Foundation Biology For NEET - Ol - Disha Experts
Foundation Biology For NEET - Ol - Disha Experts
Foundation Biology For NEET - Ol - Disha Experts
Exemplar Solutions
8
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2. Micro-organisms 35-66
9. Tissues 210-227
INTRODUCTION
Food, required for all organisms including human beings, is an edible or potable substance (usually of animal or plant origin). It
consists of nourishing and nutritive components such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, essential mineral and vitamins, which
(when ingested and assimilated through digestion) sustains life, generates energy, and provides growth, maintenance, and
health of the body. The green plants synthesize their food by the process of photosynthesis while man and other animals
directly or indirectly depend on plants for their food requirement.
Humans obtain their food from plants as well as animals. They grow plants and rear animals to meet their daily requirements.
But since, human population is increasing day by day, also their food requirement is increasing along with it. Hence, we need
more than a quarter of billions of tonnes of grain every year to meet this increasing demand of food. But have you ever thought
how is the food requirement to a large number of people in a country fulfilled? The food requirement is achieved by farming
more lands, increasing the food production and by managing the production and distribution of food.
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2 BIOLOGY
CROP
Crop is a plant or plant product that can be grown or cultivated and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. For example, if all
the plants of maize are grown in a field, then it is called a maize crop. Similarly, if all the plants of wheat are grown, then it is called a wheat
crop.
Crop can be used as:
- food crops, for human consumption (e.g., wheat, potatoes).
- feed crops, for livestock consumption (e.g., oats, alfalfa).
- fibre crops, for ropes and textiles (e.g., cotton, hemp).
- oil crops, for consumption or industrial uses (e.g., cottonseed, corn).
- ornamental crops, for landscape gardening (e.g., dogwood, azalea); and industrial uses.
- secondary crops, for various personal and industrial uses (e.g., rubber, tobacco).
The first cultivated crop plants were cereals such as wheat, barley, rice and maize. Their seeds are rich in
carbohydrates and therefore form the staple diet almost everywhere in the world. Wheat is the most important
cereal in the world, followed by paddy and maize.
All the crops are grown in their respective seasons. Paddy, for example, is grown during rainy season while maize is grown during
winter season. Therefore, on the basis of seasons, all the crops are categorised into two main groups —kharif crops and rabi crops.
(i) Kharif crops : The crops grown in rainy season during the months of June to October are called Kharif crops. They are also
known as summer or monsoon crop. These crops require warm, wet weather at major period of crop growth and also required
short day length for flowering. Soyabean, maize, sugarcane, groundnut, paddy and cotton are the examples of Kharif crops.
(ii) Rabi crops : The crops grown in winter season from November to April are called rabi crops. They are also known as winter crop.
Crops grow well in cold and dry weather and require longer day length for flowering. Wheat, barley, mustard, peas etc. are some
examples of rabi crops.
Another type of crop is summer/zaid crops. These crops are grown in summer month from March to June. They require warm day
weather for major growth period and longer day length for flowering. E.g. groundnuts, watermelon, pumpkins, gourds.
Worms helps plants by mixing the soil, so gardeners love them because they are “free” help.
P oi n t
1. Why we classify crop plants?
2. What will happen if the farmer grows Rabi crops during rainy season instead of winter?
3. Why crops such as paddy are grown only in rainy season?
SOLUTION
Agriculture forms a complex web of product, producer, distributor and consumer. All of them are interconnected
and dependent upon each other for survival.
AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
The growing of crops in the fields by the farmer for obtaining food like wheat, rice etc, is called agriculture. About 70% of the India’s
population is dependent on agriculture. They are also ranked second in terms of agricultural output.
Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created
food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science.
The reason for the increased agricultural output is the steady improvement in irrigation methods, new agricultural technology and
modern agricultural practices. Farmers carry out certain activities in a particular sequence till the crops mature at harvest. These
activities are known as agricultural practices. These practices increases the overall yield of a crop.
Agricultural Practices
PREPARATION OF SOIL
Crop quality greatly depends on soil composition. The ideal soil is balanced, well-drained, fertile and with a pH (acidity level) situated
between 6 and 7. It is important to add decomposed manure or compost which, in addition to improving soil structure and composition,
will supply nutritive elements required by the plants. Preparation of soil is the first step to be followed before growing a crop. It is
usually employed to loosen the soil. Plants absorb water, nutrients and salts from the soil. Therefore, it is important to prepare soil for
a healthy produce.
FRIENDLY EARTHWORMS
Earthworms are called best friends of farmers. They can consume practically all kinds of organic matter. They pull down any organic
matter that is deposited on the soil surface such as leaf fall, debris etc. This organic matter then undergoes biochemical change in
the intestine of earthworm. Hence, earthworm converts the dead organic matter into rich humus, thereby enriching the soil with
nutrients.
Earthworms are important to farmers in the following respects :-
(i) It improves the soil fertility.
(ii) It maintains the physical condition of the soil.
(iii) It helps in mixing of sub soil and top soil.
(iv) It helps in providing required nutrients to plants.
(v) It helps in recycling of waste materials in the surroundings.
Levelling
Unevenness of the soil surface has a significant impact on the germination & yield of crops. After ploughing, the field is levelled with
the help of a leveller. It is because the ploughed soil is quite loose, so it is liable to be carried away by strong winds or washed away
by rain water. The ploughed soil is levelled by pressing it with wooden leveller.
Importance of levelling
(i) It prevents the top fertile soil from being carried away by strong winds or washed away by rain water.
(ii) It helps in uniform distribution of water in fields during irrigation.
(iii) It prevents the loss of moisture from ploughed soil.
(iv) For better crop establishment.
(v) It reduces irrigation time.
(vi) Less effort in crop management.
(vii) It increases the yield and quality.
(viii) Optimization of water use efficiency.
SOWING OF SEEDS
Manuring
Sowing of seeds is the second important step of crop production. Once the soil in the fields
has been prepared by ploughing, levelling and manuring, the seeds of the crop can be sown in it. Sowing is the process of placing the
seeds in the ground soil for future growth of crop plants.
However seeds those are to be selected for growing should be of good quality. The quality of seed depends on the plants that are used
for collecting seeds.
iN THE LAB
How can you find whether the given sample of seeds are healthier or not?
Take a clean jar half filled with water. Put some seeds (damaged and healthy) into the jar and stir it well.
Now observe the seeds present in jar.
Mixture of
damaged and
healthier seeds
Damaged
seeds
Healthier
seeds
P oi n t
Why seeds are not sown in dry and highly wet soil?
SOLUTION
Moisture in the soil is necessary for germination. So, if seeds are sown in dry soil, they may not germinate. Similarly, if the
seeds are sown in a highly wet soil, then on drying, the soil surface becomes too hard that the germinating seedling might not
come out of ground.
Crop Production & Management 7
CONNECTING TOPIC
TRANSPLANTATION
Sometimes some seeds (for example, rice, tomato, chilli, cabbage, bringal etc) are not
directly planted in the fields, instead they are planted in the seed beds called nurseries
and when they grow into seedlings they are transferred in the field.
You must have seen farmers transplanting paddy (rice) seedlings in the fields. This
method is known as transplantation.
In case of paddy (rice) crops, the seeds are first sown in a small plot of land and then
allowed to grow into tiny plants called seedlings. After the seeds have grown into tiny
plants (called seedling) in the nursery, only the healthy and well-developed seedlings
are then picked out and transferred to the regular field for further growth.
This process of transferring the seedlings from the nursery to the main field by hand is Paddy Seedling transplantation
called transplantation. During transplantation, farmers keep the proper distance be-
tween various seedlings and also between rows of seedling. This is done to ensure that each and every plant gets the sufficient
sunlight, water and other nutrients for normal and healthy growth of plants. This process of transplantation has several advantages
over the direct sowing.
Advantages of Transplantation
(i) It enables us to select only the better and healthy seedlings for the cultivation of crops.
(ii) It allows better and deeper penetration of roots in the soil.
(iii) It promotes better development of shoot system of plants.
(iv) It allows seedlings to be transplanted at the right spacings so that each and every plantlet gets uniform dose of sunlight, water
and nutrients.
P oi n t
Find out more examples of crops that are cultivated by transplantation method ?
SOLUTION
NOTE
Types of Manure
There are three types of manure: animal manure (farm yard manure), compost and plant manure.
Animal manure: This is the combination of animal faeces or dungs, urine and plant products used as beddings for the animals. Dung,
farm refuse, fallen leaves, twigs etc are dumped in heaps to undergo decomposition and form dark amorphous manure. The faeces of
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poultry, goat, sheep, cattle, pigs and rabbits are essential for farmyard preparation. The period of decomposition varies with the type
of animal dung used. Before applying the manure, it must be allowed to decompose fully so as to avoid burning the roots of the crops.
Plant (Green) manure: Green manure refers to crops which have already been uprooted (and have often already been stuffed under
the soil). Typically, plant manures are crops that are grown for the purpose of plowing them in and using it as nutrients and organic
matter.
Green manure crops are commonly associated with organic farming, and are considered essential for annual cropping systems that
wish to be sustainable.
Compost manure: Compost is rotten vegetable matter, garbage, sewage, sludge and animal refuse often enriched with small amounts
of chemical fertilizers during decomposition stage.
WHAT IS COMPOSTING?
Composting is the process of converting dead organic matter into rich humus. The waste materials such as cow dung, vegetable
waste, sewage waste etc are dumped into a pit. The pit is then covered with mud to prevent air and light entering it. It is then left
undisturbed for few months. During this process, the microbes decompose the animal and plant waste and convert it into inorganic
materials. These inorganic materials are excellent nutrients for plants.
Sometimes, the process of composting is done with the help of earthworm. Then this process is known as vermi-composting. Earthworms
can consume practically all kinds of organic matter. This organic matter undergoes biochemical change in the intestine of earthworm.
Hence, earthworm converts organic matter into rich humus, thereby enriching the soil with nutrients. The process of composting
ensures the continuance of fertility cycle. Composting is considered as the best recycler in nature.
Advantages of Manure
(i) It enriches the soil with organic material.
(ii) It increases the water holding capacity of soil.
(iii) It aerates the soil by making it porous.
(iv) It helps in the growth of micro-organisms.
(v) It improves the soil texture.
(vi) It increases the crop production.
(vii) It replenishes the soil with all manures.
FERTILIZERS
Fertile soil contains minerals, organic matter and a number of microscopic forms of plant and animal life. The soil should also contain
soluble minerals. If the soil is deficient in these minerals, fertilizers must be added to ensure healthy crops.
Fertilizers are commercially available plant nutrients. They can be organic or inorganic in nature. They ensure healthy growth and
development of plants by providing required nutrients such as nitrogen(N), phosphorous(P), potassium(K), sulphur(S) etc to the
plant. They have nutrients in a concentrated form. So they provide quick replenishment of plant nutrients in the soil and restore its
fertility. Also, they have high solubility in water. So, they are easily absorbed by the plants.
Fertilizers are good only for short term use. Also it is harmful to the symbiotic microorganism that live in soil. The excess use of
fertilizers also causes water pollution.
Excessive use of fertilizers degrades the quality of soil in the long run, for example, excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers makes the
soil and water rich in nitrates. Nitrogen-rich water is not good for drinking. Nitrates from the soil also flow into rivers and lakes with
rainwater and enhance the growth of weeds and algae. This decreases the oxygen content of water leading to death of aquatic life.
Excessive use of fertilizers can change the nature of the soil making it either too acidic or too alkaline.
NOTE
Types of Fertilizers
Nitrogenous fertilizers : Urea, Ammonium sulphate, Ammonium nitrate, Sodium nitrate.
Phosphatic fertilizers : Calcium hydrogen phosphate or superphosphate, Ammonium hydrogen phosphate, Ammonium phosphate.
Potassium fertilizers: Potassium nitrate, Potassium chloride, Potassium sulphate.
Crop Production & Management 9
P oi n t
How NPK helps plants in their growth?
SOLUTION
Nitrogen is extremely important for leaf growth; phosphorus promotes development of roots, flowers and seeds or fruit; and potassium
is necessary for the growth of strong stems and movement of water in plants, in addition to promoting flowering and fruiting.
iN THE LAB
Let us perform an activity to find out how fertilizers and manure affects the plant growth.
Take some healthy gram seeds and allow them to germinate in a pot.
A B C
Now from the pot, select three equal sized seedlings and plant them in jar A, B and C. Keep the vessel in a safe and lighted place.
Water them regularly and observe the growth.
What did you observe after few weeks?
A B C
You can observe that seedlings develop into small plantlets in all the three jars after few days. However, their growth varies in all
the three.
The jar A shows maximum growth while jar C showed the least growth.
Plantlets in jar A showed the maximum growth because urea is readily soluble in water and is quick acting. When it is supplied to
the soil, nitrogen is rapidly changed into ammonia. Later seeds use this ammonia for its growth and development.
The plantlets in jar A also show the growth but less compared to jar B.
The growth of plantlet in jar C is least because soil is infertile as it lacks certain essential soil nutrients.
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Table : Differences between manure and fertilizers
MANURE FERTILIZERS
i. Manure is a natural substance that is prepared by They are commercially available plant nutrients.
decomposition of animal excreta and plant wastes.
ii. They have large quantity of organic material and little They can be organic or inorganic in nature.
amount of plant nutrients.
iii. They help in enriching the soil with organic matter and They help in enriching the soil with organic matter and
nutrients. nutrients in concentrated form.
iv. It provides humus to the soil. It does not provide any humus to soil.
v. It protects the environment and helps in recycling of waste Its excessive use can cause pollution.
vi. It is slowly absorbed by the plants. It is readily absorbed by the plants.
vii. Example– animal excreta, plant waste, sewage waste etc. Example– sodium nitrates, urea, ammoniam sulphate etc.
CONNECTING TOPIC
CROP ROTATION
Crop rotation is the practice of growing two or more varieties of crops on the same land in sequential seasons.
The continuous growing of same crop over and over again might reduce the particular nutrient from the soil. Hence, farmers
employ crop rotation so that they can replenish the lost nutrients from the soil.
In crop rotation, the cereal crops like wheat, maize etc are grown alternately with leguminous crops like pulses, beans, peas, etc.
Legumes have nitrogen fixing bacteria in their root nodules that can fix atmospheric nitrogen.
For example, when maize crop is grown first, it takes away a lot of nitrogen from soil for its growth and development and makes
the soil nitrogen deficient. And next, when leguminous crops are grown in the same field, leguminous crops with its nitrogen fixing
bacteria enriches the soil with nitrogen compounds and increases its fertility. When another cereal crop like wheat is grown after
that, then wheat can utilize this extra nitrogen from soil for its growth and produce a crop with increased yield. In this way, rotating
different crops (leguminous and non-leguminous crops) in the same field replenishes the soil with nitrogen naturally and thereby
increases the crop production.
Advantages of Crop Rotation
(i) It improves the fertility of soil and hence brings about an increase in food production.
(ii) It reduces the need of fertilizers.
(iii) It reduces the build up of pests & diseases that affect different group of plants.
(iv) They ensure that enough nutrient are available to different crops each year.
(v) It aids in building and maintaining healthy soil by maintaining level of its organic matter and soil structure.
(vi) It controls weeds.
NOTE
Monoculture is the repeated planting of the same crop in the field year after year.
Intercropping is the growth of two or more crops in proximity in the same field during a growing season to promote interaction
between them. Available growth resources, such as light, water and nutrients are more completely absorbed and converted to crop
biomass by the intercrop as a result of differences in competitive ability for growth factors between intercrop components. The more
efficient utilization of growth resources leads to yield advantages and increased stability compared to sole cropping.
Mixed cropping, also known as multiple cropping, is growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land. It leads
to an improvement in the fertility of the soil and increase in crop yield. The products and refuse from one crop plant help in the growth
of the other crop plant and vice-versa. Mixed cropping is an insurance against crop failure in abnormal weather conditions. It also
helps the farmer to improve its yield and economy and avoid crop failure which was very common in India and Asian countries.
Crop Production & Management 11
P oi n t
Study the given sequence of pictures and then answer the questions.
Cereal crops
Cereal crops Soil after few cereal crops Soil after a legume crop
1. What happens to plant nutrients in soil after growing cereals repeatedly in same
field for many years?
2. Does soil fertility decrease when only cereal crops are grown again and again?
3. What happens to plant nutrients in soil after growing leguminous crops?
SOLUTION
1. The continuous plantation of crops in a field makes the soil poor in certain nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium etc. As a result, the soil fertility decreases and hence the crop yield.
2. The soil fertility decreases when crop with similar requirements are grown again and again. For example, when a crop like
maize is grown, it takes away a lot of nitrogen from soil for its growth and makes the soil nitrogen deficient. If now, the same
kind of crop or crop with similar requirement is grown then it would further make the soil nutrient deficient. Thus, the
continuous plantation of any crop in field makes the soil poor in certain nutrients.
3. Legumes have nitrogen fixing bacteria in their root nodules that can fix atmospheric nitrogen. When the leguminous crop is
grown in the same field, then the leguminous crop with its nitrogen fixing bacteria enriches the soil with nitrogen compounds
and increases its fertility.
IRRIGATION
Water is essential for the growth of plants. It transports all nutrients required by the plant to each and every part of the plant body. It
also maintains the moisture of soil and prevents soil from drying.
It is therefore, necessary to supply water to crop plants in the fields, periodically. The process of supplying water to crops in the fields
is called irrigation. Irrigation is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of
disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. It also protects plants against frost, suppressing weed growth
in grain fields and preventing soil consolidation. The time and frequency of irrigation varies according to different seasons, crops and
soil types. The various sources of irrigation are wells, canals, rivers, dams, ponds and lakes. Even rain is a source of irrigation of crops.
IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION
(i) Irrigation before ploughing makes the soil soft due to which ploughing becomes easier.
(ii) It provides moisture for germination of seeds.
(iii) It is important for the absorption of nutrient elements by plants from soil. The water dissolves the nutrient present in the soil to
form a solution. This solution of nutrients is then absorbed by the roots for the development of plants.
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METHODS OF IRRIGATION
Two methods of irrigation that helps in conservation of water are : traditional method and modern method.
Irrigation
Waterlogging
Waterlogging refers to the saturation of soil with water. It occurs whenever the soil is so wet that there is
insufficient oxygen in the pore space for plant roots to be able to adequately respire. Other gases detrimental
to root growth, such as carbon dioxide and ethylene, also accumulate in the root zone and affect the plants.
Most often, waterlogged conditions do not last long enough for the plant to die. Once a waterlogging event
has passed, plants recommence respiring. As long as soil conditions are moist, the older roots close to the
surface allow the plant to survive.
Traditional Method
This method was used earlier for irrigation. They are cheaper but less efficient. It often includes pulley system that are used to deliver
water to soil, vegetation, flowers and/or other forms of plant life. Types of traditional methods are moat, dhekli, rahat and chain pump.
(i) Moat: It is based on pulley system. Moat is a deep, wide ditch that is usually filled with water and that goes around the walls of
a place (such as a castle) to protect it from being attacked. It has been used to collect water that was then taken directly to the
fields via buckets and placed over the crops. In other forms wells were used to keep water contained to draw on it.
(ii) Dhekli: Dhekli is mainly seen in rural areas. It is done manually. The person had to take out water through a bucket and pour it
into the field. This causes a lot of water wastage and now for water scarcity, people don't use this method of irrigation.
(iii) Rahat: It is based on lever system. The rahat system of irrigation was used in older times as a way to get water from a well by
using oxen. The Rahat System of irrigation requires a large well in which a wheel is used. The wheel is turned by oxen, buffalo
or cows to get the water out of the well and then spread out over the crops.
(iv) Chain pump: It is based on pumps. Chain pump is a type of water pump. The pump consists of a pipe connected to a water
supply, a circular chain and flat platters that are the same size and shape as the pipe. These platters are connected to the chain,
which is then drawn up through the pipe. Water is caught on the platter and brought up to the surface. The chain is circular, so
as the platters rise on one side of the chain, they drop back into the water.
Moat Dhekli
Modern Methods
Modern methods of irrigation are used for supplying water to fields.Types of modern method of irrigation are : sprinkler system of
irrigation and drip system of irrigation.
(i) Sprinkler system : This system of irrigation supplies water to plants (crops) in the form of rain. It consists of perpendicular pipe
which has a rotating nozzle on to and it is joined to main pipeline. Water escapes from the rotating nozzles when water is passed
through the main pipe. In this method, water is supplied using pipes to one or more central locations within the field. When water
is allowed to flow under high pressure with the help of pump, it gets sprinkled on the crops.
This method is more useful on uneven land that have fewer water supplies. Most of the crops such as wheat, grain, vegetable,
pulses etc are irrigated by this method of irrigation.
Advantages of sprinkler system of irrigation
(i) It provides efficient coverage of water from small to large areas.
(ii) It has a wide range of water capacity. Hence, they are used for nearly all soils.
(ii) Drip system : Drip irrigation systems are methods of microirrigation wherein water is applied through emitters to the soil surface
as drops or small streams. The discharge rate of the emitters is low so this irrigation method can be used on all soil types. This
method of irrigation is more efficient for irrigating fruits and vegetables. In this method, water is delivered at or near the roots of
the plant drop by drop. Water is passed through plastic pipes that have holes in it. These plastic pipes are then laid along the
rows of crop. This is the most efficient method of irrigation as there is no wastage of water at all.
Advantages of drip system of irrigation
(i) It saves water, as water is delivered at or near the roots of the plant.
(ii) It avoids random watering of crops.
(iii) It improves water holding capacity of soil and reduces soil erosion.
Net irrigation water requirement (NIWR) is defined as the quantity of water which is necessary for crop
growth. It is expressed in millimetres per year or in m3/ha per year (1mm = 10m3/ha). It can be supplied
through rainwater or through irrigation methods.
The water requirement of any crop depends on crop factors, soil factors, climatic factors and crop management
practices.
P oi n t
Why gardeners need to give more water to plants in summers?
SOLUTION
Gardeners give more water to plants in summers because in summers, the evaporation rate is high from soil and leaves. This
makes the soil deficient of of important nutrients required for the growth of plant. Hence, we need to give more water to plants
to prevent drying of plants.
CONNECTING TOPIC
It takes 100 pounds of rain water to produce a single pound of food from the food.
Between 10 and 20 tons of water must pass through the roots of an acre of corn before one bushel of corn will
be produced.
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P oi n t
Why potted plants in our homes do not grow well if they are given excess of water?
SOLUTION
It is because, excess of water expels most of the air from the spaces between soil particles. As a result, plant roots do not get
sufficient air to breathe and hence they do not grow well.
WHAT IS LODGING?
The falling of mature crop plants in the fields due to action of strong winds is called lodging. The correct timing of irrigation is very
important for a good crop yield. For example, if the irrigation of a wheat field is done when the crop has fully matured or if there is
heavy rainfall during harvesting season, then the wheat plants are unable to resist strong winds. In such cases, a strong wind
blowing over the fields make the matured wheat plants fall on the ground. As a result, the quantity and quality of wheat crop and
straw decreases. Thus, lodging decreases both the quantity and quality of crop. It also reduces yield and quality of straw. There are
many external factors that have influence on lodging including: wind, rain, topography, soil type, fore crop, tillage, nitrogen fertilizers,
diseases, sowing date, seed rate, and variety. Lodging has a negative influence on both the yield and the yield quality.
Manual weeding
Crop Production & Management 15
P oi n t
Why should weeding be done before flowering?
SOLUTION
Weeding is done before flowering so that weeds cannot produce seeds to multiply their number and these seeds cannot mix
with grains.
HARVESTING
The process of cutting and gathering of the matured food crop is called harvesting. Most of the crops are harvested in autumn season.
In harvesting, the crops like wheat or rice are cut close to the ground by hand using a tool called sickle. It is manual method of
harvesting crops. In large fields, the crops are harvested using machine called harvester.
In India, harvesting is done mostly by sickle. Sickle is made up of curved, plain blade of carbon steel. It has a wooden handle to hold
the sickle. The tang of the blade is lightly fixed into the handle with a ferrule.
Other methods of harvesting are – forage harvesters and combines.
(i) Forage harvesters : These are tractor drawn self propelled machines that are used to collect together, chop and then discharge
the crop into field as it moves through.
(ii) Combines : They are farm machines that are used to harvest seed crops and grains. Combines perform cutting, threshing,
separating, cleaning and grain handling operations in the field.
The first combine harvester was designed in 1836 by America’s Hiram Moore and John Hascall. It was pulled
by horses.
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P oi n t
Can you name some of the festivals associated with the harvest season?
