alloying (modification) by using lasers facilitates alloy formation by introducing the selected
material into the melt pool. This process produces surfaces exhibiting good performance at elevated
temperatures, improved wear and corrosion resistance, enhanced mechanical behaviors, and good
appearance.
Laser cladding is the most common process in surface alloying. Laser cladding is used for selective
deposition over a specific area. In this technique, a thin metal layer is mixed with some base metal by
combined application of pressure and heat. Elaborate sample preparation step is not required, yet the
surface might require to be made rough before coating. Grinding and/or polishing are usually done after
deposition.
However, readily oxidized materials require inert gas streams for deposition. Laser power, its frequency
and speed affect the deposition rates. The thickness of the deposited layer varies between few hundred
micrometers to millimeters. If the deposited layer is highly dense, film cracking may result in
delamination. Furthermore, this technique only deposits in the line of sight.

3. Chemical Vapour Deposition Method (CVD)

CVD is the most extensively utilized technique to prepare good quality, extraordinary-performance solid
materials. Its’ most popular applications include producing thin-film coatings on surfaces, but it can also
be used to synthesize high quality powders and bulk materials. Composite materials can also be fabricated
by the infiltration technique. CVD is also employed to deposit almost all the elements of the periodic
table, sometimes in their pristine forms, but more often combined compounds.
Conventionally, a precursor gas (or gases) is introduced inside a chamber enclosing the pre-heated
substrates needs to be coated with. Chemical reactions take place on and near these heated substrates,
leading to the deposition of thin films of desired material on surface of the substrate. The deposition is
accompanied by production of byproducts which needs to be removed from the reaction chamber along
with the non-utilized precursor gases. Figure 3 includes a conventional CVD experimental setup along
with the schematics of the process.
The steps involved can be described as follows:
 Transport of the reactants in gas phase (usually with carrier gas) to the reaction zone
 Diffusion or convection through the boundary layer
 Adsorption of precursors on the substrate
 Surface diffusion of the precursors to growth sites. Reaction without diffusion may lead to rough
surface growth.
 Surface chemical reaction, formation of a solid film and formation of byproducts.
 Desorption of byproducts
 Removal of gaseous byproducts out of the reactor.
 Figure 3 Schematics of (a) the CVD process, and (b) a conventional CVD setup.

As can be anticipated, due to the multiplicity of the deposited materials and wide-ranging applications,
several types of CVD have been developed. It can be carried out in hot- or cold-walled reactors; very low
to above the atmospheric pressures; in the presence or absence of carrier gases; at typical temperature
varying from 200 to 1600 °C. Some enhanced CVD processes involving use of plasma, lasers, photons,
hot filaments, ions, or combustion reactions so as to boost deposition rates and also to reduce deposition
temperature. There are several processes in this technique, which include sputtering, ion plating, plasma-
enhanced CVD, low-pressure CVD, laser-enhanced CVD, active reactive evaporation, ion beam, laser
evaporation, etc. All of them differ in the manner the chemical reactions are initiated and can be
distinguished by their working pressure range, as follows:
- Ultrahigh vacuum, with typical pressures less than 10−6 Pa (~10−8 Torr)
- Low-pressure. These techniques benefit from lesser gas-phase reactions at low pressures, thereby
improving the uniformity of the film
- Atmospheric pressure

Pretreatment of the substrate involves mechanical and/or chemical cleaning, vapor honing (for improving
film adhesion). Additionally, the reaction chamber must be clean, leakage proof, as well as free from dust
and moisture.
CVD is employed for improving corrosion and wear resistance of the materials. Typical depositions
include nickel, tungsten, chromium, and titanium carbide.
CVD has numerous benefits as thin films deposition technique. The chief advantage is that the films
grown by this method are conformal, implying that thickness of the film on side walls of objects is similar
to that on the top. Consequently, films are uniformly coated to highly bent pieces.
Another advantage of CVD is that, besides depositing a wide array of materials, it can deposit extremely
high purity films. This is due to the comparative ease in removing impurities from the gaseous precursors
via distillation techniques. Further advantages are – fast deposition rates, along with the fact that it does
not involve as low a pressure as the PVD process.
References

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_vapor_deposition.
2. http://web.tuat.ac.jp/~usuilab/English/depo.html.
3. https://vacaero.com/information-resources/the-heat-treat-doctor/1252-vacuum-deposition-
processes.html.
4. Herring, Daniel H., Vacuum Heat Treatment, BNP Media Group, 2012.
5. Herring, Daniel H., Atmosphere Heat Treatment, Volume I, BNP Media Group, 2014.
6. “Alternative Methods for Metal Finishing”, Metal Finishing Industry, Illinois Sustainable
Technology Center, University of Illinois (www.istc.illinois.edu)
7. “Differences Between CVD and PVD”, Differences.com (www.differences.com)
8. Bunshah, Rointan F., Handbook of Deposition Technologies for Films and Coatings, Noyes
Publications, 1994.
9. Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org)
10. Porat, R. and Y. Cassuto, “A Comparison Between CVD and PVD Coated Cemented Carbide
Cutting Tools” Journal de Physique Colloques, 1989, 50 (C5), pp.C5-803-C5- 810.
11. https://vacaero.com/information-resources/the-heat-treat-doctor/1252-vacuum-deposition-
processes.html.

Review Questions
1. Differentiate between PVD and CVD techniques.
2. In physical vapor deposition, to achieve uniform film:
a. rotate substrate during evaporation
b. use deep narrow crucibles to increase the directionality of evaporation beam
c. increase the distance between source and substrate
d. place extended source and substrate on surface of an imaginary sphere
3. Which of the following materials cannot be deposited by CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition)
method?
a. Si3N4
b. Poly-Silicon
c. Cork
d. Al2O3
e. Cu
f. SiO2
4. What are the main parameters affecting the nucleation process?