SOLUTION
The harvesting of crop is considered as an important celebration for farmers. It fills the heart of all farmers with happiness and
well being. Pongal, Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali, Nabomya etc are the festivals associated with the harvest season. These festivals are
celebrated by farmers with great enthusiasm.
THRESHING
After harvesting, the next step is threshing. You must have seen farmers rubbing the grain between palm
hands or beating the crops with a hard object. What are they doing? They are separating the grain seeds
from pods or chaff or plant. This process is known as threshing.
Threshing is the process of separating the grain seeds from the scaly, inedible chaff that surrounds it.
Threshing does not remove the bran from the grain. Threshing may be done by beating the grain using a
flail on a threshing floor. It is a slow and time consuming process if it occurs manually. Hence, it is carried
out with a machine called “combine”. Combine is actually the combined harvester and thresher.
WINNOWING Thresher
After grains are threshed, the chaff is removed from the grains. This process is known as winnowing. Hence, winnowing is the process
of separating grain from the mixture of threshed chaff.
When the grain mixed with chaff and hay is made to fall from a height in blowing wind, the grain being heavy, falls straight to the
ground, whereas chaff and hay, being much lighter, are carried some distance away by the wind. In this way, the grains forms a separate
heap and can be collected and packed in a gunny bag.
The machine that is used for doing winnowing is called winnower. It is the most efficient, quick and easy machine to separate grain
from chaff.
Winnowing Winnower
Chemical Treatment : Pesticides are sprayed in the storage structure before storing food grain. This kills the
pests before the arrival of stocks and also eliminates chances of contamination of food grain with pesticides.
The pesticides which can be sprayed are – BHC (benzene hexachloride), malathion and pyrethrum.
(1) Fumigation is a method by which pests are exposed to fumes or vapours of chemicals, without
contaminating the stored food grains.
(2) Care should be taken that the grains for human consumption are not treated with poisonous chemicals.
Crop Production & Management 17
iN THE LAB
How the viability of seed can be checked?
Take few stored seeds from the godowns. Count them and place then in a tray that contains fresh compost. Water the compost and
keep the tray in a warm lighted place.
Observe the growth of seeds.
One of the most controversial scientific discoveries of the 20th century is the genetic modification (GM) of
food. The genes of every living organism can be altered to change its characteristics. For example, farmers
can add anti-pest genes to crops, which enable them to survive longer or grow unusually large.
CONNECTING TOPIC
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The improvement in crop plants is necessary for increasing the crop yield and their quality.
Crop improvement can be done by breeding new varieties of crops having higher yields and resistance to pests and diseases. The
agricultural scientists or plant breeders can achieve this by artificial cross-breeding or hybridization.
For example, if you want to obtain an improved variety of a crop that has higher yield as well as is disease resistant, then you should
select two existing crops, one having higher yield and other having more resistance to diseases. When higher yielding plant is
crossed with disease resistant plant, then a new variety of plant is produced that contains qualities of both parents.
Thus, the new plant (hybrid) will produce higher yield as well as would be disease resistant.
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18 BIOLOGY
Cross-bred
High-yielding Disease resistant
variety × variety
Parent 1 Parent 2
High-yielding, disease
resistant variety
Hybrid
M. S. Swaminathan is known as "Indian Father of Green Revolution" for his leadership and success in
introducing and further developing high-yielding varieties of wheat in India.
WHAT IS HYBRIDIZATION?
Hybridization is the process of cross-breeding two different varieties of crop plant each having a desired characteristics to obtain a
new crop that has both the desired characteristics. It is used extensively in agriculture, where new forms of disease resistant plants are
produced commercially.
NOTE
White revolution
The introduction of growth of milk production and encouraging Indian dairy farmers to keep more animals for increasing production
of milk is called white revolution.
Crop Production & Management 19
Livestock
Livestock are those domesticated or farm animals that are kept for use or profit. The most important livestock of India are cattle,
buffaloes which yield milk and help in agriculture. On the basis of their utility animals are categorised as:
– Milk giving animals (Cows, buffaloes, goats)
– Meat and egg giving animals (Sheep, goat, pig, duck)
– Animals utilized as motive power (Buffaloes, horse, donkey, bullock, camel)
– Wool giving animals (Sheep)
Poultry farming:
The raising of birds such as chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese, domestically or commercially for the purpose of farming meat or eggs
for food is called poultry farming. Poultry are farmed in great numbers with chickens being the most numerous. More than 50 billion
chickens are raised annually as a source of food, for both their meat and their eggs.
Bee keeping or Apiculture:
Beekeeping is the maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, by humans. A beekeeper (or apiarist) keeps bees in order
to collect their honey and other products that the hive produces (like beeswax, propolis, pollen, and royal jelly), to pollinate crops, or
to produce bees for sale to other beekeepers. A location where bees are kept is called an apiary or "bee yard".
Fish farming:
Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially
in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a
species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery.
Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, catfish, tilapia, cod and others.
Basically, there are two kinds of aquaculture: extensive aquaculture based on local photosynthetical production and intensive
aquaculture, in which the fishes are fed with external food supply.
Cattle farming:
It is the act of raising and breeding cattle for the production of meat or milk. Beef farming is raising beef cattle for slaughter (meat),
and dairy farming is raising dairy cows for milk.
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20 BIOLOGY
Let us perform an activity to find out various types of animal food and their sources.
Collect the information from your surroundings to complete the given table.
SUMMARY
Plants of same kind that grow on a large scale in an area is known as crop. E.g. rice, wheat, maize etc.
The production of crops by cultivation of land is called agriculture.
In India, crop can be categorised into two types based on seasons – Rabi and Kharif crops.
l Rabi crops – Crops grown in rainy season (June – October). Examples – Pea, Mustard, Wheat, Gram etc.
l Kharif crops – Crops grown in winter season (November – April). Examples – Paddy, Maize, Groundnut etc.
The basic activities done by farmers in the crop field to raise a particular crop is called agricultural practices.
Seven agricultural practices done by the farmer to raise a particular crop are –
1. Preparation of soil 2. Sowing of seeds
3. Adding manure and fertilizer4. Irrigation
5. Protection from weeds and pests 6. Harvesting, Threshing
7. Storage of food grains
The process of loosening and turning of the soil is called tilling or ploughing. This is done by plough, hoe and cultivator.
The process of scattering seeds in the ground soil for growing the crop plants is called sowing.
The sowing of seed by hand is called broadcasting while the implement used for sowing is a seed drill.
The substances that are added to the soil in the form of nutrients for healthy growth of plants are called manure and fertilizer.
Process of converting dead organic matter into rich humus with the help of earthworm is called vermicomposting.
Practice in which leguminous and non-leguminous crops are grown alternately in the same field is called crop rotation.
Irrigation is the supply of water to crops at different intervals.
The sources of irrigation are wells, tube well, ponds, lakes, rivers, dams and canals.
The traditional methods of irrigation are moat, dhekli, rahat and chain pump.
The modern methods of irrigation are sprinkler system and drip system.
Process of transferring seedlings from a nursery to the main field, by hand is called transplantation.
The unwanted plants that grow along with a cultivated crop are called weeds. E.g. Grass, Xanthium, wild oat etc.
The process of removing unwanted plants from a crop is called weeding.
The cutting of crop after it get matured is called harvesting. It is done manually by sickle.
In large fields, crops are cut by a motorised machine called harvester.
In the harvested crop, the grain seeds need to be separated from the chaff. This process is called threshing.
Winnowing is the process of separating grain from chaff and hay with the help of wind.
The food grains obtained by harvesting the crops are dried in sunshine before storing.
l Small scale – Jute bags, metallic bins
l Large scale – Silos, granaries
The process of rearing animals to obtain food is known as animal husbandry.
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22 BIOLOGY
Fill in the Blanks : 9. The excessive use of manure causes water pollution.
10. Rabi crops are grown in winter.
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an Match the Following :
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s).
1. The excess water in the field is known as ______. DIRECTIONS : Question contain statements given in two
2. Crops such as ______ requires a constant supply of water. columns which have to be matched. Statements in column I have
to be matched with terms given in column II.
3. ______ crop is grown during the month of June to October.
4. ______ is the first step to be followed before growing a
crop. S.No. Column-I Column-II
5. The process of converting dead organic matter into rich
A. Plant that is grown in
humus with the help of earthworm is known as ______. large quantities
6. ______ are good source of nitrogen, phosphorus and (p) Rabi crops
especially as food or
potassium but are good for only short term use. fodder for livestock.
7. Rotation of leguminous crop with wheat or maize is an
B. Crops planted in June
example of ______. and harvested in (q) Transplantation
8. In ______ system of irrigation, water is delivered at or near October
the roots of the plant drop by drop.
C. Crops planted in
9. Weeds can be removed manually with a ______. November and (r) Kharif crops
10. The seeds of paddy are first grown in small plots called harvested in April
______.
D. Undesirable plants that
11. The substances that are added to the soil in the form of (s) Manure
grow with the crops
nutrients for the healthy growth of plants are called ______
and ______. E. Process of transferring
seedlings from a (t) Fertilizers
12. ______ is a simple tool which is used for removing weeds
nursery to the main
and for loosening the soil. field
13. ______ is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising
livestock. F. Process of supplying
water to crops at (u) Weedicides
14. ______ are like artificial rainmakers.
different intervals
15. Organisms that damage the crop are known as ______
G. Organic substance
True / False : obtained from (v) Weeds
decomposition of plant
and animal waste
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your
answer as true or false. H. Chemical substances
that are rich in plant (w) Agriculture
1. Cotton is a Rabi crop. nutrients like nitrogen,
2. The agricultural practice, called harvesting comes before phosphorus and
weeding. potassium
3. Groundnut enriches the soil with nitrogen. I. The chemical
4. Nitrogenous fertilizer is required for growing nitrogenous substance that controls (x) Crop
crops. the growth of weeds
5. In addition to gunny bags, metal bins are also used for J. The process of growing
storing food grains on large scales. plants and rearing
(y) Irrigation
6. Rotation of crop helps in controlling weeds. animals for food,
7. Combine is a combination of harvester and thresher. clothing and other
8. Plough is used for adding manure or fertilizers to the crop. useful products
Crop Production & Management 23
Text-Book Exercise : 5. Certain plants of the same kind grown on a large scale.
Across
1. Select the correct word from the following list and fill in the
3. A machine used for cutting the matured crop.
blanks. float, water, crop, nutrients, preparation
4. A rabi crop that is also one of the pulses.
(a) The same kind of plants grown and cultivated on a
large scale at a place is called _________. 6. A process of separating the grain from chaff.
1 2
(b) The first step before growing crops is ________ of I S
the soil. 3
H
(c) Damaged seeds would _________ on top of water.
(d) For growing a crop, sufficient sunlight and _______
and _______ from the soil are essential.
2. Match items in column A with those in column B.
A B
(i) Kharif crops (a) Food for cattle 4
G
(ii) Rabi crops (b) Urea and super phosphate
(iii) Chemical fertilisers (c) Animal excreta, cow dung,
urine and plant waste 5
C
(iv) Organic manure (d) Wheat, gram, pea
(e) Paddy and maize
3. Give two examples of each. 6
W
(a) Kharif crop (b) Rabi crop
4. Write a paragraph in your own words on each of the
following.
(a) Preparation of soil (b) Sowing Exemplar Questions :
(c) Weeding (d) Threshing 1. If you are given a dry piece of land for cultivation what will
5. Explain how fertilisers are different from manure. you do before sowing the seeds?
6. What is irrigation? Describe two methods of irrigation which 2. During which months do farmers grow mustard in India?
conserve water.
3. Which activity of the farmer can promote growth of
7. If wheat is sown in the kharif season, what would happen?
earthworms and microbes in the field?
Discuss.
8. Explain how soil gets affected by the continuous plantation 4. What are organic foods?
of crops in a field. 5. (a) Name the tool used with a tractor for sowing seeds in a
9. What are weeds? How can we control them? field.
10. Arrange the following boxes in proper order to make a flow (b) What are the advantages of using this tool?
chart of sugarcane crop production. 6 (a) Name the practice followed for large scale rearing of
farm animals.
Sending crop to
Irrigation Harvesting Sowing
sugar factory (b) What facilities are provided to farm animals?
1 2 3 4 7. Despite favourable climatic conditions, a farmer’s crop failed
Preparation of Ploughing the to give good yield. Give the possible reasons for this.
Manuring
soil field
8. As a part of eco-club activity students were asked to raise
5 6 7 a kitchen garden in the school premises. They were provided
11. Complete the following word puzzle with the help of clues with some materials given in the box. List the other materials
given below. you would require. How will you plan the garden? Write the
Down steps.
1. Providing water to the crops. khurpi, water-can, spade, shovel
2. Keeping crop grains for a long time under proper Note: You have been asked to use only environment friendly
conditions. materials.
Crop Production & Management 25
HOTS Questions : Which method according to you can bring about the
maximum increase in crop production in our country?
1. Why do farmers normally use a mixture of manures and
fertilizers in the fields? Increase land Use more manure
2. Which method of irrigation will you use if you live in a dry under cultivation and fertilizers
area with shortage of water?
3. Discuss two methods of weeding in which poisonous
chemicals are not used.
4. Why does the government maintain a buffer stock of grains? Less wastage Use better varieties
in storage of crops plants
Multiple Choice Questions : 10. The process of putting seeds in the soil for germination is
known as
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 18 multiple choice (a) sowing (b) manuring
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out (c) weeding (d) tilling
of which ONLY ONE is correct. Choose the correct option.
11. Ploughing in bigger fields is done by using
1. Person known for his pioneering efforts in promoting the (a) hoe (b) cultivator
green revolution in India is (c) combine (d) sickle
(a) Benjamin Franklin (b) Norman Borlang
12. Which of the following statements is not correct about
(c) Robert Brown (d) Albert Einstein
ploughing?
2. Which of the following is not a rabi crop?
(a) Wheat (b) Mustard (a) It facilitates deeper penetration of soils.
(c) Sugarcane (d) Peas (b) It maintains fertility of soil.
3. Which of the following crops would enrich the soil with (c) It helps in proper mixing of organic matter and nutrients
nitrogen? evenly.
(a) Apple (b) Beans (d) It helps in enriching the soil with organic matter and
(c) Paddy (d) Potato
nutrients.
4. The process of turning and loosening of soil is called
(a) tilling(b) harvesting 13. The process of removing weeds from the cultivated field is
(c) threshing (d) irrigation known as
5. Threshing is the process of (a) weeding (b) weedicide
(a) separating chaff from the grain (c) tilling(d) crop rotation
(b) cutting of mature crop 14. An example of manure is
(c) sowing seeds by hands (a) cow dung
(d) turning and loosening of soil
(b) urea
6. Which of the following statements is not correct about
fertilizer? (c) ammonium sulphate
(a) It enriches the soil with organic material. (d) super phosphate
(b) It provides nutrients to the soil immediately in 15. The large scale storage of food grains is done in
concentrated from. (a) Gunny bag + Jute bags
(c) It increases the crop production several times (b) Jute bags + Metal bins
(d) It is available in all seasons. (c) Metal bins + Grain silos
7. Which of the following is a modern method of Irrigation? (d) Grain silos + gunny bag
(a) Rahat (b) Moat
16. The last step in crop production is
(c) Chain pump (d) Drip system
8. Which of the following is incorrectly matched? (a) soil preparation (b) crop harvesting
(c) irrigation (d) sowing
Agricultural Implements 17. An example of fertilizer is
Steps Used
(a) cow dung (b) plant waste
(a) Ploughing Hoe
(c) urea (d) urine
(b) Irrigation Sprinklers
18. Which of the following statement is incorrect?
(c) Weeding Trowel
(a) Always use certified seeds to maintain the quality of
(d) Harvesting Harrow
crop.
9. The simple tool used for removing weeds and for loosening
(b) Harvest the crop when grains are fully matured.
the soil is called.
(a) plough (b) sickle (c) Use recommended dose of fertilizers.
(c) harrow (d) trowel (d) Irrigate the soil with polluted water.
Crop Production & Management 27
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
7. Process of placing seed in the ground soil for growth of crop in march. in September.
plants. (iii) E.g. pea, mustard, E.g. paddy, maize,
8. Seed drill wheat, gram etc. groundnut etc.
9. Transplantation 2. Importance of soil loosening are –
10. Wells, canals, rivers, dams, ponds and lakes (i) Roots penetrate deep into the soil and breathe easily,
11. Water logging refers to saturation of the soil by groundwater water holding capacity of soil increases.
sufficient to prevent or hinder agriculture. (ii) Helps in the growth of microbes and earthworm which
12. Manure and fertilizers help in turning the soil and add humus in soil.
Crop Production & Management 29
(iii) The nutrient rich soil comes up and nutrients are 11. (i) Kharif crops. These crops are sown in the rainy season.
absorbed by plants. Example: paddy, maize, soyabean.
(iv) Proper mixing of manure in the soil. (ii) Rabi crops. These crops are grown in winter season.
3. Levelling is a process for ensuring that the depths and Example : wheat, mustard, and pea.
discharge variations over the field are relatively uniform 12. Ploughing, levelling and manuring.
and, as a result, that water distributions in the root zone are 13. Chillies and tomatoes are cultivated by transplantation.
also uniform. It improves the efficiency of water, labour and Transplantation usually refers to the practice of taking very
energy resources utilization. young plants that have been started in pots or a nursery
4. and moving them to a large production field.
Manure Fertilizer
14. The process of replanting the seedling from the nursery in
(i) Obtained by the Obtained from
the main field is called transplantation. Its advantages are :
decomposition of plant inorganic salt. (i) It enables us to select only healthy seedlings.
and animal waste (ii) It promotes better penetration of roots in the soil.
(ii) Prepared in fields Prepared in factories 15. Irrigation makes agriculture possible in areas previously
(iii) Provides humus to soil Does not provide humus unsuitable for intensive crop production. Irrigation
(iv) Rich in plant nutrient Less rich in plant nutrient transports water to crops to increase yield, keep crops cool
under excessive heat conditions and prevents freezing.
5. Manure is better than fertilizer because it
16. Weed affects crops by competing for water, minerals and
(i) enhances water holding capacity of soil. sunlight. They also spread pests on the crops and
(ii) makes soil porous due to which exchange of gases sometimes produce poisonous substances harmful to crops.
become easy. All these results in low yield of crop production.
(iii) increases number of friendly microbes. 17. Removal of unwanted plants that grow along with the crops
(iv) improves texture of soil. are called weeding. Weeding can be done by
6. Weeds are unwanted plants that grow along with crops. (i) Manually removing seeds by using hand or trowel or
They are removed manually by using hand, khurpa, hoe or harrow.
a rake in small field and in large area they can be removed by (ii) Spraying weedicides which destroy weeds but not the
ploughing, harrowing etc. The best time to remove weeds is crops.
when the soil is damp and moist. 18. (i) Harvesting : Cutting of crop plants after maturation is
7. Steps involved in crop production are : called harvesting. It is done by cutting the crop plants
(i) Preparation of soil close to the ground or pulling the crop plants.
(ii) Seed selection and sowing (ii) Threshing : Separation of grains from chaff is called
(iii) Manuring threshing.
(iv) Irrigation (iii) Winnowing : Separation of grains from chaff with the
(v) Weeding help of wind is called winnowing.
(vi) Protection from animals, birds, pest and disease 19. Combines are farm machine that aids in the harvesting of
grain crops by combining three separate functions into one
(vii) Harvesting, threshing and winnowing
piece of equipment. The combine harvester performs the
(viii) Storage processes of reaping, threshing, and cleaning. This allows
8. An insecticide is a substance used to kill insects. They the crop to be harvested more quickly and efficiently, and
include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs enables farmers to harvest larger amounts. Some crops that
and larvae, respectively. Rodenticide is a chemical or other can be harvested using this machine include wheat,
agent used to destroy rats or other rodent pests or prevent soyabeans, oats and rye.
them from damaging food, crops, etc. Fungicides are biocidal 20. Gunny bags are jute bags which protect the food grains
chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or from rodents and other damage while their storage.
inhibit fungi or fungal spores. 21. To protect the grains stored in gunny bags in big godowns
9. Grains are dried before storage to reduce the moisture from damage, following should be done –
content of gains because moisture attracts fungus and (i) Fumigation with chemicals which repel pest or kill
bacteria resulting in its destruction. without affecting grain
10. Kharip crops : Soyabean, Cotton, Groundnut (ii) Neem leaves are kept along with grains.
Rabi crops : Barley, Mustard, Pea (iii) Storage area can be sprayed regularly.
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30 BIOLOGY
22. The irrigational method that are used in modern times are – (b) The first step before growing crops is _ preparation__
Sprinkler system and drip irrigation. Sprinkler system of of the soil.
irrigation is useful for sandy soils and drip irrigation is best (c) Damaged seeds would __float__ on top of water.
technique for watering fruit plants, gardens and trees. (d) For growing a crop, sufficient sunlight and _ water __
and ___ nutrients_ from the soil are essential.
23. Manure is obtained from the decomposition of plant or animal
2. A B
wastes. Plant and animal wastes are dumped in pits at open
(i) Kharif crops (e) Paddy and maize
places and allowed to decompose by microbes. The
(ii) Rabi crops (d) Wheat, gram, pea
decomposition product is manure. (iii) Chemical fertilisers (b) Urea and super phosphate
Long Answer Questions : (iv) Organic manure (c) Animal excreta, cow dung,
urine and plant waste
1. Continuous plantation of crops in field makes the soil poorer 3. (a) Kharif crop ® Paddy, maize
in important nutrients required for the growth of crops. It (b) Rabi crop ® Wheat, gram
leads to decrease in soil fertility and hence the crop yield. 4. (a) Preparation of soil:
Preparation of soil is considered to be an important step in It is the first method to be followed before growing a
agricultural practices because it helps in loosening the soil. crop. This method is used for loosening the soil so
Loosened soil allows growth of microorganism and that the root can penetrate deep into it. The loosening
earthworm thus leading to its enrichment. It also helps the of the soil helps in the growth of several soil microbes,
roots to breathe proper. earthworms etc., which enrich the soil with humus and
2. Rhizobium bacteria are soil bacteria. It forms a mutually other essential nutrients. Plants require nutrients for
beneficially association with plants. It plays an important their proper growth and functioning. The process of
loosening is called ploughing. This brings the nutrient-
role in fixing nitrogen after becoming established inside root
rich soil to the top, which helps the plants to utilize the
nodules of legumes. Rhizobium bacteria enable leguminous
nutrients for their growth.
plants to fix nitrogen. Leguminous plants have bacteria
(b) Sowing:
named Rhizobium which lives in their roots. It takes in Sowing is an important step in crop production. In this
atmospheric nitrogen and then converts it into a soluble process the seed is placed in or on the soil for future
form which the plant can absorb. These bacteria cannot growth. The seeds that are selected should be of good
make their own food so they provide nitrogen to the plant quality. This improves the net yield of the crop. Sowing
and in return they get food and shelter. is usually done with the help a traditional tool or a
3. Precautions taken in sowing the seeds are : seed drill. The traditional tool is like a funnel and was
(i) Seed should be sown at right spacing to get sufficient used earlier. Nowadays, seed drills that make the use
of tractors are used for sowing. This tool disperses
amount of sunlight, water and nutrients.
seeds uniformly and sows seeds at proper depth. This
(ii) Seed should be planted at proper depth in the soil. If method saves time and also protects the seeds from
they are planted deep in the soil then they cannot birds.
respire properly and if planted on surface then can be (c) Weeding:
eaten by birds. Undesirable plants that grow along with the crop are
(iii) Seed should be clean, healthy and free from disease. known as weeds. The process of removing these
(iv) Seeds require water for germination. The soil therefore weeds is called weeding. Xanthium, Parthenium, etc.
should have water in it. are some common weeds. Weeds compete with the
crop for nutrients, light, and space. As a result, crop
4. A pest is any organism that spreads disease, causes
plants get lesser nutrients, light, and space for their
destruction or is otherwise a nuisance. Some examples of
development which reduces their productivity. This is
pests are mosquitoes, rodents, and weeds. Crops can be why, various weeding methods are employed.
protected by using pesticides. Grains, fruits and vegetables Some important weeding methods are:
should be washed properly before using to remove (i) Weeds can be controlled by using weedicides. It is a
pesticides coated on them. Because pesticides are harmful chemical, which is sprayed in the fields to kill all the
poisonous chemicals which affect our health. weeds without causing any harm to the crop.
(ii) Tilling before sowing of crops also helps in removing
weeds. Tilling uproots the weeds. The best time for
removal of weeds is before flowering.
Text - Book Exercise : (iii) The manual method of weeding is with the help of a
khurpi. It involves regular uprooting of weeds close to
1. (a) The same kind of plants grown and cultivated on a the ground.
large scale at a place is called _ crop _.
Crop Production & Management 31
varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, certain 11. (b) Ploughing in bigger field is done by cultivator.
cacti require small amounts of water, while tropical plants Cultivator is a mechanical implement for breaking up
may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive. the ground and uprooting weeds. Hoe is a long-handled
gardening tool with a thin metal blade, used mainly for
weeding. Sickle is a hand-held agricultural tool with a
variously curved blade. It is used for harvesting grain
crops or cutting succulent forage chiefly for feeding
Multiple Choice Questions : livestock. Combine is a farm machine used for both
1. (b) Dr. Norman Borlang, an American agricultural scientist threshing and harvesting.
was the first to promote the green revolution in India. 12. (d) Manuring helps in enriching the soil with organic
2. (c) Sugarcane is not a Rabi crop. It is a Kharif crop. Kharif matter and nutrients.
crops are grown in rainy season. 13. (a) Weedicide is a chemical or organic substance which is
3. (b) Beans is a leguminous crop that enriches the soil with used to remove unwanted plants mainly like weeds
nitrogen. Leguminous crops fix the atmospheric which effect the healthy growth of the plant. Tilling is
nitrogen themselves by using nitrogen fixing bacteria to prepare (land) for the raising of crops, as by plowing
present in their root nodules. and harrowing. Crop rotation is the practice of growing
4. (a) The process of turning and loosening of soil is called different crops in succession on the same land chiefly
ploughing or filling. Harvesting is the process of to preserve the productive capacity of the soil.
cutting the crop and gathering them to transport it to 14. (a) Cow dung is an example of manure. Manure is organic
the market. Threshing is the process of separating the matter used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. It
chaff from the grain. Irrigation is the process of watering contributes to the fertility of the soil by adding organic
the plants in a field. matter and nutrients, such as nitrogen, that are trapped
5. (a) Threshing is the process of separating the grain seeds by bacteria in the soil. Urea, ammonium phosphate
from pods or chaff. The process of cutting of mature and superphosphate are fertilizers.
crop is known as harvesting. The process of sowing 15. (d) The large scale storage of food grains is done in grain
seeds by hands is known as broadcasting while silos and gunny bags.
ploughing is the process of turning and loosening of
16. (b) Crop harvesting is the last step in the production of
soil.
crop. Harvesting is the cutting and gathering the
6. (a) Manure enriches the soil with organic material (humus).
mature crop.
A fertilizer does not provide any humus to soil.
17. (c) Urea is an example of fertilizer. Fertilizer is a manmade
7. (d) Drip system of irrigation is a modern method of
mineral salt which are added to the soil to provide
irrigation. In this method water is delivered at or near
the roots of the plant drop by drop. Moat, Rahat and nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.
chain pump are traditional methods of irrigation, they 18. (d) Appropriate supply of water to the crop is called
are cheaper but less efficient. irrigation. Soil cannot be irrigated with polluted water.
8. (d) Harrow is used for removing unwanted plants (weeds) Assertion & Reason :
from the crops. The implements used for harvesting
are sickle and harvesting machine. 1. (a) Rabi crops refer to agricultural crops sown in winter
9. (a) Plough is an implement made of wood. It is drawn over and harvested in the spring. It is the spring harvest
soil to turn it over and cut furrows in preparation for (also known as the "win ter crop") in Indian
the planting of seeds. Sickle is an implement for cutting subcontinent. The Rabi crops are grown between the
grain, grass, etc., It consists of a curved, hook like months mid-November to April. The water that has
blade mounted in a short handle. Harrow is a cultivating percolated in the ground during the rains is main source
implement set with spikes, spring teeth, or disks and of water for these crops. Examples of Rabi crop are
used primarily for pulverizing and smoothing the soil. wheat, gram, pea, mustard, linseed, barley.
Trowel is a small tool with a curved blade that is used 2. (a) Fertilizers are any of a large number of natural and
by gardeners for digging holes. synthetic materials, containing the chemical elements
10. (a) Manuring is addition of manure to the soils to improve that improve growth and productiveness of plants.
its fertility. Weeding is the removal of undesirable, Fertilizers enhance the natural fertility of the soil or
unattractive, or troublesome plant especially one replace the chemical elements taken from the soil by
growing where it is not wanted. Tilling is to prepare previous crops. Modern chemical fertilizers include one
(land) for the raising of crops, as by plowing and or more of the three elements most important in plant
harrowing. nutrition: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
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3. (d) Refer answer 2 6. (a) Earthworms are called farmer’s friend because they play
4. (b) Crop improvement refers to the genetic alteration of an important role in breaking down dead organic matter
plants to satisfy human needs. It proposes to obtain in a process known as decomposition. Decomposition
higher yield, better quality, resistance to disease and releases nutrients locked up in dead plants and animals
shorter duration which are suitable to a particular and makes them available for use by living plants.
environmental condition. Earthworms are also responsible for mixing soil layers
5. (a) Weed species are typically associated with crops, and and incorporating organic matter into the soil. Charles
crop rotations determine their specific weed population Darwin referred to earthworms as 'nature's ploughs'
over time. Crop rotation is the system of growing a because of this mixing of soil and organic matter. This
sequence of different crops on the same ground so as mixing improves the fertility of the soil by allowing the
to maintain or increase its fertility, to avoid depleting organic matter to be dispersed through the soil and
the soil and to control weeds, diseases, and pests. the nutrients held in it to become available to bacteria,
fungi and plants.
Chapter MICRO-ORGANISMS
2
INTRODUCTION
Doctors often advise us to use aqua-guards, water purifying systems for drinking safe water; wash your hand before having
food etc. Why? Because there are still some small number of organisms living around us and even inside our bodies that we can
not see them with our naked eyes. These organisms are so small in size that we have to use magnifying glasses or microscopes
to see them. These tiny organisms are called microorganisms or microbes. Microbes are every where. They live in the water you
drink, food you eat and the air you breathe. The water that seems to be clear and transparent is not always safe for drinking. It
may contain some of the disease causing germs and other dissolved impurities that can not be seen with our naked eyes.
However if you view the water, with the magnifying glass, you can see several small organisms in it.
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a b c
a: Clean and transparent glass of water; b and
c: Glass and hand respectively showing microorganisms with magnifying glass
MICROORGANISMS
Microorganisms are microscopic, living, single celled organisms. Microorganisms have adapted to inhabit almost every corner of the
world. They are invisible to naked eyes. Such small organisms can be observed through a microscope.
Microscope is a device that produces enlarged images of very small objects. The simple student’s microscope that is often used in
schools are called compound microscope. A compound microscope has two lens system — The eye piece and the objective lenses.
The microscope can normally make an object look 25 to 400 times its actual size. So, while you are observing a object in a microscope,
you are observing its magnified image.
The lens of a compound microscope is made up of convex (magnifying) lenses. Microscopes use light (generally sunlight) to
illuminate the object, so these compound microscopes are called light microscope.
Eyepiece
Rough adjustment
Mirror
A compound microscope
After the invention of microscope it was found that microorganisms occur every where. Microorganisms were observed for the first
time by Anton Von Leeunwenhoek of Holland. Microorganisms are very diverse and include all the bacteria and archae and almost all
the protozoa. They also include some members of fungi, algae and animals such as rotifers. Many macroanimals and plants have
juvenile stages which are also microorganisms.
• Microbes are the oldest form of life on earth. They have been here for 3.8 billion years.
• Most microorganisms are microscopic, but there are some bacteria such as Thiomargarita namibiensis
and some protozoa such as Stentor, which are macroscopic and visible to the naked eye.
• Microbes comprise ~60% of the earths biomass.
• Microbial cycling of such critical chemical elements as carbon and nitrogen helps keep the world habitable
for all life forms.
• Microbes generate at least half the oxygen we breathe.
Micro-organisms 37
• Microbes thrive in an amazing diversity of habitats in extremes of heat, cold, radiation, pressure, salinity,
acidity, and darkness, and often where no other life forms could exist and where nutrients come only from
inorganic matter.
• Microbes offer unusual capabilities reflecting the diversity of their environmental niches. These may prove
useful as a source of new genes and organisms of value in addressing bioremediation, global change,
biotechnology, and energy production.
• Diversity patterns of microorganisms can be used for monitoring and predicting environmental change
• The study of microorganism is called microbiology and the scientist involved in the study are called
microbiologists.
Fun Time
Name three advertisement that you see in television where germs are shown.
iN THE LAB
Let us perform an activity to observe some common microbes.
Collect some moist soil from your garden in a beaker and add little water to it. Shake the beaker to mix soil and water thoroughly.
Now allow the soil particle to settle done. Then take a drop of water from the beaker and spread it over a clean glass slide. Place
a coverslip over the slide and observe it under microscope.
Microscope
Moist soil
Soil
mixed
in water
Water
Pour a drop of water
on a glass slide
What did you observe?
You can observe several minute organisms floating in water. These tiny organism are called microbes.
CONNECTING TOPIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROORGANISMS
Sometimes some seeds (for example, rice, tomato, chilli, cabbage, bringal etc) are not directly planted in the fields, instead they are
planted in the seed beds called nurseries and when they grow into seedlings they are transferred in the field.
You must have seen farmers transplanting paddy (rice) seedlings in the fields. This method is known as transplantation.
In case of paddy (rice) crops, the seeds are first sown in a small plot of land and then allowed to grow into tiny plants called s
(i) Microorganisms can be unicellular or multicellular. Bacteria, some algae and protozoan are single celled organism while algae
and fungi are multicellular organism.
(ii) They can be solitary or colonial. A protozoan, say Amoeba can spend its whole life alone moving in water whereas others like
fungi and bacteria live and work together in colonies to help each other.
(iii) Microorganism can be autotrophic or heterotrophic. Some bacteria, few fungi and viruses are heterotrophs while algae and
some fungi are autotrophs. They can prepare their own food by the process of photosynthesis.
(iv) Microorganisms can reproduce sexually, asexually or both. Sexual reproduction involves formation of new individual by fusion
between their parent gametes while asexual reproduction involves the splitting of microbes into two identical pieces by itself.
A bacterium, for example, reproduces asexually by binary fusion or sexually by conjugation.
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CLASSIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS
There is a huge variety of microorganisms on the earth. Hence, based on their size and shape they are classified into four major groups.
Microorganisms
Flagellum
DNA Ribosomes
Nucleoid
Structure of a bacteria
NOTE
Aerobic & anaerobic bacteria
The bacteria which need oxygen for their respiration are called aerobic bacteria. Those bacteria which do not need oxygen for
respiration are called anaerobic bacteria.
Coliform bacteria are used as indicator of waste water pollution in water as well as the bacteria responsible for typhoid fever.
Bacteria play a vital role in maintaining the Earth as a suitable place for inhabitation by other forms of life,
and protozoa play a vital role in controlling their numbers and biomass.
GRAM STAIN
Bacteria are viewed under a light microscope using a special stain. The stain that is traditionally used for this is the Gram Stain.
In 1884, a Scientist named Christian Gram developed a stain or dye called “Gram stain” that showed that all bacteria are divided into
two groups. They poured purple dye (Gram’ stain) over bacterial smear on a microscope slide. The cell wall of the bacteria take up
the colour. Now, if a solvent is applied to the slide, bacteria that have got a cell wall keep their purple colour, but bacteria that have
got an extra cell membrane outside their cell wall quickly lose the purple stain and become colourless.
Hence, on the basis of the response to Gram’s stain, all the bacteria are divided into two groups –
(i) Gram positive bacteria :- Bacteria that manage to keep the original purple dye (Gram’ stain) are called gram positive bacteria.
Example – Staphylococcus, Streptococcus.
(ii) Gram negative bacteria :- Bacteria that do not retain the original purple dye (Gram’ stain) are called Gram negative bacteria.
Example – Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Pseudomonas.
Micro-organisms 39
Some fungi look like plants, but they cannot make their food like plants do. Unlike algae or plants, fungi lack
the chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis and must therefore live as parasites or saprobes. Saprobes are
organisms that derive their nourishment from dead, decaying organic matter.
Rhizopus fungus is commonly known as bread mould.
CONNECTING TOPIC
FUNGI
Fungi are multicellular non-green plant-like organisms that do not contain chlorophyll
and are unable to synthesize their own food. Fungi are found in just about any habitat Spores Sporangium
but most live on the land, mainly in soil or on plant material rather than in sea or fresh
Hyphae
water.
The main body of most fungi is made up of fine, branching, and usually colourless
threads called hyphae. Each fungus will have vast numbers of these hyphae, all intertwining
to make up a tangled web called the mycelium.
Most of the fungi are invisible to the naked eyes. For example, Bread mould (Rhizopus)
yeast and bread moulds. However, there are some examples
of fungi that are not microscopic and hence can be seen through naked eyes. For example, mushroom.
Mushroom is a fleshy fungus that comprises a cap at the end of a stem. It arises from an underground
mycelium and are used extensively in cooking.
Mushroom You all must have noticed the presence of whitish grayish patch on the slice of bread. What are these?
Any guesses? The whitish grayish patches are fungus, a multicellular organism that has developed on
the surface of slice of bread. If you carefully observe the slice of bread under microscope or magnifying glass, you can see several
tiny thread like structures called hyphae.
CYANOBACTERIA
Cyanobacterium is a group of photosynthetic bacteria. They are widespread in marine and freshwater environments, with
some species capable of nitrogen fixation. Though classified as bacteria, they resemble the eukaryotic algae in many ways,
including some physical characteristics and ecological niches, and were at one time treated as algae. They contain certain
pigments, which, with their chlorophyll, often give them a blue-green colour, though many species are actually green, brown,
yellow, black or red.
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CONNECTING TOPIC
Protozoa
Protozoa are microscopic eukaryotic organisms that have relatively complex internal sturcture and carry out complex metabolic
activities. They can be unicellular or multicellular. They are animal like, just as algae are plant like. They come in many different
shapes and sizes ranging from an Amoeba (which can change its shape) to Paramecium (with its fixed shape and complex
structure). They live in a wide variety of moist habitats including fresh water, marine environments and the soil. Their sizes vary
from 2 to 200m.
Protozoans are motile, nearly all possess flagella, cilia, or pseudopodia that allow them to navigate their aqueous habitats.
Amoeba Paramecium
CONNECTING TOPIC
Algae
Algae is a large group of simple, plant like organisms. The algae have chlorophyll and can manufacture their own food through the
process of photosynthesis. Algae occur in most habitats, ranging from marine and freshwater to desert sands and from hot boiling
springs to snow and ice. They vary from small, single-celled forms to complex multicellular forms. The simplest algae are single cells
(e.g., the diatoms); the more complex forms consist of many cells grouped in a spherical colony (e.g., Volvox ), in a ribbon like
filament (e.g., Spirogyra ), or in a branching thallus form (e.g., Fucus ). The giant kelps of the eastern Pacific grow to more than 61
meters in length and form dense marine forests.
(a) Anabaena
Algae are important as primary producers of organic matter at the base of food chain. They also provide
oxygen for other aquatic life.
The branch dealing with the study of algae is called phycology or aloglogy.
The gelatinous substance “agar” used in culture medium for growing microorganisms (such as bacteria) in
laboratory is made from red algae.
What is algal bloom?
An algal bloom is a rapid increase in the density of algae in an aquatic system. Algal blooms sometimes are
natural phenomena, but their frequency, duration and intensity are increased by nutrient pollution. Algae
can multiply quickly in waterways with an overabundance of nitrogen and phosphorus, particularly when
the water is warm and the weather is calm. This proliferation causes blooms of algae that turn the water
noticeably green, although other colours can occur.
CONNECTING TOPIC
VIRUSES
Virus (means poisonous fluid) is the smallest microorganisms that is visible only through electron microscope. Viruses are
distinguished from free living microbes such as bacteria and fungi by their small size and relatively simple structures. They do not
show most of the characteristics of living things. For example, they do not respire, feed, grow, excrete or move on their own. They
are just capable of reproducing. Viruses can multiply and reproduce only inside the cells of other organisms like plant, animal and
bacterial cells. The cell in which they multiply is called host-cell. Thus as long as viruses are outside the living cells, they behave
as non-living things but as soon as viruses enter the living cells of other organisms, they start behaving as living by carrying out
the process of reproduction. The virus gets inside the host cells and makes hundred and thousand copies of itself by using the host
machinery. Hence, viruses are said to be on the border line dividing the living things from non-living things. Rous Sarcoma virus
and HIV are examples of viruses.
A virus is made up of a core of genetic material, either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protective coat called a capsid which is made
up of protein. Sometimes the capsid is surrounded by an additional spikey coat called the envelope.
Viral Structure
MICROORGANISMS AND US
By now, we have learnt that there is a huge variety of microorganisms on Earth. These organisms play a vital role in keeping the planet
running. Let us now discuss, how Microorganisms are beneficial to mankind and how they keep the planet Earth running?
BENEFICIAL ORGANISMS
Microbes or microorganisms carry out about 90% of the biochemical reaction that occurs in our planet. They are useful in the following
ways —
(i) Food and beverage industry.
(ii) Making medicines and vaccines.
(iii) Increasing soil fertility.
(iv) Cleaning of environment.
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• Curd is a nutritious food that helps in digestion. Lactobacillus bacteria inhibit the growth of disease –
causing microorganism inside intestinal tract and promote beneficial bacteria needed for digestion.
• Streptococcus and Lactobacillus species are involved in the manufacture of most cheese.
iN THE LAB
Let us perform an experiment to observe the increase in volume during fermentation of sugar by yeast cells.
Take two test tubes and mark them as A and B. Clamp both the test tubes on a stand and keep it in a safer place. Pour about 4-5
drops of yeast and sugar mixture in test tube B only. Test tube A acts as control test tube, with only water in it. Now take two
stretched balloon and tie them on the mouth of each test tube. Now set both the test tubes aside in a warm place and record your
observations.
Sugar +
Yeast +
water solution
A B A B
(control)
Observation : You will observe that balloon in test tube B inflates after few minutes whereas balloon in test tube A remains deflated.
Result : This happens because yeast cells present in the solution of test tube B ferments the sugar present in it. As the yeast
keeps on feeding sugar, it produces carbon dioxide. Since, there is no place for carbon dioxide to go except for going up, so it fills
the balloon. This process is known as fermentation.
Micro-organisms 43
(iv) Microorganisms are also used for commercial production of alcohol like beer and wine. Beer is prepared by the fermentation of
sugar in barley and wine by fermentation of sugar in grapes.
iN THE LAB
Let us perform an experiment to show that fermentation of sugar by yeast produces alcohol.
Take some warm water in a flask so that it is one-third full. Then add 2-3 teaspoons of sugar into it and mix well. Now add half a
teaspoon of yeast to it. Cover the flask and keep it in a warm place for 4 to 5 hours. Now smell the solution.
Yeast + sugar +
warm water Yeast + sugar + water
solution
solution
Observation : The solution smell like alcohol because the yeast in the solution converts the sugar into alcohol and releases
carbon dioxide. This process is known a fermentation.
In the
Glucose Alcohol + Energy + CO 2
absence of oxygen
Thus, yeast is used in the manufacture of alcoholic drinks such as beer and wine.
• Edward Jenner developed the smallpox vaccination method in 1796. In 1788, the English town
Gloucestershire was plagued with smallpox. Jenner observed that milkmaids who suffered the mild disease
of cowpox never contracted smallpox. Subsequently, Jenner proved that on having been inoculated with
cowpox, one could remain immune to smallpox. The invention of this method of vaccination ultimately
resulted in the eradication of smallpox.
• Jenner coined the term “vaccination,” which comes from the latin world “vaccinia” meaning ‘cowpox’.
• The inoculation of a vaccine in the body to produce immunity is called vaccination.
Anthrax vaccine
The anthrax vaccine was developed by Louis Pasteur in 1881. Anthrax was the first disease for which the
causative agent was isolated in 1863 by C.J. Davaine and for which an effective vaccine was developed.
Pasteur studied about the bacteria that cause the disease and performed many experiments. Finally he
produced a weak and harmless anthrax bacterium and tested the vaccine on cattle and sheep.
P oi n t
Why do we take antibiotics?
SOLUTION
Antibiotics are chemicals. When these chemicals are put into the body they kill or stop the growth of certain kinds of germs.
In other words they help our body to fight off diseases. The body is then said to have developed immunity against the
disease. Vaccine is therefore called as immunization. Hence, vaccines teach our immune system, to fight against that microbe.
If ever you get sick with a particular disease, you will be able to fight off the infection because you are vaccinated against that
microbe.
It is important to get rid of the fever as quickly as possible as it destroys vital proteins in our body.
FEVER
Our body has an average temperature of 98.6° Fahrenheit or 32°C when it is healthy. Some diseases make this temperature rise and
we call this higher temperature fever. So, what exactly is fever?
Fever actually helps us fight off sickness. Fever makes the vital processes and organs in the body work faster. The body produces
more hormones, enzymes and blood cells. As our blood circulates faster, we breathe faster and so we get rid of wastes and poisons
in our system.
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NOBEL PRIZE
Alexander fleming, Howard florey and Ernst Boris chain recieved Nobel Prize in 1945 for the discovery and development of penicillin.
Some bacteria such as Rhizobium live in the root nodules of plants such as gram, pea,
etc. These bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into usable nitrogenous
compounds. These nitrogenous compound then can be easily absorbed and utilized by
plants for synthesis of proteins and other compounds. Such type of bacteria are called
nitrogen fixers. They produce nitrogen in exchange for carbohydrate produced by pea
and bean plants. Some blue green algae can also fix atmospheric nitrogen. Nitrogen Fixation
Cleaning of Environment
Microbes like bacteria and fungi play an important role in cleaning the environment. Bacteria and fungi break down complex pollutants
into simpler substances to gain energy and nutrients by the process called biodegradation. They clean up hazardous waste from
industries, farms, and cities and oil spills. The Scientists also use bacteria to remove pollutants from the soil. They help recycle dead
animals and plants.
Some microbes are also used in biological treatment of sewage and industrial effluents. They break down the waste material into
certain usable form and helps in cleaning of environment. This is nature’s method of keeping the environment free from pollution.
NOTE
Bioremediation
Bioremediation is the use of organisms to metabolise pollutants. It involves break down and consumption of pollutants into harmless
natural substances by the help of microorganisms. The microbes used for bioremediation are called bioremediators which include
bacteria and fungi.
Bioaugmentation
Bioaugmentation is the process of adding genetically engineered microbes to a system to act as bioremediators.
Micro-organisms 47
iN THE LAB
Let us perform an activity to understand how microbes help in cleaning of environment
Collect the garbage from your house and separate them into two groups called A and B. Group A contains wastes like dead leaves,
peels of fruits and vegetable, newspaper etc. Group B contains wastes like polythene bags, glass, aluminium foil, plastic toys etc.
A B
A B
Plant and Polythene bag, glass,
animal waste foil, toys etc.
Observation after 2-3 weeks : The waste in bin A decomposes whereas waste in bin B does not get decomposed.
Explanation – The microorganism present in the soil decomposes the organic matter in waste A and turns them into dark brown
manure. This manure add nutrients to soil and increase its fertility. This process is known as decomposition. Decomposition is the
process of breaking down organic matter from dead bodies of plants and animals into raw materials like carbon dioxide, water and
nutrients. This process occurs with the help of decomposing organisms like bacteria and fungi. The decomposing organisms
contain enzymes that are able to digest plant and animal waste. But, these bacteria are not able to digest some of the substance
such as polythene bag, plastic toys, aluminium foil etc. It is because, they do not have enzymes for digesting these substances.
So the waste present in pot B does not get degraded or decomposed by decomposing bacteria and hence remains in its usual form.
CONNECTING TOPIC
Some other Uses of Microorganisms
(i) Certain bacteria and protozoan are found in the digestive system of some animals like cows, goats and sheep. These bacteria
help the animals digest grass and plants.
(ii) Bacteria are useful in tobacco, leather and jute industries. Tanning, a process to make animals skin into leather by treating it with
chemicals, is done with the help of bacteria.
(iii) Some bacteria decomposes, animals waste, leafy waste from crops etc. in the absence of oxygen to produce methane. Methane
is used as a fuel and is one of the chief constituents of biogas.
HARMFUL MICROORGANISMS
By now, you have learnt that some microorganisms are beneficial to humans. But are all microorganisms helpful? No, not all
microorganisms are helpful because there are some microorganisms that causes disease in humans, animals and plants. The disease
causing microorganisms are called pathogen or germs.
At times, germs enter the human body. If the germs are present in large numbers, the person is said to be infected. These germs do not
allow the body to function properly and the person becomes sick. A particular disease is caused by a specific kind of germ. For
example, typhoid is caused by a kind of bacteria which is different form that which causes cholera. Let us discuss about agents that
spread diseases. Diseases can spread through various means such as air, water food and vector.
Means of Spread of Diseases
(i) Air : Certain disease causing microorganisms are expelled into air by coughing, sneezing, talking etc. When a person suffering
from common cold or flu sneezes, coughs or spits, germs are released in the air. As a result, the person breathing this air can get
infected. The diseases that can spread through air are common cold, flu, chicken pox, mumps, measles, tuberculosis, polio etc.
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(ii) Water : Sometimes, the causal microorganism get mixed with water and spreads water-borne diseases like, cholera, typhoid,
hepatitis etc.
(iii) Food : Sometimes, the disease is transferred from the food that we eat. The bacteria may survive in the food that is not properly
cooked and hence causes food – borne diseases.
(iv) Vector : Vector is an organism that carries microbes and is responsible for its transmission. Diseases such as malaria are spread
by animals called vector or carrier. The vector for malarial disease is female Anopheles mosquito. Aedes mosquito acts as a carrier
for the dengue virus. Another example of vector that spread disease is housefly. Housefly sits on uncovered food and transfers
microorganisms or pathogen to it. Hence, it is always advised not to leave the food uncovered.
(a) Contact
GERMS
SPREAD THROUGH
(d) Contaminated air,
(b) Insects like flies and food and water
mosquitoes
During sneezing, a germ can travel at 50 miles per hour across a room.
Aedes mosquito has small, black and white strips on its legs and back. It bites during day time in early hours
of morning and late hours of afternoon.
Communicable Diseases
The diseases that can be transferred from an infected person to a healthy person through air, water, food and vector are called
communicable diseases. An airborne disease is any disease that is caused by pathogens and transmitted through the air. Waterborne
diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms that most commonly are transmitted in contaminated fresh water. Infection
commonly results during bathing, washing, drinking, in the preparation of food, or the consumption of food thus infected. Vector-
borne disease describes an illness caused by an infectious microbe that is transmitted to people by blood-sucking arthropods. The
arthropods (insects or arachnids) that most commonly serve as vectors include: 1.) blood sucking insects such as mosquitoes, fleas,
lice, biting flies and bugs, and 2.) blood sucking arachnids such as mites and ticks. Cholera, tuberculosis and common cold are
communicable diseases.
Micro-organisms 49
P oi n t
Why it is advised to stay away from the person who is suffering from cough and cold?
SOLUTION
Because the stagnant water is place for mosquito breeding and the female Anopheles mosquito is the carrier of malarial parasite.
iN THE LAB
There are certain Don’ts that make conditions unfavourable for growth of microorganisms and certain Do’s that will help destroying
diseases causing microorganisms. Find out those Don’t and Do’s and write your answers in the space provided below.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
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Hepatitis-B virus causes many deaths in only one day as by AIDS virus in one year. In India, about 4.30 crore
people suffer from hepatitis-B. The vaccine against hepatitis-B is available.
FOOD PRESERVATION
Food which is left in the open for a few days often goes bad. It becomes blackish, smelly and mushy, i.e., it becomes soft and wet. This
is because of the action of microbes like bacteria and fungi. They feed on the food and break it down into simpler substances. During
the process, carbon dioxide and poisonous substances are produced. This is called food spoilage. Consuming such food can cause
food poisoning. Therefore food should be preserved to avoid getting these infections. Food preservation is the process of treating and
handling food to stop or slow down spoilage (loss of quality, edibility or nutritional value).
Micro-organisms 51
Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, yeasts, fungi, and other micro-organisms (although some methods
work by introducing benign bacteria, or fungi to the food), as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which cause rancidity. Food
preservation also includes processes which inhibit natural discoloration that can occur during food preparation, such as the enzymatic
browning reaction in apples after they are cut.
P oi n t
Why we get very sick if we eat food that has gone bad?
SOLUTION
It is because of food poisoning. Food poisoning is a food-borne illness that occurs suddenly after you consume a
contaminated food or drink. Sometimes, the food is spoiled by some microorganisms producing certain toxic substances.
These toxic substances make the food poisonous. The typical symptoms of food poisoning are nausea, vomiting, abdominal
cramp and diarrhea. But how do decomposers get onto the food? The spores of bacteria and fungi are small and light. They
are blown about in the air. Food left in the open is exposed to them and they start to grow when they land on the food.
Bacteria and fungi grow and multiply quickly when there is sufficient air, water and warmth. Under these conditions food
decays very quickly.
iN THE LAB
If you take a piece of bread, sprinkle a few drops of water and leave it undisturbed in a warm place for a few days, what do you
think will happen? You will observe a cotton like mesh growing on the surface of slice of bread. This thread like structures is a type
of mould (fungus). Fungus spoils the bread and makes it unfit for consumption.
Microorganisms are one of the major causes of food spoilage. Therefore, it is advised to preserve the food properly before storing.
Food preservation creates conditions unfavourable for the growth of microbes. Different food preservation techniques are employed
for different types of food.
Advantages of preserving food are —
(i) It avoids wastage of food.
(ii) Preservation techniques facilitates the distribution of food like fruits and vegetables to other countries.
(iii) This allows the availability of food every year. For example, frozen strawberries are available in all year.
(iv) It maintains nutritional value, texture and flavor of food.
Pasteurization
Pasteurization is process in which food is heated to a temperature that kills harmful germs and then cooled
quickly. Heating does not harm the flavour and quality of food. Pasteurization is also used with beer, wine,
fruit juices, cheese and egg products.
French chemist and biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) who invented pasteurization, developed the germ
theory, founded the field of bacteriology and created the first vaccines against anthrax and rabies.
P oi n t
Why it is advisable to consume sweets made from milk like rasagulla within 24 hours of preparation?
SOLUTION
Every food item has a specific shelf life, beyond which it may become unsuitable for consumption. Shelf life is the length of
time a product may be stored such that it remains suitable for use or consumption.
Micro-organisms 53
Look up the packets of food items listed in the given table. Try to fill in the required information.
3. Jam, Sauce
NITROGEN FIXATION
Nitrogen fixation is a process that causes free nitrogen, which is a relatively inert gas plentiful in air, to combine chemically with other
elements to form more reactive nitrogen compounds such as ammonia, nitrates, or nitrites.
Normally nitrogen does not react with other elements. Nitrogen is fixed, or combined, in nature as nitric oxide by lightning and
ultraviolet rays, but more significant amounts of nitrogen are fixed as ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates by soil microorganisms, like
Rhizobium, etc.
Rhizobium is a soil bacterium that is involved in nitrogen fixation from atmosphere.
Now as some of the atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by the bacteria present in soil and some by lightning, you must be wondering how
this fixed nitrogen is recycled back into the atmosphere. There are certain other bacteria that convert the nitrogenous compound
present in soil to nitrogen gas. To understand the process refer nitrogen cycle.
NITROGEN CYCLE
The nitrogen cycle is a cyclic process that transforms nitrogen and nitrogen containing compounds in nature. Earth’s atmosphere has
about 78% of nitrogen gas. It forms essential constituents of all living organisms and is essential for many biological processes. It is
present in all amino acid, proteins, nucleic acid and vitamins. In plants, nitrogen is a part of chlorophyll molecule. Fixation of nitrogen
is an essential process as nitrogen cannot be directly taken by plants and animals. So it needs to be fixed and then converted into some
usable compounds. Certain bacteria and some blue green algae are able to fix the nitrogen and assimilate it as organic nitrogen. An
example of N2 fixing bacteria is Rhizobium. This process is called biological fixation. Once the nitrogen is converted into usable form
it is absorbed from the soil by the plant. Animals obtain this nitrogen directly or indirectly from the plants. When a plant or animal dies,
nitrifying bacteria and some fungi present in the soil converts all the organic nitrogen into ammonia, nitrites and nitrates. Another type
of bacteria then convert these nitrites and nitrates into elemental nitrogen which is then released into atmosphere, completing the
nitrogen cycle.
Hence, nitrogen passes from atmosphere to soil and water in the form of simpler compounds and then back into the atmosphere in the
form of nitrogen molecule.
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54 BIOLOGY
Nitrogen Cycle
NOTE
Two kinds of nitrogen fixer bacteria
– Free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria [such as cyanobacteria (or blue-green algae) Anabaena and Nostoc, Azotobacter,
Beijerinckia, and Clostridium]
– Mutualistic (symbiotic) bacteria [such as Rhizobium, associated with leguminous plants, and Spirillum lipoferum, associated
with cereal grasses.]
Micro-organisms 55
SUMMARY
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an DIRECTIONS : Each question contains two columns which have
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s). to be matched. Statement terms given in column I have to be
matched with statement terms given in column II.
1. ____________ can reproduce and multiply only inside the
cells of other organisms. 1. Column-I Column-II
2. ____________ spreads by the bite of female, Anopheles (Microorganisms) (Examples)
mosquito. A. Bacteria p. Plasmodium
3. The protection of the body from infectious disease by B. Protozoan q. Yeast
administration of vaccines is called ____________. C. Fungi r. Staphylococci
4. ____________ accidently discovered penicillin. D. Algae s. HIV
5. ____________ teaches our immune system to fight against E. Viruses t. Spirogyra
the microbe.
6. Bacteria such as ____________can fix atmospheric nitrogen 2. Column-I Column-II
and convert it into usable nitrogenous compounds. (Term) (Feature)
7. The process of breakdown of organic matter from the dead A. Virus p. Fungus which is used to
bodies of plants and animals into raw materials is known as make a drug.
____________. B. Cyanobacteria q. A kind of protozoan
8. The causative microorganism of disease, measles, is a C. Plasmodium r. They are bacteria having
____________. chlorophyll
9. Common cold is a/ an ____________ borne disease. D. Spirogyra s. An ultramicroscopic
10. Raw mangoes and tamarind can be preserved by _________. organism that is visible
only through electron
True / False : microscope.
E. Penicillium t. Green filamentous alga
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your commonly found in fresh
answer as true or false. water habitats
1. Microorganisms live only in air. Very Short Answer Questions :
2. All the microorganisms are harmful.
3. Bacteria and fungi have the ability to decompose organic DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
matter.
1. Which term is used to refer the tiniest organisms that can
4. Amoebic dysentery is caused by a protozoan called
only be seen through a microscope?
Entamoeba histolytica.
5. Viruses are non-cellular organisms. 2. Name the instrument used to see microorganisms.
6. Rabies is a fatal disease caused by bacteria. 3. Name a food product prepared by the action of bacteria.
7. Pasteurization is a technique of preserving food especially 4. Which of the two is a spherical bacteria :- coccus or bacillus?
milk.
5. Name the microorganisms which are much smaller than
8. Algae is able to convert sugar into alcohol and carbon bacteria and cause diseases.
dioxide.
6. To which category of microorganisms do the given organism
9. All blue green algae have the ability to fix nitrogen.
belongs – mushroom and yeast?
10. Rennin converts milk into curd.
7. Name the disease caused by
11. Viral fever can be treated by giving antibiotics.
(i) Plasmodium (ii) Entamoeba
(iii) Trypanosoma
Micro-organisms 57
8. Which Anopheles mosquito (male or female) transmits 10. Name two microorganism which act as decomposer? How is
Plasmodium through its bite? this activity useful to us?
9. Which microorganism is used in the production of alcohol
11. How do the following help in food preservation?
from sugar?
(a) Salt (b) Sugar
10. Name one fungus which is used as a food.
11. Name two plant diseases caused by fungi. (c) Heating (d) Drying.
12. Name an antibiotic manufactured from fungi. 12. How penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming?
13. What are pathogens? 13. How decomposers help in enriching the soil with nutrients?
14. What do you understand by “expiry date” written on packed 14. All fungi are not microscopic. Do you agree? Explain.
food items?
15. How do fungi help in recycling of dead organic materials in
Short Answer Questions :
nature?
DIRECTIONS : Give answers in 2-3 sentences. 16. Yeast is capable of converting sugar into two products. Name
these two products. Explain the process involved?
1. What are major groups of microorganisms? Give two examples
of each. 17. What are vectors ? How do they spread diseases?
2. How is nitrogen utilized by living organisms? 18. Why it is advised to keep distance from a person suffering
3. Define antibodies and antibiotics. What precautions should from tuberculosis?
be taken while taking antibiotics?
19. Why it is advised to maintain good sanitary habits?
4. What is food poisoning?
Long Answer Questions :
5. What are preservatives? List the various methods of
preservation. DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
6. How does bacterium Lactobacillus helps in curd formation?
1. How nitrogen is recycled back into atmosphere? How
7. Identify the types of bacteria shown in the given figure. Rhizobium helps in nitrogen fixation?
Text - Book Exercise : 9. Can microorganisms be seen with the naked eye? If not,
how can they be seen?
1. (a) Microorganisms can be 10. What are the major groups of microorganisms?
seen with the help of a 11. Name the microorganisms which can fix atmospheric
______.
nitrogen in the soil.
(b) Blue green algae fix
12. Write 10 lines on the usefulness of microorganisms in our
______ directly from air to
lives.
enhance fertility of soil.
(c) Alcohol is produced with 13. Write a short paragraph on the harms caused by
the help of ______. microorganisms.
(d) Cholera is caused by 14. What are antibiotics? What precautions must be taken while
______. taking antibiotics?
Exemplar Questions :
2. Yeast is used in the production of
(a) sugar (b) alcohol 1. Unscramble the jumbled words underlined in the following
(c) hydrochloric acid (d) oxygen statements.
3. The following is an antibiotic (a) Cells of our body produce santiidobe to fight
(a) Sodium bicarbonate pathogens.
(b) Streptomycin (b) curbossulite is an air-borne disease caused by a
(c) Alcohol bacterium.
(d) Yeast (c) Xanrhat is a dangerous bacterial disease.
4. Carrier of malaria - causing protozosan is (d) Yeasts are used in the wine industry because of their
(a) female Anopheles mosquito property of meronettinaf.
(b) cockroach 2. Name one commercial use of yeast.
(c) housefly 3. Name the process in yeast that converts sugars into alcohol.
(d) butterfly 4. Pollio drops are not given to children suffering from
5. The most common carrier of communicable diseases is diarrhoea. Why?
(a) ant (b) housefly 5. What will happen to ‘pooris’ and ‘unused kneaded flour’ if
(c) dragonfly (d) spider they are left in the open for a day or two?
6. The bread or idli dough rises because of
6. (a) Name two diseases that are caused by virus.
(a) heat
(b) Write one important characteristic of virus.
(b) grinding
7. Give reasons for the following:
(c) growth of yeast cells
(a) Fresh milk is boiled before consumption while
(d) kneading
processed milk stored in packets can be consumed
7. The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is called
(a) nitrogen fixation (b) moulding without boiling.
(c) fermentation (d) infection (b) Raw vegetables and fruits are kept in refrigerators
8. Match the organisms in column-I with their action in whereas jams and pickles can be kept outside.
column-II. (c) Farmers prefer to grow beans and peas in nitrogen
Column-I Column-II deficient soils.
(i) Bacteria (a) Fixing Nitrogen (d) Mosquitoes can be controlled by preventing
(ii) Rhizobium (b) Setting of curd stagnation of water through they do not live in water.
(iii) Lactobacillus (c) Baking of bread Why?
(iv) Yeast (d) Causing Malaria 8. How can we prevent the following diseases?
(v) A protozoan (e) Causing Cholera (a) Cholera
(vi) A Virus (f) Causing Aids (b) Typhoid
(g) Producing antibodies (c) Hepatitis A
Micro-organisms 59
HOTS Questions : 9. Manish forgot his lunch box in school on Friday. His lunch
box has a leftover rice and some vegetables. What do you
1. Priya wants to see the apples that are kept cold will rot or think would have happened to the leftover food by Monday
stay edible. So she places the apple in the refrigerator and morning? Give reasons.
records the date. What she should use as a control? 10. Microorganisms helps in keeping the planet Earth running.
2. Sonia noticed that the milk she brought from the market is Justify, giving two examples.
lumpy and tastes sour. What inference should Sonia make?
11. What is food poisoning? What precautions should be taken
3. Shashi and her friends wonder if pond water smells bad
to avoid food poisoning?
because it has microorganisms in it. Describe a way they
could find out this. 12. Why is virus called a mysterious microorganism?
4. Why do curd sets faster in summer than in winter? 13. Mention the discoveries made by following scientists.
5. The sealed packets in which food items such as chips are (i) Louis Pasteur
sold are usually filled with nitrogen. What is the use of this (ii) Alexander Fleming
nitrogen? (iii) Edward Jenner
6. Why it is advised to wash your hands before handling food 14. Why the Garbage that includes plant and animal waste
and after going to the toilet?
smells very bad after few days.
7. How will you determine whether or not food inside a sealed
can is infested with microbes? 15. Microbes are too many to count and too small to find.
8. There are few indicators that tell us whether a given sample Comment.
of food is suitable for consumption or not. List down five
indicators of food spoilage.
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60 BIOLOGY
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
11. Salt: Check the growth of bacteria by forcing microorganisms are returned to the soil, where they may be absorbed by
to lose water by process called osmosis. Sugar: By inhibiting plants again. Rhizobium plays a very important role in
the growth of bacteria. agriculture by inducing nitrogen-fixing nodules on the roots
Heating: Kills microbes present in the food. Eg, milk and of legumes such as peas, beans, clover and alfalfa. They use
water are boiled to kill the microbes. the nitrogen in the air and convert it to a form the plants can
Drying: Stops the growth of microorganisms by removing use, like a biological fertilizer.
the water present in the food. 2. Refer inside the chapter.
12. 1926, Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, a substance 3. Preventive measures to be taken for air borne disease include
produced by fungi that appeared able to inhibit bacterial washing hands, using appropriate hand disinfection, getting
growth. While working on Staphylococcus he found that regular immunizations against diseases believed to be locally
mould had developed on an accidentally contaminated present, wearing a respirator and limiting time spent in the
Staphylococcus culture plate. Upon examination of the presence of any patient likely to be a source of infection.
mould, he noticed that the culture prevented the growth of Preventive measures to be taken for water borne disease
Staphylococci. Then he extracted the antibiotic substance includes drinking boiled water, proper disposal of sewage,
from the mould and named it as penicillin. maintain good sanitary habit.
13. Many of the millions of organisms that live in the soil, Preventive measures to be taken for vector borne disease
including bacteria, fungi, insects, and earthworms, are known includes use of mosquito repellent, keeping surroundings
as decomposers. They live on the remains of dead plants neat and clean etc.
and animals and break down these organic remains into 4. Vaccines are biological preparation of killed microorganisms,
simple chemicals that are released into the soil. Some of these living attenuated organisms, or living fully virulent organisms,
chemicals provide nutrients for new plants to grow, so its toxins or one of its surface proteins that is administered
decomposers can recycle plant material. to produce or artificially increase immunity to a particular
14. No, not all fungi are microscopic. Fungi such as mushroom disease. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to
can be seen through naked eyes. recognize the agent as foreign, destroy it, and "remember" it,
15. Fungi together with bacteria decompose the organic matter so that the immune system can more easily recognize and
present in dead plants and animals and convert it into simple destroy any of these microorganisms that it later encounters.
soluble minerals, water and gases, which then go into the (Refer examples from the chapter)
soil, water bodies and air. Hence, fungi help in recycling 5. Bacteria present in the soil or in plant roots change nitrogen
dead organic materials in soil. gas from the atmosphere into solid nitrogen compounds that
16. Yeast ferments the sugar present in various food and plants can use in the soil. The symbiotic nitrogen-fixing
produces alcohol, with the release of carbon dioxide and bacteria invade the root hairs of host plants, where they
little energy. multiply and stimulate formation of root nodules, enlargements
without oxygen of plant cells and bacteria in intimate association. Within the
Glucose Alcohol + Energy + CO2 nodules the bacteria convert free nitrogen to nitrates, which
Yeast
The process involved is known as fermentation. the host plant utilizes for its development.
Fermentation is the process of converting complex organic
substances into simpler substances.
17. Vector is any agent (person, animal or microorganism) that
carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another Text - Book Exercise :
living organism. Vector spreads diseases while feeding on
infected vertebrates (e.g., birds, rodents, other larger animals, 1. (a) microscope (b) nitrogen
or humans), and then pass on the microbe to a susceptible (c) yeast (d) Bacteria
person or other animal. 2. (b)
18. Tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium bacteria, is 3. (b)
an infectious disease. The bacteria get into the air when 4. (a)
someone who has a tuberculosis lung infection coughs, 5. (b)
sneezes, shouts, or spits. Therefore, it is advised to keep 6. (c)
distance from a person suffering from TB. 7. (c)
19. To prevent the communication of communicable diseases. 8. e®a®b®c®d®f
9. No, the microorganisms cannot be seen with the naked eyes.
Long Answer Questions : They can be seen only with the help of a microscope.
1. Nitrogen is recycled in nature by a natural phenomenon called 10. The major groups of microorganisms are :
the nitrogen cycle. When animals and plants die, their 1. Virus 2. Bacteria
nitrogen compounds are broken down by soil bacteria, fungi 3. Fungi 4. Protozoa
and other decomposers. In this way, nitrogen compounds 5. Some algae
EBD_7029
64 BIOLOGY
11. The microorganisms which can fix atmospheric nitrogen 7. (a) Fresh milk is boiled before consumption to kill the
include bacteria like Rhizobium and some blue green algae. microorganisms in it. But packed milk is pasteurised
They are commonly called biological nitrogen fixers and help and does not contain any microorganisms. It can thus
increase the fertility of the soil. be consumed without boiling.
12. Microorganism play a very important role in our lines helps. (b) Raw vegetables and fruits get easily infected by
Some of their uses are mentioned below : microorganisms and get spoilt. They are kept in
1. The bacterium Lactobacillus promotes the formation refrigerator as low temperature inhibits growth of
of curd. microbes. Jams and pickles contain sugar and salt as
2. Bacteria are also involved in the making of cheese, preservatives. They do not get infected by microbes easily.
pickles and many other food items. (c) Beans and peas are leguminous plants and have
3. Yeast is used for commercial production of alcohol are Rhizobium in their root nodules. These bacteria can fix
wine, for baking breads, cakes etc. atmospheric nitrogen to enrich the soil with nitrogen
4. Microorganisms are used for the manufacturing of and increase its fertility.
antibiotics. (d) Though mosquitoes live on land, their larvae grow in
5. Vaccines for various diseases are prepared from water. If water stagnation is prevented the larvae cannot
microorganism. survive.
6. Some bacteria like Rhizobium and blue green algae are 8. (a) Cholera: By maintaining personal hygiene and good
sanitation practices.
able to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and help in
increasing the fertility of the soil. (b) Typhoid: Eating properly cooked food, drinking boiled
food, getting vaccinated against the disease.
7. Some microorganism help decomposing the organic
(c) Hepatitis A: Drinking boiled water and getting
waste and dead plants and animals into simple
vaccinated against the disease.
substance help clean up the environment.
8. The bacteria present in our intestine help in digestion HOTS Questions :
of food.
9. Some algae provide food for aquatic animals. 1. Priya should keep another apple in a warm place for the same
13. Microorganisms through very useful to us may also cause length of time.
harm to our lives. For instance some microorganisms cause 2. Milk is lumpy and tastes sour so it means that milk is old or
diseases in plants, animals as well as human beings. Diseases has been left in a warm place.
caused in human beings – cholera, typhoid, tuberculoses, 3. Shashi and her friend could use a microscope and look at the
common cold, chicken pox etc. Diseases caused in Plants – pond water to see if microorganisms are visible or not. Also,
Rust of wheat (caused by fungi). Loose smut of sugarcane they can boil the pond water to kill or get rid of microorganisms
(caused by fungi), bacterial blight of citrus fruits caused by to see if it still smells.
bacteria. Some microorganism spoil food, clothing and 4. The bacteria needs warmth to turn the milk into curd.so in
leather. The microbes that grow on our food produce toxic summer the temperature is higher which helps the bacteria to
chemicals which are poisonous and lead to illness. multiply faster. This faster division of bacteria helps to change
the milk into curd, but in winter the temperature is not warm
14. The medicines produced by microorganisms that kill or stop
and favourable that's why it takes more time in winter than in
the growth of disease causing are called antibiotics. A
summer.
number of antibiotics are produced by bacteria and fungi.
5. Nitrogen is a non-reactive gas. It has no colour, odour or
Few precautions which must be takes while using antibiotics.
taste. Potato chip packages are filled with nitrogen gas to
• They should be taken on the advice of a qualified doctor.
stop oxidation, and thus spoilage, of the chips. It retards
• We must complete the course prescribed by the doctor. bacterial growth and keeps he food from decaying.
Exemplar Questions : 6. Germs easily spread through poor hygien e, cross
contamination between raw and ready-to-eat foods and
1. (a) antibodies (c) Anthrax animal handling. The number of germs on fingertips doubles
(b) tuberculosis (d) fermentation after using the toilet. Therefore, washing hands properly
2. Baking bread/manufacture of alcoholic drinks helps prevent the spread of various forms of germs which
3. Fermentation can cause serious health problems. Use soap and warm
4. If the child is suffering from diarrhoea, the orally given running water and wash hands for at least 10 seconds. Liquid
vaccine may be excreted out because of frequent motions. soap is best.
5. The ‘unused kneaded flour’, if left in warm conditions, gets 7. Any kind of swelling of the sealed can is a cause of suspicion
infected by microbes which cause fermentation and spoils as this indicates the formation of gas inside the tin. This
the flour. The pooris would remain in relatively good swelling could be due to the production of gaseous
condition because they were deep fried in heated oil that byproducts due to microbial growth.
kills microbes. 8. Indicators of food spoilage –
6. (a) Polio/Chicken Pox/Influenza (i) Odour : Repulsive odours are produced when the bacteria
(b) Virus can reproduce only inside the cells of host. break down the protein present in food.
Micro-organisms 65
(ii) Sliminess : It occurs due to bacterial growth. 3. (a) A bacterium, called Lactobacillus, is used to make curd
(iii) Discolouration : Microbial growth may result in from sour milk.
discolouration of food. 4. (c) Yeast ferments the sugar present in the dough into carbon
(iv) Souring : Food items become sour due to production of dioxide. The CO2 released from the yeast fills the dough
acids by bacteria. and increases its volume. Once, the bread has baked,
(v) Gas formation : Bacteria and yeast produces gaseous the heat causes the bubbles to break and makes the
by-products that affects the texture of food items. bread soft and fluffy.
9. Cooked rice gives out moisture. Since, moisture is one of the 5. (a) Fermentation is the process of converting complex
main requirements for microbial growth, so the leftover food organic substance into simpler substance with the action
will start producing repulsive odours, become slimy and of yeast or bacteria. Yeast ferments the sugar into alcohol,
sometimes may have coloured spores that give the food a carbon dioxide and little energy.
distinctive colour. 6. (d) The fungus Rhizopus is responsible for the formation of
10. Microorganisms play a vital role in the lives of plant and moulds on moist bread.
animals. They carry about 90% of the biochemical reaction 7. (b) Common cold is caused by virus. Tuberculosis and
that occurs in our planet. For example, typhoid are bacterial diseases and Malaria is a protozoan
(i) Microorganisms enrich the soil with nutrients. disease.
(ii) Certain microbes are also used in the biological treatment 8. (d) Covering mouth or nose while sneezing, coughing is a
of sewage and industrial effluents. preventive measure for air-borne disease.
11. Food poisoning is a food borne illness that occurs suddenly 9. (c) Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that can exist
after you consume a contaminated food or drink. To avoid either as independent (free-living) organisms or as
food poisoning – parasites (dependent on another organism for life). Most
(i) wash fresh food items well before eating them. bacteria are so small that they are only visible under a
(ii) avoid eating leftovers after a long time. light microscope.
(iii) eat properly cooked and heated food items. 10. (d) Virus is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside
(iv) check the shelf life of packaged food items. the living cells of other organisms.
12. Viruses are mysterious because they fall on the threshold of 11. (c) Denitrification is the biological conversion of nitrate to
living and non-living beings. They are tiny microorganisms, nitrogen gas, nitric oxide or nitrous oxide. These
about thousand times smaller than bacterial cells. Viruses do compounds are gaseous compounds and are not readily
not have enzymes or the chemicals, which are important for available for microbial growth; therefore they are
life sustaining chemical reactions. Thus, viruses need a host typically released to the atmosphere.
cell such as bacteria, plant or animal to exist, grow and 12. (a) Nitrifying bacteria are Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus,
reproduce to act like a living being. Nitrobacter, Nitrococcus.
13. Louis Pasteur: Germ theory of disease; Pasteurization 13. (b) Vaccine is a biological preparation that improves
Alexander Fleming: Antibiotic (Penicillin) immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically
Edward Jenner: Vaccine (small pox). contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing
14. Because of incomplete fermentation and bacterial processes. microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed
15. Microbes are single-cell organisms and too small to be seen forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface
with the unaided eye. They include bacteria, protozoa, fungi, proteins.
algae and virus that are too small to be seen without the aid 14. (b) Virus is the smaller than bacteria. Virus is an
of a microscope. In terms of numbers, most of the diversity ultramicroscopic (20 to 300 nm in diameter), metabolically
of life on Earth is represented by microbes. They live inert, infectious agent that replicates only within the cells
everywhere in the soil, air, land. They even live inside our of living hosts, mainly bacteria, plants, and animals.
digestive systems. Therefore, they are too many to count 15. (b) Nitrogen (N) is essential for plant growth. It increases
and too small to find. the soil fertility.
16. (c) Microbes thrive on land, in the oceans and on human
skin. They even survive in extreme places like near deep-
sea vents.
17. (a) Microbes are essential components of every ecosystem.
Multiple Choice Questions :
They break down garbage and dead organisms.
1. (c) Virus is considered to be on the borderline of living and Microorganisms are important in decay because decay
non living. recycles important nutrients for plant growth.
2. (d) Amoeba and Paramecium belong to protozoa. Protozoans 18. (a) Infectious diseases can spread from one person to
are microscopic eukaryotic organisms. another through air, water and food.
EBD_7029
66 BIOLOGY
19. (d) A vector is a vehicle that carries and transmits a 26. (c) Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of atmospheric
disease to its host organism. The dengue virus is nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds by living
transmitted to humans via the bite of an infected organisms. Eg, Rhizobium. Denitrification is the process
mosquito. Only a few mosquito species are vectors in which some of the nitrates are absorbed and rest are
for the dengue virus. converted to free nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria.
20. (a) Cleanliness is the most important way to stop infection Eg, Pseudomonas, Micrococcus.
from being spread.
Assertion & Reason :
21. (a) The major way the stomach kills microbes is by secreting
stomach acid. The acid in the stomach is important in 1. (a) Virus do not have a cellular structure. They are so small
the first stages of digesting food, but also acts to kill a that they can only be seen through an electron
lot of food-borne microbes that could potentially harm microscope.
us. 2. (c) Pathogens are harmful to mankind as they cause death
22. (a) Fungi are diverse in terms of their shape, size and means and severe fatal diseases. Antibiotics either kill or prevent
of infecting humans. They are larger than bacteria. the growth of microorganisms.
23. (a) If the temperature is high enough and the cooking is 3. (a) Rhizobium are soil bacteria that lives in the root nodules
reasonably prolonged, the majority of bacteria will be of leguminous plants. It fixes nitrogen through a
killed. Refrigeration of 4°C does not kill bacteria but symbiotic relationship.
slows down the rate of reproduction so that food 4. (a) Salting is used for preserving meat and fish by common
remains safe for longer period. Freezing and salting salt as it does not allow the growth of bacteria.
stops bacteria from reproducing but does not kill 5. (c) Salt is added to chips and pickles. Salting forces micro
them. organisms to lose water by a process known as osmosis,
24. (a) To inoculate with a vaccine in order to produce immunity thus preventing their growth and reproduction. Chemical
to an infectious disease, is called vaccinated. preservatives act as antioxidants and remove oxygen
25. (b) Microorganisms inhabit various sites of the human body, from the food item.
including the skin, nose, mouth and the gut. Bacteria 6. (b) Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar
such as Escherichia coli and Clostridium are normally to acids, gases or alcohols. It occurs in yeast and bacteria
found in the colon. Bacteria help to digest food in but also in oxygen starved muscle cells as in case of
intestine by breaking down the undigested fibre into lactic acid fermentation. Cheese is an important product
glucose. of fermentative lactic acid bacteria.
Chapter
CONSERVATION OF
3 PLANTS AND ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
The world is full of plants and animals. A variety of plants and animals exist in our environments. They both depend on each
other which are essential for maintaining the ecological balance and important for survival of mankind. This means that the
destruction of either of the two will affect the life of the other. Several kinds of plants and animals live in the forest. Forests
provide them with home and food. The plant or animal lives of any particular region or time are called flora and fauna respec-
tively. Sal, teak, mango, jamun, silver ferns, arjun, etc are the flora and chinkara, blue bull, barking deer, cheetah, leopard, wild
dog, wolf, etc. are examples of the fauna. The existence of diverse variety of plants, animals and other living organisms is known
as biodiversity.
EBD_7029
68 BIOLOGY
CONNECTING TOPIC
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity comprises all the millions of different species that live on our planet, as well as the genetic differences within species.
Biodiversity of Earth includes all organisms-big and small, from an Amoeba to a blue whale and from algae to the Sequoia tree, that
exist on our planet. The biodiversity of a region depends on the environment of that region. For example, plants, animals and even
microorganisms living in a desert region are very different from those living in a forest. Similarly, organisms living in a grassland are
entirely different from ocean. This means every different region on Earth has its own biodiversity.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Conservation is the protection, preservation, management or restoration of wild life and natural resources. Natural resources are
those living and nonliving resources of the Earth which have the potentiality to be used by human beings to fullfill their requirements
of food, shelter and clothing etc. The common natural resources include energy, air, water, land, minerals, microorganisms, plants and
animals. Wild life and Forest constitute the biotic resource of nature, while air, water, land etc. are abiotic resource of nature.
To conserve biodiversity, we need to establish protected areas for plants and animals, restoring ecosystems and managing already
existing plant and animals.
Through the conservation of biodiversity the survival of many species and habitats which are threatened due to human activities
can be ensured.
SUN
ANIMAL-EATERS
get energy from the
animals they eat
Food Webs
A food web is a system of interconnected and interdependent
food chains. It can also be defined as a network of food
relationships through which nutrients and energy are passed
from one living organism to another. Lion
Jackal
The destruction of either of the two, plant or animal, will affect
the life of other. Hence, we need to conserve biodiversity to
maintain the balance of nature. But since, due to the Goat
overgrowing demands of over-population and urbanization
our forest covers and wild life are under threat. One of the Wild Cat
major threat to biodiversity is deforestation.
Rabbit Kite
DEFORESTATION
Owl
Deforestation is the cutting or removal of trees or other Green Plant Snake
Poducer Mouse
vegetation from an area for industrial, agricultural or other
purposes. It involves permanent end of forest cover to make Food Web in a Forest
that land available for residential, commercial or industrial
purpose. Deforestation is considered to be one of the contributing factors to global climate change.
How interaction among different species help in conserving biodiversity. An increase or a decrease in the
population of one member of a food chain affects the populations of the other members of the food chain. For
example, in a given community the population of plant-eaters will increase when there are more plants
available as food. As the plant-eaters increase in number, more plants are eaten up. After some time there may
not be enough plant food for the animals. When this happens, many of the plant-eaters will die or move away
from the area. With fewer animals eating them, the plants have a chance to grow and increase in number. Once
again there will be much plant food available for the plant-eaters. The plant-eating population will
correspondingly start to increase. This is how the population of plant-eaters depends on the population of
plants and vice versa.
In the same way the population of animal-eaters depends on the population of plant-eaters and vice versa.
CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION
The causes of deforestation can be classified into two classes :- Man made and natural causes of deforestation.
(i) Man-made causes of deforestation – These are the primary and the most common reason of deforestation.
(a) Forests are cleared for accommodating expanding urban areas and for fulfilling their ever-increasing requirements.
(b) Forests are destroyed to clear lands for crops and cattle grazing.
(c) Trees are also cut down to be used for firewood and fuel.
(ii) Natural causes of deforestation – These includes
(a) Forest fires – These are started by lightning and strong winds that help to spread the flames. Hundred of trees are lost each
year due to forest fires in various portions of the world. This happens due to extreme warm summer and milder winters.
(b) Severe droughts – Drought in the forest has increased the amount of flammable bush and debris on the forest fires. As a
result, the forest catches fire easily and destroys the immeasurable amount of valuable timber. Drought reduces the
humidity and rainfall. If drought is long enough the leaf litter dries out killing off decomposers and reducing the effectiveness
of nutrient cycling.
(c) Volcanic eruption – It is one of the several natural forces that are capable of causing damage to forests. The ashes emitted
during the eruption coat tree leaves, which in turn interfere with photosynthesis and destroy the plants.
(d) Typhoon or heavy storm – These are violent storms that destroys much of the rain forest.
NOTE
Habitat is the natural surroundings of a plant or animal, where it grows, multiplies and thrives naturally.
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CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION
(i) Climate change & global warming : Deforestation increases the temperature and pollution level on Earth. Plants absorb CO2
from the atmosphere to perform photosynthesis. If the plants are destroyed then the level of CO 2 in the atmosphere will rise. As
a result, CO2 will trap more radiations, there by adding to global warming. Global warming refers to an average increase in earth’s
temperature. Global warming is caused largely due to emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
(ii) Loss of biodiversity : Deforestation leads to loss of biodiversity. If we go on cutting trees, the natural habitats of many animals
will get completely destroyed. As a result the biodiversity of many areas will be severely affected.
(iii) Loss of habitat : Deforestation also destroys the habitat of many wild animals. The habitat of an animal provides shelter, food
and protection to animals. If the habitat of an animal is disturbed then it will force the animals to go other places in search of food
and shelter. As a result, the animal could get killed easily by other animals in this process.
(iv) Soil erosion : Deforestation increases soil erosion. Roots of plants hold soil particles together. In the absence of plants, the top
layer of the soil will be easily removed by the action of high speed winds or water flow.
(v) Desertification : Deforestation leads to desertification. In the absence of trees, soil erosion occurs more rapidly exposing the
lower hard and rocky layer. As a result, soil loses humus and becomes less fertile. Hence, a fertile land, which act as a source of
living for farmers, gets converted into a desert. This process is known as desertification of land.
Facts on deforestation
• Forests cover 30% of the earth's land.
• Agriculture is the leading cause of deforestation.
• Deforestation has considerably stopped in places like Europe, Pacific, North America and some parts of
Asia due to lack of agricultural land.
• Poverty, over-population and unequal land access are the main causes of man- made deforestation.
• Worldwide more than 1.6 billion people rely on forests products for all or part of their livelihoods.
• The world's forests store 283 billion tons of carbon present in the biomass.
(vi) Disruption of the water cycle: Trees plays an important role in maintaining the water cycle. They draw up water via their roots,
which are then released into the atmosphere. A large part of the water that circulates in the ecosystem of rainforests, for example,
remains inside the plants. When these trees are cut down it results in the climate getting drier in that area. The level of
groundwater tables are affected and soon get depleted. The trees help in prevention of running off of water and help the soil
absorb the flowing water. When there are no trees, water just runs off, leaving no chance for the groundwater tables to absorb
more water. This, ultimately leads to reduction in water resources.
(vii) Scarcity of product : It causes the shortage of products we get from forests.
(viii) Flooding and Drought: One of the vital functions of forests is to absorb and store great amounts of water quickly when there are
heavy rains. When forests are cut down, this regulation of the flow of water is disrupted, which leads to alternating periods of
flood and then drought in the affected area thus, leading to disruption of human settlements and loss of life in thousands.
Therefore, we need to conserve the biodiversity for our survival and to maintain the natural ecological balance.
Forest reserves aim at protecting natural habitats, while botanical gardens are zoos of plant world.
CONNECTING TOPIC
Laws to Conserve Forest
For conservation of forest different types of laws have been implanted, like
(i) Indian Forest conservation act (1980): According to this act no forest land can be deserved or diverted to nonforest purpose
without the approval of central government.
(ii) Indian Forest conservation act (1927): Basic objectives of this act are -
– establishment and management of three types forests - village forest, reserved forests, and protected forest.
– control of movement of forest product and control of grazing.
– protection of nongovernment forest and forest land against over exploitation.
Conservation of Plants and Animals 71
If the deforested area is left undisturbed, it re-establishes itself. This is known as natural reforestation. There
is no role of human being in it.
Species is a group of population that are able to reproduce offsprings only with members of a species that
share common characteristics. For example, Homo sapiens or human beings form.
CONNECTING TOPIC
THREATENED SPECIES
A threatened species is a native species that is at risk of becoming endangered in the near future. A threatened species may have a
declining population or be exceptionally rare. Like endangered species, the cause of its rarity is variable, but may be due to threats
such as habitat destruction, climate change, or pressure from invasive species.
The black rhino has been reduced down to about 2,550 due to poaching. Most of the ones that survive today
live in protected areas.
Giant panda and the island fox are two examples of species whose existence on Earth has been threatened due
to destruction of their habitat.
Extinct Species
You must have heard about dinosaurs. Have you ever thought what happened to the dinosaurs that once existed on the Earth? Yes,
dinosaurs died and gradually disappeared from Earth because they were not able to reproduce and adapt to climate changes. When
species are unable to compete with other organisms, and no longer exist on Earth then such species are called extinct species. Dodo,
passenger pigeon etc are some examples of extinct species. Dinosaur got extinct due to natural reasons and Dodo became extinct
mainly due to people hunting it for food.
Exotic species
An exotic species is any species intentionally or accidentally transported and released by man into an environment outside its
present range. These plant and animal species are considered to be among the most servere agents of habitat alteration and
degradation, and they are a major cause of the continuing loss of biological diversity throughout the world.
Endangered Species
Endangered species are those species that are on verge of becoming extinct. For example, blue whale, tiger, leopard etc are examples
of endangered species.
Vulnerable Species
Vulnerable species are those species that already exists in low number and are likely to move into endangered category in the near
future, if causal factors such as habitat destruction, over-exploitation and other environmental disturbances, continues over a period
of time. Musk deer, sambhar deer, black buck etc are examples of vulnerable species.
Rare Species
Rare species includes those species whose population in the world is very small. So if they are not protected then they might fall into
the category of vulnerable or endangered species. For example, Indian elephant, wild buffalo, bengal fox, gaur etc are rare species.
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Endemic Species
Endemic species are those species of plants and animals that are found exclusively in that particular area and no where else in the
world. For example, Bison and Indian giant squirrel are endemic flora of Pachmarhi Biosphere reserve whereas sal and wild mango are
endemic fauna of this area.
The Great Indian Bustard is endemic to India. However it has been classified as endangered species that are on verge of extinction.
Exotic species
An exotic species is any species intentionally or accidentally transported and released by man into an
environment outside its present range. These plant and animal species are considered to be among the most
severe agents of habitat alternation and degradation and they are a major cause of the continuing loss of
biological diversity throughout the world.
In red data book, ‘red’ stands for ‘danger’. The 2000 Red List contains assessments of more than 18,000
species, 11,000 of which are threatened. According to the Red List, in India –
44 Plant species – Critically endangered
113 Plant species – Endangered
87 Plant species – Vulnerable
18 Animal species – Critically endangered
54 Animal species – Endangered
143 Animal species – Vulnerable
NOTE
In-situ conservation
In-situ conservation is on-site conservation. It is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural habitat,
either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators. It can be done through a network of
protected area. It includes biological reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, National parks, sacred grooves and sacred parks.
Ex-situ conservation
Ex-situ conservation means literally, "off-site conservation". It is the conservation and maintenance of samples of living organisms
outside their natural habitat, in the form of whole plants, seeds, pollens, vegetative propagules, and tissue or cell cultures. Ex situ
conservation normally takes place in zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, nurseries, wood and banks (seed, pollen, gene etc...)
Moreover, they play a key role in providing material for scientific research which provides both a better understanding of the biological
cycles of diverse species and for the ex situ preparation of in situ conservation strategies to recreate or restore damaged natural
ecosystems.
Conservation of Plants and Animals 73
includes includes
Biosphere Wild life National Sacred groove Offsite collection Gene banks
reserves sanctuaries parks sacred takes
• The Bharatpur bird sanctuary is known as the largest bird sanctuary in Asia.
• Ashoka was the first ruler to order the establishment of wildlife sanctuary.
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Biosphere reserves are divided into:
(i) Core zone: It is strongly protected for the conservation of biological diversity - to make sure that different types of plants and
animals are safe from human impact. In this area no human activity is allowed.
(ii) Buffer zone: It surrounds the core zones and provides a space for environmental research, recreation, and tourism. Only limited
human activity is allowed.
(iii) Transition or manipulation zone: This area is for local communities that have a hand in managing the resources of the area
through farming, fisheries, and other non-governmental activities. Several human activities can occur in the manipulation zone.
(ii) Wildlife Sanctuaries – It is an area within which animals are protected from all possible dangers such as hunting. Sanctuaries
provide protection and suitable living conditions to wild animals. These sanctuaries protects some of the threatened wild
animals such as black buck, Indian elephant, Pink headed duck, Gharial, Python, One horned rhinoceros etc.
At present there are 508 sanctuaries in India.
Table : Wildlife sanctuaries of India
S. No. Name of the Sanctuary Organisms for which they are known
(i) Dachigam Sanctuary (J & K) Kashmir Stag (Hangul)
(ii) Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary Rajasthan) Siberian Crane, egrets herons (Famous for aquatic birds)
(iii) Rann of Kutch Sanctuary Wild ass, the Flamingo, the Star tortoise and the Desert fox
(iv) Gir Sanctuary (Gujarat) Asiatic lion, Chital, Sambhar and Neelgai.
(v) Bandipur Sanctuary (Karnataka) Indian elephant.
(vi) Madumalai Sanctuary (Tamilnadu) Indian elephant.
(vii) Sanctuaries in Annamalai region (Tamil Elephant, tiger, panther, gaur etc
Nadu)
(iii) National Parks – A national park is an area of land that is protected by the government to conserve wild life. In national park,
animals can freely roam about and use the natural resources. Cultivation grazing, forestry and habitat manipulation are not
allowed in the national parks. At present there are 97 national parks in India.
Table : National parks of India
S. No. Name of the National Park Organisms for which they are known
(i) Kaziranga National park (Assam) One horned rhinoceros.
(ii) Desert National Park [(Jaisalmer, Rajasthan)] Neelgai, Chinkara, Black buck and Great Indian Bustard
(iii) Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand) First national Tiger, elephant, panther
park of India and is famous for tiger.
(iv) Kanha National park (Madhya Pradesh) Wild Tigers, chinkara
(v) Gir National park (Gujarat) Asiatic lion, panther, sambher
(vi) Sundar bans (West bangal) Royal Bengal tiger
The main aim of establishing these protected areas is to preserve plant and animal life in their natural habitat. They are allowed to breed
and multiply so that their numbers increases. The cutting down of trees and hunting animals in these protected areas are strictly
prohibited.
Table : Difference between Wild life sanctuary and Biosphere reserve
S. No. Wildlife sanctuary Biosphere reserve
(i) It is an area within which animals are protected from It is a large protected area constructed for the conservation of
possible dangers such as hunting. Their habitat is also biodiversity.
conserved in this area.
(ii) It provides protection and suitable living conditions to It helps in the conservation of various life forms such as plants,
wild animals. animals, and microorganisms.
(iii) An example of wild life sanctuary is Pachmarhi sanctuary. An example of biosphere reserve is Pachmarhi biosphere reserve.
Conservation of Plants and Animals 75
(iv) Sacred Groves – Sacred grove is an area with particular types of trees dedicated to local deities or ancestral spirits that are
protected by local communities through social traditions and taboos incorporating spiritual and ecological values.
Sacred Groves of India comprise trees like Deodara (considered to be the "abode of Gods") Sal, Rudraksha,
Bael, and Ashok and kadam, Pipal, Neem, Banyan tree: native to India, Mango tree and bushes like, Basil
(native to India and Iran) and grass like Doob or Durva etc.
Ex-Situ Conservation
(i) Zoological park (Zoo) – A zoo or zoological park refers to any park, cage or an enclosure in which live animals are kept for public
exhibition. It plays a major role in creating awareness among common people about the need to conserve nature. It is an artificial
habitat that serve as breeding centres for some rare and endangered animals. Here, animals are bred under controlled conditions
so that babies are well protected and preserved.
(ii) Botanical Gardens – Botanical gardens are large protected areas established to conserve rare and threatened plants. It is a place
where wide variety of plants are cultivated for scientific, educational and ornamantal purposes.
They serve as seed banks and have reserve of seeds of several species of plants. Here, seeds are preserved under controlled
conditions.
(iii) Arboretum – An arboretum is a place where trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants are cultivated for scientific and educational
purposes.
(iv) Gene banks – Gene banks are institutes that maintain stocks of viable seeds (seed bank), live growing plants (orchard), tissue
culture and frozen germplasm with the whole range of genetic variability.
P oi n t
1. If a fish is to be conserved outside its habitat, where should it be kept ?
2. What is the difference between zoo and wild life sanctuary?
SOLUTION
iN THE LAB
Try to identify the various type of flora and fauna present in your locality. Click their photo and make a scrap book.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) It is an organisation founded by 1961 by Sir Peter Scott. It aims at
conservation of nature. It also plays a large role in raising funds towards projects concerned with saving
wildlife in various parts of the globe.
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CONNECTING TOPIC
PROJECT TIGER
Population of tiger is declining day by day or we can say that they have become an endangered species that are on verge of
extinction and or will become extinct sooner or later. Due to this rapid decline in populations of tigers across the world, the
government has started certain conservation programmes that aimed at saving tigers. For example, Project tiger.
Project Tiger is the most famous wildlife conservation project of India, which was launched on 1st April, 1973 to protect the
diminishing population of Indian tigers.
P oi n t
How do the given animals become extinct?
According to the theory of evolution, some animal species become extinct because they are less successful than other
species that gradually replace them. These so-called “failed” animals are also unable to adapt the changing circumstances or
environment. Also, humans have speeded up this extinction by changing the environment so rapidly that animals do not
have the time to adapt.
Hunting is another main reason for the reduced numbers and probably extinction of animals such as tiger, the blue whale and
the giant panda.
MIGRATION
The process of movement of animals in large numbers from one place to another to overcome unfavourble conditions is called
migration.
Conservation of Plants and Animals 77
You must have heard of the Siberian crane that are actually endemic to Siberia. Do you know, they travel large distances and come to
India in groups during winter. Why do they travel large distances and come to India? Actually, they travel long distances and come
to India to escape the cold, unfavourable conditions of Siberia.
Migration is caused by the need to find food, by climatic changes during the year, and by the need to breed. Every autumn, for
example, Swallows gather in large flocks to rest before they begin their long migration to Africa. Swallows, and their relatives, swifts
and martins, all migrate to Africa when the weather becomes too cold for them to catch their insect prey. They return in the spring when
the weather in northern Europe begins to warm up.
The Arctic tern makes the longest known migration of any bird, by travelling from the Arctic to the Antarctic and then back again. On
it flight it passes through Japan, Alaska, Canada and Fiji before returning home again to breed.
ADVANTAGES OF MIGRATION
(i) It provides the migrating species with more favourable conditions of temperature, food and water. For example, Siberian crane
migrates to India during winters.
(ii) It also provides suitable place for reproduction that may not be available in their native place. For example, salmon migrates from
salt water to freshwater to lay eggs and then comes back.
Hence, we can say organisms migrate from one place to another to avoid inhabitable climatic conditions or for breeding.
P oi n t
Migratory birds are susceptible to become endangered. Can you give the reason, why ?
SOLUTION
Migratory birds are susceptible to become endangered because many of the places they used to migrate have been altered
by human actions. As a result, these animals don’t have any place to go when weather condition become harsh or food in
their habitat becomes scarce.
RECYCLING OF PAPER
Trees, as we know, are important to maintain the balance of nature. Therefore, in order to save tree and to prevent the impact of their
loss, we need to use paper intelligently.
Methods to save paper
(1) Recycling of paper : Recycling is the process of collecting waste paper and to regain materials in order to use them again. By
recycling of paper, not only we can save trees but also can save energy and water needed for manufacturing paper. Hence collect
used paper and recycle it.
(2) Use both the sides of paper for writing.
(3) Use paper intelligently.
(4) Spread awareness among people regarding the importance of paper.
For every ton of paper that is recycled, the following are saved :
• 17 trees.
• 275 pounds of sulphur.
• 350 pounds of limestone.
• 9000 pounds of steam.
• 60,000 gallons of water.
• 225 kilowatt hours.
• 3.3 cubic yards of landfill space.
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SUMMARY
Conservation is the wise use of natural resources with an aim to preserve living and non-living resources.
Deforestation is the process of cutting trees from an area for industrial, agricultural or other purposes.
Causes of deforestation are – man-made; and natural like, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, drought etc.
• Soil erosion
• Loss of biodiversity
• Desertification
Under the wild life protection act, a larger number of sanctuaries, national park and biosphere reserve were established in
different parts of the country.
Sanctuaries are areas where animals are protected from any disturbance to them and their habitat.
National park are areas reserved for wild life where they can freely use the habitats and natural resources.
Biosphere reserves are large protected areas for conservation of wildlife, plant and animal resources and traditional life of the
tribals living on the area.
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural resources) works towards assessing the global conservation
status of plants and animals.
Red data book is the source book which keeps a record of all the endangered plants and animals.
Plants and animals of a particular area are known as flora and fauna, respectively, of that area.
Endangered animals are animals whose numbers are diminishing to a level that they might face extinction.
Endemic species are those species of plants and animals that are found exclusively in a particular area.
Project tiger was launched on 1st April 1973 by government to protect the tigers of our country.
Migration is the phenomenon of movement of a species from its own habitat to some other habitat for a particular time period,
every year for a specific purposes like breeding.
We should save, reuse and recycle paper to save trees, energy and water.
DIRECTIONS : Each question contains statements/terms given DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
in two columns which have to be matched. Statements/terms
in column I have to be matched with statements/terms given in 1. Define biodiversity.
column II. 2. If one wants to conserve an organism outside its habitat,
where should it be kept?
3. Name one endemic animal of India.
4. Are migratory animals susceptible to become endangered?
5. Name two animals that have become endangered due to
poaching.
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6. When an animal is said to be an extinct? 13. How wild life conservation and forest conservation related
7. What results in desertification, global warming and shortage to each other ?
of forest products? 14. Why forests are useful to us?
8. Expand IUCN. 15. Why did IUCN prepare red data book?
9. Give two examples of each flora and fauna of Pachmarhi 16. How can governments ensure the preservation of
biosphere reserve. biodiversity?
10. Why do birds migrate?
11. Who publishes the Red list of Threatened species? 17.
12. Name three programmes that have gained recognition for
conservation of nature.
13. What is conservation?
14. Which term refers to illegal hunting of animals?
15. What is the main aim of the IUCN Red list?
16. Name one international organization that aim at conservation
of nature.
17. What does “Red” in Red Data book stands for? Do you agree with this? Give reason.
Short Answer Questions : Long Answer Questions :
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in 2-3 sentences. DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
Text - Book Exercise : 10. Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by
which you can save paper.
1. (a) A place where animals are protected in their natural
11. Complete the word puzzle :
habitat is called ______.
DOWN
(b) Species found only in a particular area is known as
1. Species on the verge of extinction.
______.
2. A book carrying information about endangered
(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because of
species.
______ changes.
5. Consequence of deforestation.
(d) Information about endangered species is recorded in
the ______. ACROSS
(e) ______ is the restocking of destroyed forests by 1. Species which have vanished.
planting new trees. 3. Species found only in a particular habitat.
2. Differentiate between the following: 4. Variety of plants, animals and microoganisms found
(a) Wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve in an area.
(b) Zoo and wildlife sanctuary Exemplar Questions :
(c) Endangered and extinct species
1. Why is it important to conserve forests?
(d) Flora and fauna
2. Can a forest regenerate naturally in a short period of time.
3. Discuss the effects of deforestation on the following :
3. Name the first Reserve Forest of India.
(a) Wild animals
4. Why are wildlife sanctuaries important for conservation of
(b) Environment
plants and animals?
(c) Villages (Rural areas)
5. Why are endemic organisms in greater danger of becoming
(d) Cities (Urban areas)
extinct?
(e) Earth
6. A new species X is introduced in a forest. How is it likely to
(f) The next generation
affect the local species of that area?
4. What will happen if :
7. Does soil erosion affect the fertility of soil? How?
(a) we go on cutting trees.
8. Is deforestation associated with global warming? Explain.
(b) the habitat of an animal is disturbed.
9. How does deforestation lead to frequent floods and
(c) the top layer of soil is exposed. droughts?
5. Answer in brief :
(a) Why should we conserve biodiversity? HOTS Questions :
(b) Protected forests are also not completely safe for wild
animals. Why?
(c) Some tribals depend on the jungle. How? 1.
(d) What are the causes and consequences of
deforestation?
(e) What is Red Data Book?
(f) What do you understand by the term migration?
6. In order to meet the ever-increasing demand in factories
and for shelter, trees are being continually cut, is it justified
to cut trees for such projects? Discuss and prepared a brief Is this statements correct? Explain using example.
report. 2. Introduction of an exotic species to a habitat has a negative
7. How can you contribute to the maintenance of green wealth impact on the diversity of that region. Comment.
of your locality? Make a list of actions to be taken by you. 3. How is diversity related to environmental health?
8. Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.
4. Captive breeding programmes help in maintaining
9. Find out the information about the national parks in your
biodiversity. How?
state. Identify and show their location on the outline map
of India. 5. Why are migratory animals susceptible to face extinction?
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82 BIOLOGY
6. Suppose an animal species ‘X’ not normally found in your Do you agree with the statement given. Give reason in
area is released where you live. If that animal has no natural support of your answer.
enemies there, what might happen? 9. A tiger from wildlife sanctuary was shifted in a Zoological
7. Why Indian Rhinoceros and Asian elephants are placed in garden. Where do you think the tiger will be happier.
the Red List. Explain, giving example.
10. A construction company used to cut 10 trees every month
8. and planted 10 new saplings every month as replacement.
Do you think they are successful in maintaining the number
of trees in a forest. Justify.
11. State the laws that your state has for the protection of
endangered wildlife. Find out if there is a state endangered
species list. Report your findings in your class.
Conservation of Plants and Animals 83
Multiple Choice Questions : 11. The variety of forms of life found in a region is
(a) biodiversity (b) flora
DIRECTIONS : This section contains multiple choice questions. (c) fauna (d) endemic
Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out of which 12. Decrease in population size over few years and decrease in
ONLY ONE is correct. the size of its habitat indicates that an organism is
(a) threatened (b) vulnerable
1. The human activity that is responsible for loss of
(c) extinct (d) endemic
biodiversity is
13. An area made up of living components like plants, animals
(a) urbanization and microorganisms along with non-living component such
(b) afforestation as climate, soil etc is known as
(c) establishment of biosphere reserve (a) ecosystem (b) population
(d) respiration (c) community (d) organism
2. Species native to a particular habitat is known as 14. Which is not a consequence of deforestation?
(a) endemic species (b) endangered species (a) Desertification (b) Global warming
(c) threatened species (d) extinct species (c) Poaching (d) Floods
3. An example of extinct species is
(a) The Royal Bengal tiger Assertion & Reason :
(b) The Giant Panda
(c) The African elephant DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion
followed by Reason. Read them carefully and answer the question
(d) The Dinosaur
on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that
4. The Kaziranga wildlife sanctuary preserves best describes the two statements.
(a) elephant (b) rhinoceros
(c) asiatic lions (d) royal bengal tiger (a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
5. The endangered species are listed out in correct explanation of Assertion.
(a) blue data book (b) red data book (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
(c) yellow data book (d) green data book the correct explanation of Assertion.
6. The diverse animal species found in their natural (c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
surroundings is called (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
(a) flora (b) fauna 1. Assertion : Spotted dear and black buck belongs to category
(c) endemic species (d) endangered species of vulnerable species.
7. Which of these is not caused by deforestation? Reason : They are species whose number is declining and if
(a) Global warming not protected they can become endangered species.
(b) Desertification 2. Assertion : The Earth was once dominated by dinosaurs.
(c) Reduction in ground water Reason : Dinosaurs got extinct due to natural calamities.
(d) Storms 3. Assertion : The great Indian Bustard has been threatened.
8. Which one of these is not included under Red list? Reason : It is due to introduction of new species in their
(a) Extinct (b) Endemic habitat.
(c) Endangered (d) Vulnerable 4. Assertion : IUCN publishes a comprehensive list known as
9. World wild fund for Nature Works in the field of IUCN Red list of endemic species.
(a) Wildlife conservation Reason : IUCN Red list is to focus the attention of
(b) Forest conservation conservationists towards species that are under threat of
(c) Water conservation becoming extinct.
(d) Soil conservation 5. Assertion : Afforestation is a positive step towards
10. The Indian Government launched “Project Tiger” in restoration of forest and wildlife.
(a) 1970 (b) 1973 Reason : Afforestation is a slow process.
(c) 1974 (d) 1975
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84 BIOLOGY
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
(i) maintaining the ecological balance for supporting life. Causes of extinction of wildlife are –
(ii) preserving different kinds of species (biodiversity). (i) Habitat loss
(iii) preserving economically important plants and animals. (ii) Poaching
(iv) conserving the endangered species. (iii) Introduction of new species
8. Deforestation causes soil erosion or removal of fertile top (iv) Natural calamities
layer of the soil. This leaves the soil devoid of humus and (v) Lack of strict wildlife laws.
makes it infertile, gradually converting it to a desert. This 3. (1) Threatened species is a native species that is at risk of
process is known as desertification. becoming endangered in the near future. A threatened
9. Wild life and forest conservation are related to each other species may have a declining population or be
because they both provide their essential requirements. exceptionally rare.
10. Forest is useful to us because it provides us oxygen, protects (2) Extinct species is the species of which last remaining
soil and provides habitat to a large number of animals, increase member has died.
the amount and periodicity of rainfall and reduce drought, (3) Endemic species is one whose habitat is restricted to a
global warming etc. particular area. It may be an animal, a plant, a fungus, or
11. IUCN prepares Red Data Book to lists rare species and those even a microorganism.
in danger of extinction. (4) Endangered species is a native species that faces a
12. Government ensures the preservation of biodiversity by significant risk of extinction in the near future throughout
enacting several legal provisions or acts related to all or a significant portion of its range. Such species may
conservation of wildlife and forests. These acts are forest be declining in number due to threats such as habitat
conservation act (1980) and wildlife protection act (1972). destruction, climate change, or pressure from invasive
Forest conservation act empowers govt and forest species.
department to create and manage reserved forest, conserve 4. (i)
forest as a natural heritage and control and regulate cattle
grazing in forest. Objectives of Wildlife protection act are Flora Fauna
the prohibition of hunting and control and management of (i) It refers to all living plants It refers to all animals
captive breeding. in a particular area. living in a particular area.
13. No, protected forests are not completely safe for wild animals. (ii) Sal, teak, mango, etc. form Leaopard, wolf, wild dog,
It is because people who live nearby use the resources from the flora of Pachmarhi etc. form the fauna of
those forests for their own benefits. This activities in turn biosphere reserve. Pachmarhi biosphere
disrupts the life system and also endangers the animals living reserve.
there. (ii)
Long Answer Questions : Endangered species Threatened species
(i) A species present in such A native species that is at
1. Deforestation is the removal of trees or other vegetation
small numbers that it is at risk of becoming endangered
from an area for industrial, agricultural, or other purpose.
risk of extinction. in the near future. It may
Plants or trees absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. If plants are
destroyed, then the level of CO2 will rise. The high levels of have a declining population
CO2 in the atmosphere will trap more heat radiations, leading or be exceptionally rare. Like
to global warming. This increase in temperature of the Earth endangered species, the
wil disturb the natural water cycle. As a result of disruption cause of its rarity is variable,
in the water cycle, there will be a change in the rainfall pattern. but may be due to threats
The reduced amount of rainwater can cause droughts. such as habitat destruction,
2. Causes of deforestation climate change, or pressure
(i) Procurement of land for crop production. from invasive species.
(ii) Procurement of land for urban settlement.
(iii) Use of wood for timber and fuel. (iii)
(iv) Natural calamities such as forest fires and droughts Endemic species Extinct species
Consequences of deforestation (i) An endemic species is one The species which no
(i) Loss of biodiversity whose habitat is restricted more exist on the planet.
(ii) Soil erosion to a particular area.
(iii) Change in climatic conditions (ii) Example : Indian giant Example : Dinosaur,
(iv) Flood and droughts squirrel passenger pigeon
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(iv) (d) Flora and fauna
Wildlife sanctuary Zoological park Flora Fauna
(i) It is an area within which It is a place where animals All plant life that occurs in All animal life that is present
animals are protected from are kept for public an area is known as Flora. in an area is known as
possible dangers such as exhibition. Fauna.
hunting. Their habitat is also Example : Jamun, Teak, Example : rhinoceros,
conserved in this area. Mango etc. elephants, crocodiles.
(ii) It conserves the natural It is an artificial habitat.
3. (a) Wild animals : The wild animals live in forest.
habitat of animals.
Deforestation destroys their natural habitat. In the
natural habitat the animals have no place to live and
breed. As a result of absence of their habitat, many
animals reach the verge of extinction.
Text - Book Exercise : (b) Environment : The environment is adversely affected
1. (a) wildlife sanctuary by deforestation. Global warming. Carbon dioxide gets
(b) Endemic species accumulated in the atmosphere because of lack of green
(c) climatic plants and thus causes global warming.
(d) Red Data Book (c) Villages (Rural areas) : The rural areas largely depend
(e) Reforestation on forests for their likelihood. Deforestation has
2. (a) Wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve: reduced their resources and the uninhabited animals
Wildlife Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve are also a danger for the villagers.
(d) Cities (Urban areas) : Cities are also affected by
A protected area where An area which is conserved
deforestation indirectly. The changes in the climate
animals can live in their to protect the biodiversity
results in calamities like flood and droughts which
natural habitat is known as and culture of that area is
a wildlife sanctuary. In known as biosphere reserve. affects the cities also.
these sanctuaries hunting, A biosphere reserve (e) Earth : Deforestation has lead to the conversion of
poaching, grazing, felling consists of many protected fertile lands into deserts. The natural calamities like
trees etc. are strictly areas like sanctuaries, floods and droughts are also the result of deforestation.
prohibited. national parks, lakes The climate of earth is changing due to deforestation.
mountains etc. (f) The next generation : Deforestation has a negative
There are about 440 wildlife There are 15 biosphere impact on climate and many are at the verge of extinction
sanctuaries in reserves in India. some species are already extinct. The next generation
may not be able to see the beautiful and attractive
(b) Zoo and wildlife sanctuary
fauna and flora. It may have to suffer for the effects of
Zoo Wildlife Sanctuary global warming, no fuel and no paper etc.
Zoo is a place where In a sanctuary animals live in 4. (a) We go on cutting trees : If we continue cutting of
animals live in artificial natural habitat. trees, rainfall and fertility of soil will decrease and the
habitat. chances of natural calamities will increase. It will also
The animals protected live The animals are protected lead to decrease in water holding capacity of the soil
in a definite place. They are and conserved in very large which results in floods. Animal life will also negatively
allowed to be viewed by areas. These areas are be affected.
public spread in small prohibited for hunting,
(b) The habitat of an animal is disturbed : The animals are
areas. grazing, felling trees etc.
adapted to live in their natural habitat. The survival of
(c) Endangered and extinct species the animals becomes difficult. If their natural habitat is
Endangered species Extinct species disturbed. They will not have any space to live and to
The species which are at the The species that are totally breed. As a result they will not survive and also
verge of extinction and which finished having no living because of scarcity of food the animals have started
are required to be protected individual on the earth are wandering int he nearby villages and targeting
and conserved are known as known as extinct species. domestic animals as their prey.
endangered species. (c) The top layer of soil is exposed : The roots of trees
Example : tiger, wild buffalo etc. Example : dinosaurs. find the soil. Deforestation exposes the top layer of
Conservation of Plants and Animals 87
soil which gets washed away with water. The removal and spread awareness about the benefit of plants teach the
of top layer gradually converts the fertile land into small children and encourage the slogan ‘one man one tree’
desert. Moreover the soil washed away with water gets so that every individual plants atleast one tree and takes
also gets deposited in the river bed resulting in care of it.
decrease in the depth of rivers. The chances of floods 8. Plants absorb water from the soil and lose water in the form
increased many folds. of water vapour which evaporates to form clouds.
5. (a) We should conserve biodiversity. The universe Deforestation leads to cutting down of trees. As a result
encompasses a vast variety of organism each of which less water is absorbed from the soil and it disturbs the water
plays a very important role. Every organism is unique cycle. The formation of cloud becomes difficult which lead
and precious. Hence, should be saved it from becoming to reduced rainfall.
extinct. 9. For self-attempt.
(b) Protected forests are not completely safe for wild 10. Paper is very useful in our day to day life Thousands of
animals because poachers have found access in there trees are cut to fulfill the demand of paper each day. If the
areas and are killing animals and for joy. There is a trees continue to be cut for paper at the same rate, one day
need to make strict rules against poaching and we will be left with no trees. So we should save paper and
trespassing. use it intelligently. The ways by which we can save paper
(c) Some tribals are dependent on the jungle for their food, are :
fuel, wood, shelter etc. They live in forests and are 1. We should recycle the waste paper.
entirely dependent on them for their survival. 2. We should not litter paper here and there.
(d) The main cause of deforestation is growing population, 3. Paper should be sent for recycling.
urbanization and industrialization. Need for more land 4. We should not tear our old books and donate it to poor
and resources have lead to the cutting down of forests. children so that they can reuse those books.
The main consequences of deforestation are 5. Buying recycled paper products should be encourage.
desertification and natural calamities.
6. We should avoid taking paper bags from the shops,
(e) Red Data book keeps the record of all the endangered
instead we should carry jute bags.
animals and plants. It is published by IUCN. 11.
(f) Some species of birds and animals move from their
1
habitat to some other habitat for the purpose of E X T I N C T
9. Tiger will be happier in its natural habitat. research and restoration of the environment. WWF aims
10. There is no doubt that afforestation is a positive step towards to preserve the life on Earth and the ecological system
restoration of forests and wildlife. But it is a slow process as by: protecting wild life. It protects natural areas and wild
new plant would take several years to grow big. populations of plants and animals. It also supports
projects for saving/conserving endangered species;
promoting sustainable approaches to the use of
renewable natural resources; promoting more efficient
use of resources and energy; and reducing pollution.
Multiple Choice Questions : 10. (b) Project Tiger was launched by the government of India
1. (a) Urban development has led to a large scale destruction in 1973. The project aims at ensuring a viable population
of forest and loss of biodiversity. of Bengal tigers in their natural habitats and also to
2. (a) Endemic species are those species of plants and animals protect them from extinction, and preserving areas of
which are found exclusively in a particular area. They biological importance as a natural heritage forever
are not naturally found anywhere else. A particular type represented as close as possible the diversity of
of animal or plant may be endemic to a zone, a state or a ecosystems across the tiger's distribution in the country.
country. 11. (a) Biodiversity is the term used to describe the variety of
3. (d) Endangered species are those which are facing the life found on Earth and all of the natural processes. This
includes ecosystem, genetic and cultural diversity, and
danger of extinction.
the connections between these and all species.
4. (b) Kaziranga wild life sanctuary is the name to exemplify
12. (a) Species which is likely to become endangered unless
the most popular conservation efforts to save the
protective measures are taken are called vulnerable
endangered species like one-horned rhinoceros in India.
species. Extinct species is a population of species that
It is located in the Golaghat and Nagaon district of
no longer exists. Endemic species is one whose habitat
Assam, and declared the most notable World Heritage
is restricted to a particular area.
Site by UNESCO in the year 1985.
13. (a) An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants,
5. (b) The Red Data Book is the state document established
animals and microbes) in conjunction with the non-living
for documenting rare and endangered species of animals,
components of their environment (things like air, water
plants and fungi as well as some local sub-species that
and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These biotic
exist within the territory of the state or country. This
and abiotic components are regarded as linked together
book is maintained by IUCN (International Union for
through nutrient cycles and energy flows.
Conservation of Nature and Natural resources).
14. (c) Poaching is defined as the illegal hunting, killing or
6. (b) All the animal life of a given place or time, especially
capturing of wild animals, usually associated with land
when distinguished from the plant life (flora) is called
use rights.
fauna.
7. (d) Storm is a violent disturbance of the atmosphere with Assertion & Reason :
strong winds and usually rain, thunder, lightning, or snow. 1. (a) Spotted deer and black buck belongs to vulnerable
It is not caused by deforestation. species. Vulnerable species that is likely to become
8. (b) Endemic is not included under red list because red list endangered and is often at risk is due to loss of habitat
includes those species whose continued existence is or declining population.
threatened. Species are classified into different 2. (a) Dinosaurs were a group of land animals that lived from
categories of perceived risk. Each Red Data Book usually about 230 million years ago until about 60 million years
deals with a specific group of animals or plants (e. reptiles, ago. These spans the era of the Earth's history known as
insects, mosses). Endemic species are those species of the mesozoic era, which includes, from most ancient to
plants and animals which are found exclusively in a most recent, the triassic, jurassic and cretaceous periods.
particular area. They are not naturally found anywhere Dinosaurs grew in population and diversity during their
else. time on Earth before becoming extinct at the end of the
9. (a) The World Wide Fund for Nature is an international non- Cretaceous period. Dinosaurs became extinct due to
governmental organization founded on April 26 1961, natural calamities as they did not adjust or adapt to the
and is working on issues regarding the conservation, changed environment for their survival.
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3. (c) The great Indian bustard is a bustard found in India animals, plants and fungi as well as some local sub-
and the adjoining regions of Pakistan. It is a large bird species that exist within the territory of the state or
with a horizontal body and long bare legs and gives an country. This book is maintained by IUCN (International
ostrich like appearance. This bird is among the heaviest Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
of the flying birds. These birds are often found resources).
associated in the same habitat as blackbuck. The great 5. (b) Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand
Indian bustard has been threatened because of hunting of trees in an area where there was no forest. It helps in
and loss of its habitat. wildlife and forest conservation. This differs from
4. (d) Red Data Book list is the state document established reafforestation which is the restocking of existing forests
for documenting rare and endangered species of and woodlands which have been depleted.
Cell -Structure and Functions
Chapter
CELL-STRUCTURE AND 91
4 FUNCTIONS
INTRODUCTION
There is large variety of living organisms around us. Each organism starts its life as a single cell. All organisms have different
shapes and sizes. Their food habits and living places are also different. Inspite of these variations in size, shape and food habit
etc all these organisms have common structural and functional unit of life in them as a cell. All cells have many functions which
keep an organisms alive. A baby,a banyan tree and a bacterium, all look different from one another but they all are made of tiny
cells. Hence, cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of all living organisms that is capable of integrating the essential
life processess. There are many unicellular organisms, eg bacteria and protozoa, in which the single cell performs all life
functions but in higher organisms a division of labor has evolved in which group of cells have differentiated into specialized
tissues, which inturn are grouped into organs and organ system. Cells are so much integrated part of our body that we cannot
imagine an organism that is non-cellular.
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DISCOVERY OF CELL
The discovery of the cellular structure of organism is intimately bound up with the invention of the compound microscope. The
preparation of the cells and cell parts for their study requires very specialized methods. In 1665, Robert Hooke first discovered the
existence of cells during his description of the structure of cork. He used a microscope to investigate the structure of a thin slice of
cork. He observed that cork had several tiny compartments in it. He called these tiny compartments as cells. However the cell
discovered by Hooke, were dead and only cellulose walls were visible. He actually observed only cell walls.
The first living cell was seen under microscope by Dutch discoverer Anton Von Leeuwenhoek. Years later as microscopes improved,
other biologists continued the work of Hooke and Leeuwenhoek, learning more about cells. In the 1830s, two German Scientists
Malthias Jacob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, helped to convince other scientists that all living things are made of cells. They
both compared their findings and proposed that cells are the units of both structure and function of organism. Their findings are now
referred to as cell theory or cell principle. In 1939, Schleiden and Schwann formulated the cell theory.
According to cell theory -
(i) All living things are composed of one or more cells.
(ii) Cells are basic units of structure and function in living things.
(iii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell division.
(iv) Cells have similar structure and metabolism.
(v) The functions of an organisms are due to activities and interaction of its cells.
The body of all living organisms except virus has cellular organisation.
CONNECTING TOPIC
The given figure represents the structure of a compound microscope. This microscope is used to view smaller specimens
such as cell structures which cannot be seen at lower levels of magnification.
Compound microscope is an optical instrument for forming magnified images of small objects. It consists of an objective
lens with a very short focal length and an eyepiece with a longer focal length, both lenses mounted in the same tube.
• Microscope was invented by Anton Von Leewenhoek. It is the biggest invention in the history of science.
It allows biologists to study the microscopic organisms like bacteria, fungi etc.
• Microscope enable us to see the object as small as one millionth of a meter (10–6m). Such magnifying
power microscopes have helped the scientists to study the minute details of cell.
CELLS
A cell is the smallest and complete expression of the fundamental structure and functions of all living organisms. For example, building
is made up of basic bricks. Here bricks are the basic structural units which make building of different designs, shapes and sizes.
Cell -Structure and Functions 93
Similarly in living world also, organisms differ from each other in respect to their
body, size and shape but all are made up of cells.
Cell contains all the necessities of life, water, nutrients, minerals, protein, enzymes,
fats and carbohydrates.
Acetabularia is a single called alga. It may measure upto 10 cm. This is why this
green giant alga is used in genetic and molecular studies.
• Tissue is a group of cells having a common origin and performing a similar but specific function.
Examples: Muscle tissue, which can shorten or contract to cause movement.
– Nerve tissue, which carries nerve signals
– Connective tissues, which fills the gaps between other tissues.
– Epithelial tissue
• Organs are made up of tissues that work together to perform a specific activity. For example, eyes perform
the function of sight, whereas lungs help in respiration. Similarly, kidney helps in excretion.
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• Organ systems are groups of two or more tissues that carries out a specific function to help keep the body alive and working
well.
Human body has 11 major organ systems – circulatory, digestive, endocrine, excretory (urinary), immune (lymphatic),
integumentary, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory and skeletal.
For example, the heart, blood vessels and blood make up the circulatory system. Circulatory system circulates blood all around
the body and supplies every tiny part with essential substances such as oxygen, nutrients, and collects wastes for removal from
body.
• Organism is an entire living being that can carry out all basic life processes. It means they can take in materials, release energy
from food, release wastes, grow, respond to the environment and reproduce. Example - bacteria, Amoeba, mushroom, sunflower,
human.
Let us discuss variety of number, shape and size in cells.
NUMBER OF CELLS
The number of cells vary from a single cell to many cells in an organisms. Some organisms are
composed of single cells (called unicellular organisms), like Amoeba, Paramecium etc. or
some of many cells (called multicellular organism) like humans, dog, horse, pigeon, frog etc.
Unicellular organisms are capable of independent existence. With no dependence on others
for any function, material or information a single cell controls all the functions like feeding,
movement, respiration, reproduction etc. Unicellular organisms are less efficient due to ab-
sence of division of labour.
All multicellular organisms start their life from a single cell (called zygote). In multicellular
organisms, all the life activities or different functions are divided among various cells or group
of cells. Hence, there is division of labour in such organisms. This means that each type of cells Amoeba
are specialized to perform a particular job. For example, a nerve cell carries messages over long distances in body. A muscle cells bring
about movement of body parts and red blood cells carry oxygen and distribute it to all parts of body. Hence, all the cells in a
multicellular organisms work together in groups of similar cells called tissue.
NOTE
WBC is a cell while Amoeba is a full fledge organism that is capable of independent existence.
CELL SHAPE
Cells come in a variety of shapes – depending on their function.The shape of the cells may be variable i.e. constantly changing for
example Amoeba, WBC etc or fixed. Look at the structure of Amoeba. What type of shape does Amoeba, have? The shape of Amoeba
appears to be irregular. Unlike other organisms, it does not have definite shape. It keeps on changing its shape.
Why do Amoeba change its shape? The change in shape is due to formation of pseudopodia. Pseudopodia are finger like projections
protruding out of its body. The protrusions help Amoeba in movement and capturing food.
Cell
membrane Contractile vacuole
Nucleus (excretes water
and waste)
Pseudopod
Food vacuole
Cytoplasm (digest food)
(a) Nerve cell (or Neuron) (b) Muscle cell (c) Epithelial cell
(like cheek cell)
(a) Epidermal cell (b) Xylem cell (c) Phloem cell (d) Photosynthetic cell
(Tube-like cell) (Sieve-tube cell) (Mesophyll cell of leaf)
Examples of plant cells
Let us now discuss how shape of a cell helps in its functioning. A nerve cell (or neuron) is very long and has a wire like branches
coming out of it. This large length of nerve cell helps it to carry impulses over long distances in the body. Also, the wire like branches
helps it to make contact and carry messages between brain and other parts of body. Hence, nerve cells are specially adapted to
transmit messages. Similarly, muscle cells are spindle in shape and adapted for movement. They bring about movement of body parts
by contraction and relaxation. On the contrary, in the plant cells, xylem cells are tube like plant cells that carry water and mineral salts
from the roots of the plant and transfer to its leaves whereas phloem cells carry the food made by leaves to all other parts of the plant.
CELL SIZE
The size of cells vary from the very small cells of bacteria to the very large egg of the ostrich. Cell are extremely small and can be seen
properly only when magnified and viewed through the lenses of a microscope.
The largest cell is an egg of ostrich that measures as much as 6 inches in diameter with shell and 3 inches without shell. The smallest
cell so far observed is considered to be of PPLO (Pleuropneumonia like organism) or Mycoplasma i.e. 0.1 mm.
The viruses are still smaller in size but cannot be considered as cell because of sub-cellular nature.
Cells are small in size because of the following facts –
(i) The cell’s nucleus can only control a certain amount of active cytoplasm.
(ii) The cells are limited in size because of their surface area to volume ratio. It is an important factor. A group of small cells have a
relatively more surface area than a single large cell for a given volume. A cell requires nutrients, oxygen and other materials for
its survival and growth. Hence, it is necessary that all these materials should enter through its surface. As cell grows larger at
some point, its surface area become too small to allow these materials to enter the cell quickly enough to meet the cell’s need.
Thus, as cell increases in size, its surface area to volume ratio decreases causing cell to function less efficiently.
P oi n t
1. Why cell is called structural and functional unit of life?
2. Why are cells important?
3. The main organs of various system has been given. Identify their respective human
organ system.
Cell -Structure and Functions 97
SOLUTION
Staining
It is the use of a dye reagent or other material for producing colouration in tissues or microorganisms for
microscopic examination. Examples of dyes are eosin, saffranine, haematoxylin, fast green, methylene blue
etc.
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iN THE LAB
Let us perform an experiment to study plant and animal cells with a microscope.
PART A : Plant cells (Onion skin mount)
Procedure :
(i) Take a onion piece and peel the delicate transparent tissue from its inner surface using forceps.
(ii) Place this tissue, unwrinkled in a small drop of water on a glass slide.
(iii) Then add a small drop of Safranine stain to the tissue and cover it with a cover slip. While placing the coverslip ensure that
there is no air bubbles under the coverslip.
(iv) Now observe the slide under a microscope.
Step IV
Observation :
You will see several small rectangular shaped cells. The boundary of each cell is covered by a cell membrane which in turn is
covered by another thick covering called the cell wall. In the centre of cell, there is a dense round body called the nucleus. In
between the nucleus and the cell membrane, there is a jelly like substance called cytoplasm.
PARTS OF A CELL
Cell has various components which have structural and functional importance. These components are protoplasm comprising of
cytoplasm (having various organelles) and nucleus.
A unit mass of protoplasm contained in a cell is called protoplast. Protoplast have four components.
I. Plasma membrane/Cell membrane II. Cytoplasm
III. Nucleus IV. Vacuole
CELL MEMBRANE
The cell membrane (plasma membrane) is the outer covering of every cell. It separates the cell from its environment and form distinct
functional compartment (nucleus, organelles) in the cell. The outer cell membrane is called plasma membrane.
NOTE
PROTOPLASM : (Proto = first and plasma = liquid.)
Purkinje (in 1839) coined the term protoplasm. Protoplasm is a liquid substance that is present inside the cell membrane. It includes
cytoplasm, nucleus and other organelles. It is an aggregate of molecules of various chemicals. Most of these contains organic
molecules like proteins, fats, carbohydrate etc.
P oi n t
Can you tell or imagine how the plasma membrane keeps all the pieces inside.
SOLUTION
Plasma membrane appears like a big plastic bag with some tiny holes. This bag holds all of the cell pieces and fluids inside the
cell. Also, it keeps nasty things outside the cell pieces and fluids inside the cell. The holes are there to let some things move in
and out of cells.
Cell membrane is a bilipid membranous layer composed of proteins
and carbohydrates. The phospholipid makes the basic bag. The
proteins are found around the holes and helps to move molecules
in and out of cells.
protect the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing certain
substances into the cell, while keeping other substances out. It
also Function of cell membrane :
(i) It protect the cell from external injury.
(ii) It gives shape to the cell.
(iii) It controls the movement of substances ‘into the cell’ and
‘out of cell’. Hence, it is also known as selectively permeable
membrane.
Have you ever thought how does movement of substance take
place inside the cell? Let us have a look.
Movement of carbon dioxide or oxygen : The movement of car-
bon dioxide or oxygen across the cell membrane occurs by a
process called diffusion. Diffusion is the process of movement of
molecules from a region of high concentration to region of low
concentration. No energy is used in this process. Structure of plasma membrane
Diffusion Osmosis
Can occur in any medium. Occurs only in liquid medium.
Involves movement of solid, Involves movement of solvent
liquid & gas. molecules only.
Semipermeable membrane is Semipermeable membrane is
not required. necessary.
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Movement of water across cell membrane : The movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane occurs by osmosis.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of high water concentration to a region of low
water concentration.
Membrane
Membrane permeable to
Osmotic water but not
Low concentration High concentration to sugar
Pressure
solution solution
Flow of water
through
membrane into
sugar
solution via
osmotic
pressure
iN THE LAB
Let us perform an experiment to study plant and animal cells with a microscope. Hypotonic The cells
PART A : Plant cells (Onion skin mount) inflate and
eventually
Let us perform an activity to understand the process of osmosis. burst
Take an animal or a plant cell and put it in three medium to observe.
(I) Medium that has higher water concentration than the cell.
What will happen? The cell will gain water by osmosis. Such type of solution are
Solute
known as hypotonic solution. Since, water molecules are free to pass across the cell concentration
membrane in both directions, so when cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, more inside the cell
(I) is higher
water will come into the cell than it leaves. As a result, the cell is likely to swell up.
Amount of water
Hypertonic Isotonic transported into the
The cells cell equal to the
shrink amount of water
Water is transported transported out from
our from the cell the cell
HO
2
H2O
Solute concentration
Solute concentration inside the cell is
inside the cell is equal to the solution
lower outside the cell
(II) (III)
(II) Medium that has lower water concentration.
What will happen? The cell will lose water by osmosis. Such a solution is known as hypertonic solution. Since, water
molecules are free to pass across the membrane, so when cell is placed in hypertonic solution, it will lose water. As a result the
cell will shrink.
(III) Medium that has same water concentration as cell. What will happen?
There will be no net movement of water across the membrane. Such a solution is called isotonic solution. In isotonic solution,
the amount of water going into and out of cell is same. Hence, there is no movement of water and cell stays of the same size.
CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm is a transparent, jelly like material (called cytosol or cytoplasmic matrix) that fills the cell between nucleus and cell
membrane. Autonomic movement of matrix in the cytoplasm in a cell is called cytoplasmic streaming or cyclosis. The various
structures present in the cytoplasm of a cell are called organelles. The most important organelles are the endoplasmic reticulum
mitochondrion, the ribosome, the golgi bodies, the lysosome, cell wall, cilia and flagella, pastids etc.
Cell -Structure and Functions 101
Function of cytoplasem -
(i) It holds cell’s organelles in place.
(ii) It gives the shape to cell structure.
(iii) Most of the chemical reactions (which keeps the cell alive) takes place in cytoplasm.
NUCLEUS
The nucleus is a large, spherical organelle present in all the cells. In animal cell, it is located at the centre of cell, while, in plant cell, it
is located at the periphery, near the edge.
Nucleoid
The nucleoid is the dense region in the prokaryotic cell (bacteria) that contains the main DNA material.
The nucleoid has an irregular shape compared to the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, which is circular. DNA in
the nucleoid is circular, and may have multiple copies at any given time. Additionally, DNA in the nucleoid
may be supercoiled, meaning it has twists in the circular shape that makes it more compact. As the cells
grow, the DNA in the nucleoid may extend into the cytosol (cellular fluid).
Parts of Nucleus
The nucleus consists of nuclear envelope, nucleous, chroma-
Nuclear
tin and nucleoplasm. Envelope
(i) Nuclear envelope : It is a double membranous structure
with a fluid-filled space. It separates nucleoplasm from Chromatin
cyfoplasm. The outer membrane is connected with Nucleolus
endoplasmic reticulum and its outer surface may contain
ribosomes while inner surface is smooth. The nuclear
envelope is perforated by many nuclear pores. These
pores provide a channel for the movement of important
molecules between nucleus and cytoplasm.
(ii) Nucleoplasm : Nucleoplasm is a clear, non-staining fluid Endoplasmic
material in the nucleus. It contains raw materials, enzymes Reticulum
and metal ions for the synthesis of DNA and RNA. It
supports the chromatin material and nucleoli. Nuclear
(iii) Chromatin : Nucleus contains a fibrous material known Pre
as chromatin. Chromatin forms a long thread like structure
Ribosomes
called chromosomes during cell division. Each
chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of Anatomy of the Nucleus
DNA. Chromosomes contains genes that control cell
metabolism and heredity. Heredity is the transfer of character from parents to offspring.
(iv) Nucleolus (or Nucleoli) : Nucleolus is a naked round or slightly irregular structure which is attached to the chromatin at a
specific region called nucleolar organizer region (NOR). It is responsible for protein synthesis and it is the active site of the
development of ribosomal RNAs.
Function of Nucleus are –
(i) The nucleus acts like the brain or control centre of the cells.
(ii) It is responsible for ribosome synthesis.
(iii) It regulates cell metabolism by directing the synthesis of functional proteins.
(iv) It develops genetic variation that contribute to evolution.
(v) It also contains genetic information for reporduction, development and behaviour of the organisms besides for structure and
metabolism.
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Chromosomes
Chromosomes iare long stringy aggregates of genes that carry heredity information. Each chromosome is
made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins called histones that support its structure.
Chromosomes can be seen visually through a light microscope during late interphase as well as during
mitosis.
Gene
Gene is a unit of heredity. Gene gives an identity to each and every organism. It is the basic molecular unit
of inheritance in living organisms. It controls the transfer of heredity characteristics from parents to
offspring.
Structure of gene
P oi n t
Why nucleus is important?
SOLUTION
Nucleus is the cell’s brain which controls all its activities. Nucleus contain DNA. DNA contains instructions needed for cell
reproduction and also produces proteins that controls metabolism and other cell function.
P oi n t
Why do we often look like our parents ?
SOLUTION
The way we grow and develop is determined by the genes on the chromosomes which we recieve from our parents in the egg
and sperm. The characteristics of individual human beings are passed from one generation to next in their chromosomes. Each
of our parents gives us 23 chromosomes making 46 in all. That means we have two versions of each of our genes, but one is often
dominant. We see the effect of the dominant gene but the other (recessive) gene is still there and can be passed onto our children.
VACUOLES
Vacuoles are fluid filled organelles enclosed by a membrane (called tonoplast). It appears
as an empty space under the microscope. All plant cells have a large vacuole. Their
vacuole is filled with a liquid called “cell sap” that contains dissolved sugar and salts.
The cell sap is generally neutral but at maturity it becomes acidic.
Function of vacuole in plant cells – Nucleus
Tonoplast
(i) It keeps the plant cell firm or turgid. Large central
(ii) It stores various substances including waste products of the cell. vacuole
Cytoplasm
Animal cells may or may not have vacuole. However, vacuoles present in animals are
much smaller than those found in plant cells.
Function of vacuole in animal cells –
(i) In Amoeba, vacuoles contain food particles, hence, known as food vacuole. Vacuoles in plant cell
(ii) They store materials such as food, water, sugar, minerals and waste products.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Nuclear Smooth
ER is a network of membranous canals which encloses a fluid -filled lumen. Nuclear pore endoplasmic
It is of two types – Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and Smooth endoplasmic reticu- envelope reticulum
lum (SER).
(i) RER– It is lined with ribosomes and is rough in appearance.
(ii) SER– It contains no ribosomes and hence are smooth in appearance.
It is absent in prokaryotes but present in all the eukaryotes except germinal cells, mature
mammalian erythrocytes Cisternal space
Function of endoplasmic reticulum:
(i) The ER is the “transport system” of the cell. It transports chemical between cells and Cisternae Rough
within cells. endoplasmic Ribosome
reticulum
(ii) It provides large surface area for the organization of chemical reactions and synthesis.
Endoplasmic reticulum
(iii) RER plays an important role in protein synthesis.
(iv) SER plays an important role in lipid synthesis.
Ribosomes
Ribosome is a non-membranous, spherical body composed of RNA (ribonucleic acid) Incoming
and protein enzyme. Ribosomes are also present separately in cytoplasm. It is the site of transport
vesicle
protein synthesis in a cell, hence, called protein factory. Cis face
Ribosomes are of two basic types – 70 S and 80 S ribosomes. The 70 S ribosomes are
found in prokaryotes and 80 S ribosomes are found in eukaryotes. S’refers to svedberg Cisternae Lumen
units of sedimentation coefficient. The ‘S’ is a measure of the speed of the sedimentation
for a particular cell organelle in ultracentrifuge.
Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are sacs of membrane bound cisternae, vesicle and vacuoles. These are
usually stacked together in parallel rows. Golgi apparatus was discovered by Italian
anatomist Camillo Golgi.
Function of golgi bodies :
(i) The golgi apparatus is responsible for taking the proteins which were created by Newly Secretory
ribosomes and making them bigger and better. When the golgi apparatus is done, forming vesicle
it releases the new proteins into the cell, where they can be used to strength and vesicle
build up cells. It is also involved in formation of lysosomes and peroxisomes. Golgi apparatus
(ii) It plays an important role in modification, secretion and storage of chemicals.
Cell -Structure and Functions 105
• Lysosomes are also called as suicidal sacs/bags as they contain hydrolytic enzymes.
• In animals, lysosomes are abundant in leucocytes, macrophages, Kupffers cells and similar cells with
phagocytic activity, prokaryotes lack lysosomes.
Mitochondria Ribosome
Mitochondria are rod shaped organelles bounded by double DNA
Matrix Outer membrane
membranes.The outer and inner membrane are separated by
a space called intermembrane space. The outer membrane is Inner membrane
smooth whereas inner membrane folds over many times to Inter membrane
form cristae. Cristae greatly increases the surface area of space
the inner membrane. The wide space between the cristae is
called the inner chamber which is filled with a dense fluid
(called mitochondrial matrix).
Mitochondria are the sites of chemical reactions. They con-
tain enzymes for cellular respiration in which energy is re-
leased. You all must have learnt about cellular respiration F0 portion
in previous classes. Here, is a brief overview. F1 portion Cristae
During respiration, we inhale oxygen which the blood trans-
ports to all the cells in our body. During cellular respiration, Mitochondria
using this oxygen, glucose gets oxidized to form ATP (ad-
enosine triphosphate) molecules. ATP is a form of energy that the body can use.
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP)
Therefore, these organelles are called as powerhouse of the cell. They take in nutrients, break them down, and create energy for the
cell.
NOTE
Mitochondria is the third largest organelle in plant cells and second largest organelle in animal cells. Mitochondria are able to make
their own DNA and proteins, hence they are regarded as semi- autonomous organelle.
Lysosome
Lysosomes are present in animal cells only. They are sac-like structure surrounded by a single membrane. The membrane bound bag
contains powerful digestive (hydrolytic) enzymes capable of either digesting or breaking down all organic material. It act as a mini
digestive system within the cell.
Lysosomes destroy any foreign materials that manage to make it inside the cell such as
bacteria etc. Flagellum
They also remove worn-out or poorly functioning organelles from the cell. They may even
sometimes digest the entire damaged or dead cells containing them.
Cilia and flagella
Cilia are short, hair like projections that occur in large numbers on the outside surface of
certain animal cells. They cover the entire surface of a cell. For example, Paramecium, a
single celled organism, has cilia on its surface. Cilia are the organs of locomotion.
Flagella are long, thread like structures at one end of the cell. There are usually a few flagella
on a cell. For example, Euglena, a single - celled organism, has flagellum at its mouth region
in the front. Like cilia, flagella also helps in movement of organism. Cilia
Cell Wall Paramecium Euglena
The plant cells have a thick and rigid cell wall around them, outside the cell membrane. It is
Cilia and flagella
composed of tough material called cellulose. Cell wall are found in plants, bacteria, fungi,
algae and some archae. Animals and protozoa do not have cell wall.
Function of cell wall :
(i) It gives shape and support to plant cell.
(ii) It protects the cell from mechanical injury.
(iii) It contains pores that allow materials to pass in and out of the cell.
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P oi n t
1. Why do plants have cell walls, and not animals?
2. What would happen if the cells in our body had cell walls?
3. Why cell wall is absent in animals?
SOLUTION
1. In order to provide plants strength and necessary support, the cells within the plant have this hard cell covering. If the
trees were soft like an animal, they could not stand strong and tall.
2. If an animal’s body were made of cell walls the animals would be very stiff and unable to move easily.
3. Cell wall is incompatible with the way in which an animal moves and grows.
Plastids
Plastids are double membrane bound organelles. They occur in most plant cells and are absent in animal cells. Depending upon their
pigment colour, they are classified into two main types : leucoplasts and chromoplast.
(i) Leucoplasts : It is a colourless organelle that store starch or other plant nutrients. For example – starch stored in potato. It occurs
in large number in cells of fruits, seeds and rhizomes.
(ii) Chromoplast : It contains differents coloured pigments. The most important type of chromoplast is chloroplast. Chloroplast are
green–coloured organelles present in cytoplasm of plant cells. The process of food making by plants (known as photosynthesis)
takes place in chloroplasts. Hence, chloroplasts are the food producers of the cell.
Like the mitochondria, plastids also have their own genome i.e., DNA and ribosomes. They are self-replicating organelles like the
mitochondria i.e., they have the power to divide.
Chloroplast contains green colour pigment called chlorophyll which absorbs energy from the Sun and helps the plant in the
process of photosynthesis.
Chloroplast
Each chloroplast is a double membranous structure with a inter -membrane space in between them. The space enclosed by inner
membrane is called stroma. The stroma is an area where all chemical reactions occurs and starch (sugars) is synthesized. The
stroma contains small cylinders (called grana) in it.
Outer Granum
Membrane Lumen
Inner Thylakoids
Stroma
Membrane
Chloroplast
Grana consists of membranous or lamellar system. This lamellar system is made up of thylakoid. About 20–50 thylakoids are
placed one above the other like a stack of coins to form a granum. Many membranous tubules called stroma lamellae interconnect
thylakoids of different grana. Each thylakoid have chlorophyll molecules on their surface that trap sunlight and take part in the
process of photosynthesis.
Therefore, chloroplast is called the site of photosynthesis. In chloroplast, carbon dioxide and water combine in the presence of
sunlight energy to produce food such as glucose. Thus, chloroplasts help in synthesis of food with the help of green plants.
Chlorophyll
CO2 + H2O Glucose + Oxygen
Sunlight
Cell -Structure and Functions 107
Plant Cell
Animal Cell
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108 BIOLOGY
Table : Summary of the functions of different parts of a cell
CELL Functions
Cell membrane 1. It gives form and support to the cell.
2. It allows the entry and exit of cellular materials.
Endoplasmic reticulum It is involved in the synthesis, storage, and transport of cell products.
Mitochondria They act as sites of energy production. So they are also called the powerhouses of the cell.
Ribosomes These granular structures act as sites of protein synthesis.
Golgi apparatus They are responsible for the secretion of enzymes, hormones and proteins.
Lysosomes They are capable of digesting damaged cells and a variety of extra- and intra-cellular materials.
These fluid-filled spaces store excess water, useful minerals, salt, food substances, pigments
Vacuoles
and waste products.
The following table compares the presence of few features of plant, animal and bacterial cell. Tick (ü) mark the organelles
present in plant, animal and bacterial cells.
SUMMARY
Cell is the basic structure and functional unit of life that can carry out all the processes of life.
Robert Hooke was the first person to observe cells under a microscope.
Schleidan and Schwann proposed the cell theory in 1838.
Tissue is a group of cells that are alike and work together to perform a specific function.
Organ, a relatively independent part of the body, is a group of tissue that carries out one or more specialized function.
Organisms made of more than one cell are called multicellular organisms. Examples – plants and animals.
Organisms made of single-cell are called unicellular organisms. Examples – Amoeba, Paramecium.
The single cell of unicellular organisms performs all the basic functions performed by a variety of cells in multicellular
organisms
A white blood cell (WBC) in human blood is an example of single cell which can change its shape.
The cell has four main parts –
l Cell membrane
l Cytoplasm
l Nucleus
l Vacuole
Cells without well organised nuclei (i.e., lacking nuclear membrane) are called prokaryotic cells. For example, bacterial cell.
Cells having well organised nuclei with a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotic cells. For example, onion cells and cheek
cells.
Plasma membrane is a selectively permeable membrane. It regulates the movement of molecules in and out of cell.
Plant cells differ from animal cells in having an additional layer around cell membrane called cell wall.
When a plant cell is put in a hypertonic solution, it losses water due to osmosis (exosmosis) and as a result, protoplast is
shrinked away from the cell wall. This is called plasmolysis.
Various membrane bound cell organelles present in eukaryotic cell are nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus,
mitochondria, plastids, lysosomes etc.
Mitochondria form powerhouse of cell. They use molecular oxygen and generate energy-rich compunds (ATP).
Chloroplasts are chlorophyll containing green plastids. They use water and CO2 and convert radiant energy of sunlight
into chemical energy of carbohydrates.
Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis.
Endoplasmic reticulum are of two types — SER and RER. SER synthesizes lipids and RER synthesizes proteins.
Golgi apparatus is the site for the storage, processing and packaging of various cellular secretions.
Lysosomes form garbage disposal system of animal cells.
Nucleus contains thread like structure called chromosomes, which carry genes and helps in transmission of characters.
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110 BIOLOGY
Fill in the Blanks : given in column I have to be matched with statements/terms (p,
q, r, s, t) given in column II.
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an
1. Column-I Column-II
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s).
(Functions) (Organelles)
1. Cell theory was proposed by ____________ an d A. Entry and exit of p. Vacuoles
____________ . cellular materials
2. ____________ is considered as the biggest cell. B. Transmission q. Mitochondria
3. ____________ is considered as the smallest cell. of genetic character
4. One micron is ____________ of a meter.
C. Production of r. Nucleus
5. ____________ controls all the activities of cell.
energy
6. The process by which water enters through a selectively
D. Secretion of enzyme s. Cell membrane
permeable membrane is called ____________ .
and proteins
7. Cellular respiration occurs in ____________ part of cell.
E. Store excess water t. Golgi apparatus
8. ____________ is called suicidal bag of cell.
mineral, food
9. Genetic material of plant and animal cell is found in
substances and
____________ .
pigments
10. ____________ gives shape and support to the plant cell.
11. Plastids are present only in ____________ cells. 2. Column-I Column-II
12. ____________ acts as the skeleton of chloroplast. (Organelles) (Definitions)
13. The ‘cell sap’ of vacuole contains dissolved ____________ A. Endoplasmic p. Spherical or rod shaped
and ____________ .
reticulum body which produces
14. Nerve cells are known as ____________ . energy.
15. A group of cells performing a similar function is called a
B. Prokaryotic cells q. Contains cell organelles
____________ .
and found in both plant and
True / False : animal cell.
C. Eukaryotic cells r. A network of cytoplasmic
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your tubes and channels.
answer as true or false. D. Mitochondria s. Cells having nuclear
material without nuclear
1. Animal cells have cell wall followed by the cell membrane. membrane.
2. Chromosomes carry genes.
E. Cytoplasm t. Cells having well organized
3. Plastids and chloroplasts are found in plant cells. nuclei with a nuclear
4. Onion cells and cheek cells are the examples of prokaryotic membrane
cell.
5. Pseudopodia is found in higher animals. Very Short Answer Questions :
6. Nerve cells are long and have branches.
7. Amoeba is a multicellular organism. DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
8. Plant cells are made up of cellulose. 1. What is cell?
9. Xylem and phloem are example of tissue. 2. Name the scientist who had first observed the free cell under
10. Energy is stored in the cell in the form of ADP molecules. microscope.
Match the Following : 3. Where organelles are embedded in a cell?
4. What is the difference between unicellular and multicellular
DIRECTIONS : Each question contains two columns which have organisms.
to be matched. Statements/terms (A, B, C, D and E) 5. Name the outer layer of an animal cell.
Cell -Structure and Functions 111
IV III 7
V Across Down
1. A group of similar cells 2. The organism which are
VII performing a specific made up single cell.
function.
II
3. It helps in transfer of 6. An empty structure in the
characters from cytoplasm which performs
I the parents to their storage function.
offsprings
VI 4. The jelly like substance
between the nucleus
(i) Which organelle is called as suicidal bag? and the cell membrane.
(ii) Which organelle is called “engine of the cell”? 5. The cell organelle present
(iii) Which structure is called “Little nucleus”? in plants which are
(iv) Which organelle is called the “powerhouse of the cell”? mainly responsible for
(v) Which labelled area is known as selectively permeable imparting colour.
membrane? 7. The green coloured
7. Give a term for the following processes. plastids responsible
(i) Swelling of resins in water. for photosynthesis.
(ii) Exchange of gases during respiration.
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114 BIOLOGY
Multiple Choice Questions : 9. Organelles that are surrounded by two membranes are
(a) nucleus and mitochondria
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 18 multiple choice (b) nucleus and Golgi bodies
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out (c) endoplasmic reticulum and lysosomes
of which ONLY ONE is correct. Choose the correct option. (d) endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria
1. Which of the following statement (s) is not correct? 10. A cell that contains a cell wall, chloroplasts and a central
vacuole is
(a) In plant cells, vacuoles are absent.
(a) plant cell (b) animal cell
(b) Vacuole is bounded by a single membrane.
(c) yeast cell (d) bacterial cell
(c) In Amoeba, contractile vacuole is important for excretion.
11. When a human RBC is placed in a hypotonic environment, it
(d) Flagellum is important for transport of bacteria.
(a) undergoes turgidity
2. Which of the following cell organelles are non-membranous
and found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? (b) undergoes plasmolysis
(a) Lysosome (b) Vacuoles (c) is at equilibrium
(c) Ribosome (d) Mitochondria (d) experiences decreased turgor pressure
3. The main constituents of cytoplasm is C, N, O, H. These are 12. Cells that have a high energy requirement generally have
derived from many
(a) protein (b) carbohydrate (a) ribosomes (b) nucleus
(c) water (d) none of these (c) mitochondria (d) chloroplast
4. How many cells are present in human body? 13. Which of the following statement (s) is correct about plasma
membrane?
(a) One million cells (b) One billion cells
(a) It allows all substances to pass into and out of cells.
(c) One trillion cells (d) More than a trillion cells
(b) It prevents all substances from passing into and out of
5. The scientist who described cell as “many little boxes” was
cell.
(a) Robert Hooke
(c) It is composed mainly of a protein bilayer.
(b) Theodar Schwann
(d) It is composed mainly of a lipid bilayer.
(c) Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
14. Which of the following organelles is found in plant cells but
(d) Rudolf Virchow not in animal cells?
6. The characteristic of a nerve cell that relates directly to its (a) Nucleus (b) Mitochondrion
function is its
(c) Chloroplast (d) Golgi apparatus
(a) long extensions
15. Smallest cell organelle is
(b) flat shape
(a) mitochondria (b) ribosome
(c) ability to change shape
(c) vacuole (d) lysosome
(d) ability to engulf bacteria
16. A function of golgi body is
7. Which of the following statements is correct?
(a) excretion (b) ATP synthesis
(a) Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a cell membrane.
(c) secretion (d) RNA synthesis
(b) Prokaryotic lysosome is bounded by tonoplast. 17. Plasma membrane is
(c) Protein synthesis takes place in mitochondria. (a) permeable (b) selectively permeable
(d) Eukaryotic cells have membrane bound organelles. (c) impermeable (d) semi-permeable
8. Old organelles, viruses, bacteria etc. that a cell can ingests 18. When the concentration of water and solutes on either side
are broken down in of the cell membrane is same, the solution is said to be
(a) ribosomes (b) RER (a) hypertonic (b) isotonic
(c) SER (d) lysosomes (c) hypotonic (d) none of these
Cell -Structure and Functions 115
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
Match the Following : 4. Muscle cells bring about the movement of body parts by
contraction and relaxation. The contraction of muscle cells
1. A-s; B-r; C-q; D-t; E-p 2. A-r; B-s; C-t; D-p; E-q moves the body part (to which they are attached), and when
these contracted muscle cells relax, they expand and increase
Very Short Answer Questions :
in length, so that the body part comes back to its original
1. A cell is the smallest unit of life which has a definite structure position.
and a specific function. 5. Mitochondria are called the power house of cells because
2. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek their primary purpose is to manufacture ATP, which is used
3. Cytoplasm as a source of energy.
4. Unicellular organisms are organisms made up of a single cell 6. Ribosomes are small dense cytoplasmic particles which are
that can perform all basic life activities whereas multicellular found individually in the cytoplasm and also line the
organisms are composed of many specialised cells, that membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes
carries different functions. are the site of protein synthesis.
5. Cell membrane 7. Chromosomes carry genetic characters with the help of genes.
6. A jelly like substance that makes up most of the inside of a Gene is an inherited factor that determines the biological
cell. character of an organisms and supplies the expression of a
7. Leucoplast particular trait.
Cell -Structure and Functions 117
8. DNA is the genetic material and the major store of genetic membrane. This membrane is porous and allows the
information. It is found in nucleus and cytoplasm. Its double movement of materials between the cytoplasm and the inside
helical structure with sugar phosphate backbones on the of nucleus.
outside and paired bases on the inside was proposed/ Vacuole is a cavity usually in the centre of the cell, containig
discovered by Watson and Crick. a liquid called cell sap. It is bounded by a differentially or
9. Levels of organization in multicellular organisms are– selectively permeable membrane, tonoplast. It is used for
osmotic pressure and storage.
¾¾
® ¾¾
® ¾¾
®
2. In plant cells the cytoplasm is composed of many living and
¾¾
non-living parts called cell organelles. The important
®
Organism organelles are mitochondria, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic
reticulum, vacuoles, ribosome, chloroplast etc.
Cell – Structural and functional unit of life. Mitochondria are tiny, spherical or rod like bodies. They are
Tissue – Group of cells having common origin and functions. the sites of energy production, therefore also called as
Organ – Group of tissue having distinct structure with one powerhouse of the cell. The energy production process is
or more distinct functions. called cellular respiration. The energy is stored in the form
Organ system – Two or more organs coordinate their of ATP.
activities towards a common activity. Golgi apparatus, also called golgi bodies, are made up of
10. Plastids are double membrane organelle found in all plants tubules and vesicles. They are responsible for secretion of
and some unicellular organisms (Eugle) of uncertain affinity. chemical substances like enzymes, hormones and proteins.
It is the largest organelle which is involved in the formation
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules and channels.
and storage of soluble and insoluble carbohydrate. Plastids
are classified into two groups on the basis of presence of It is involved in the synthesis, storage and transport of cell
pigment–leucoplast (colourless plastid incapable of products.
performing photosynthesis) and chromoplast (coloured Ribosomes are small granules scattered all over the
plastids responsible for photosynthesis process). cytoplasm. These granules act as a site for protein synthesis.
11. Nucleolus is characterized by the absence of limiting Vacuoles are fluid-filled spaces enclosed in a membrane.
membrane, presence of chromatin and granules and fibrils of They store excess water, useful minerals, pigments and many
RNA and protein. It is composed of DNA + RNA + protein. It other substances. The size of vacuole is larger in plant cells.
helps in the development of ribosomal RNA and is the centre
Plastids are present in plant cells only. The plastids contain
for the formation of ribosomes.
certain pigments. i.e. chloroplast, chromoplast and
12. Vacuoles are large in plant cell, but in animal cell it is small in leucoplast. Chloroplast contains chlorophyll, which helps
size. in the process of photosynthesis.
13. Prokaryotic cells lack membrane bound organelles and definite 3. Nucleus is a membrane bound structure that contains the
nucleus as compared to eukaryotic cells. cell's hereditary information and controls the cell's growth
and reproduction. It is commonly the most prominent
Long Answer Questions : organelle in a cell. The cell nucleus is bound by a double
1. The main components of a typical cell are cell membrane, membrane called the nuclear envelope. This membrane
cytoplasm, nucleus and vacuoles. separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
Like the cell membrane, the nuclear envelope consists of
Cell membrane, also called as plasma membrane, separates phospholipids that form a lipid bilayer. The envelope helps
the inside contents of the cell from the surrounding medium to maintain the shape of the nucleus and assists in regulating
and from the environment. This membrane is porous and the flow of molecules into and out of the nucleus through
allows the movement of materials both inward and outward nuclear pores.
of the cell.
Chromosomes are located within the nucleus. Chromosomes
Cytoplasm is the jelly like substances present between the consist of DNA, which contains heredity information and
cell membrane and nucleus. Various organelles are present instructions for cell growth, development, and reproduction.
in the cytoplasm. These are mitochondria, golgi bodies, Contained within the nucleus is a dense structure composed
ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum etc. of RNA and proteins called the nucleolus. The nucleolus
Nucleus is an important component of living cell. It is helps to synthesize ribosomes by transcribing and
spherical in shape and located in the centre of the cell. Nucleus assembling ribosomal RNA.
is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane called nuclear
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118 BIOLOGY
S tructure Function Nerve cell is also known as neuron. Nerve cells send
messages to the brain and then transfer these messages
Plas ma Contro l the exch ang e of materials
M embrane between the cell an d its en viron men t from the brain to the receptor organs. Thus, it controls the
Nu cleu s Large s tru ctu re s urro und ed by do ub le functions of different parts of the body.
memb ran e; maintain the integrity of the
3. (a) Cytoplasm: The fluid that occurs in between the plasma
gen es an d co ntro l the activities o f the cell
membrane and the nucleus occurs between the plasma
by reg ulating gene exp res s ion (therefo re,
the con trol centre o f the cell) membrane and the nucleus and fills the online cell is
Nu cleo lus Gran ular bo dy with in nu cleus ; s ite of r- called cytoplasm. All the cell organelles like
RNA s y nthes is mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi
End op las mic Site of memb ran e lip id & protein bodies, etc. are suspended remain the cytoplasm. The
reticu lum s yn th es is cytoplasm also helps in the exchange of materials
Golg i Complex Stacks o f flattened memb rane s acs ;
between cell organelles.
mod ifies , packages & s ecretes protein s
Lys o s omes M emb ran ou s s acs ; contains enzymes to (b) Nucleus of a cell: The nucleus is present at the centre
dig es t materials of a cell and is generally spherical in shape. The nucleus
Vacu oles M emb ran ou s s acs ; trans po rt and s tore is composed of the following components:
water & other materials
M itoch on dria Sacs con tain ing two membranes ;
Prod uces energy fo r the cell th ro ug h Chromosomes
cellu lar res piration which can be s tored in Nuclear
the fo rm o f A TP, h en ce called po wer membrane
Nucleolus
ho us e o f the cell. Nuclear
Plas tid s Sac-like s tru ctures with intern al thy lakoid pore
memb ran es ; Takes part in p ho tos yn thes is
Ribo s o mes Gran ular organ elles comp os ed of RNA &
protein; s yn th es ize p rotein s (i) Nuclear membrane: The nucleus is bounded by a
Cen trio les Small ho llow cylin ders ; inv olv ed in cell double-layered membrane called the nuclear membrane.
div is ion & anch ors flagellae & cilia It separates the contents of the nucleus from the
Cilia Sh ort h air-like s tru ctu res ; mov emen t, cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane has nuclear pores
fo od intake
that allows the exchange of materials between cytoplasm
Flagella Lo ng projection s ; cellular lo como tio n,
& nucleus.
us u ally 1-5 o n a cell.
Cell wall M ultiple-lay ers of cellulo s e; prov ides (ii) Nucleolus: It is a small spherical body present within
s tructural s up po rt an d s tren gth the nucleus. It is not bounded by any membrane.
(iii) Chromosomes: Chromosomes constitute the genetic
material of the cell. They are thread-like structures that
Text - Book Exercise : carry the genetic information. Chromosomes are made
up of DNA which carries the information necessary for
1. (a) (T) the transfer of characteristics from the parents to the
(b) (F) Muscle cells are spindle shaped. offspring. Thus, chromosomes play an important role
(c) (F) The basic living unit of an organism is cell.
in the inheritance of characteristics.
(d) (T)
4. Cytoplasm is the fluid part of the cell and various organelles
2. such as mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi bodies, etc are
present within the cytoplasm. Entire space of the cell
between the plasma membrane and the nucleus is present
Nucleus within the cytoplasm.
Nerve cell
Cell -Structure and Functions 119
5. 9.
Light energy
Animal cell Plant cell
Mitochondria
Cell membrane
Vacuole Water and
Cytoplasm minerals
Animal cell Plant cell
Chloroplast is a double membrane round organelle found in
They are generally small They are usually larger green plants. A green pigment called chlorophyll is present
in size. than animal cells. in the chloroplast. This chlorophyll pigment traps solar
Cell wall is absent. A rigid cell wall is energy and utilizes it to manufacture food for the plant. The
present which is made up raw materials water is taken up by the roots of the plant &
of cellulose. CO2 is absorbed from the atmosphere through stomata.
Animal cells do not have chloroplast hence can’t perform
Vacuoles are many and Vacuoles are permanent
photosynthesis. Animal cells do not have CO2 also which
one small in size. centrally located large in
size. is the main requirement for food synthesis.
of a nerve cell that conducts nerve impulses from the pigment, which absorbs sunlight for the process of
cell body is the characteristics which is directly related photosynthesis.
to its function. Neurons are responsible for relaying 15. (b) Ribosome is the smallest cell organelle. A ribosome is a
electrical messages to cells and tissues in other organ large complex of RNA and protein. Mitochondrion is
systems. the third largest and second largest organelle in plant
7. (d) All prokaryotes have cytoplasm surrounded by a cell and animal cell respectively.
membrane, also known as the plasma membrane. The 16. (c) The Golgi complex, also known as the Golgi apparatus
cell membrane conforms to the fluid mosaic model, is a cytoplasmic organelle. It is found in eukaryotic
which means that its proteins float within a double cells, as in animals, plants, and fungi. The main function
layer of phospholipids. of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package
8. (d) A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle found macromolecules, such as proteins and lipids. The Golgi
in animal cells (they are absent in red blood cells). They complex is especially active in processing proteins for
are structurally and chemically spherical vesicles secretion.
containing hydrolytic enzymes, which are capable of 17. (b) The plasma membrane (or cell membrane) is a biological
breaking down virtually all kinds of biomolecules, membrane that separates the interior of all cells from
including proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, the outside environment. The cell membrane is
and cellular debris. They act as waste disposal system selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules
of the cell by digesting unwanted materials in the and controls the movement of substances in and out
cytoplasm, both from outside of the cell and obsolete of cells. The basic function of the cell membrane is to
components inside the cell. For this function they are protect the cell from its surroundings. It consists of
popularly referred to as "suicide bags" or "suicide sacs" the phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
of the cell. 18. (b) An isotonic solution refers to two solutions having
9. (a) Mitochondria and nucleus are double membrane the same osmotic pressure across a semipermeable
organelles. Double membrane organelles are membrane. This state allows for the free movement of
surrounded by two biomembrane layers, with an water across the membrane without changing the
intermembranal space. Golgi bodies, lysosomes and concentration of solutes on either side of the membrane.
endoplasmic reticulum are single membrane organelles. Assertion & Reason :
10. (a) Plant cell are eukaryotic cells with a membrane-bound 1. (c) Mitochondria are the energy factories of the cells or
nucleus that differ in several key aspects from the cells called the power house of the cell. The energy currency
of other eukaryotic organisms. Their distinctive features for the work that animals must do is the energy-rich
include: large central vacuole, cell wall, and chloroplast. molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is
11. (a) When red blood cells are placed in hypotonic solution produced in the mitochondria using energy stored in
(pure water) it will undergo turgidity. Water will enter food. Chloroplasts organelles are specialized subunits
the cell by osmosis, causing the cell to swell and in plant and algal cells. Their main role is to conduct
possibly even burst. photosynthesis, where the photosynthetic pigment
12. (c) Mitochondria are called the powerhouse of cell chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight, and
because it produces energy in the form of ATP. stores it in the energy storage molecules ATP and
NADPH while freeing oxygen from water.
Therefore cells that have high energy requirements
2. (d) Lysosomes are simple tiny spherical sac-like structures
generally have many mitochondria.
evenly distributed in the cytoplasm. Each lysosome is
13. (d) The plasma membrane (or cell membrane) is a biological a small vesicle surrounded by a single membrane and
membrane that separates the interior of all cells from contains powerful enzymes (acid hydrolase enzymes).
the outside environment. The cell membrane is These enzymes are capable of digesting or breaking
selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules down all organic materials. Lysosomes digest excess
and controls the movement of substances in and out or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed
of cells. The basic function of the cell membrane is to viruses or bacteria.
protect the cell from its surroundings. It consists of 3. (a) Cell membrane can be defined as a biological membrane
the phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. or an outer membrane of a cell, which is composed of
14. (c) Chloroplasts are small organelles inside the cells of two layers of phospholipids and embedded with
plants and algae. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll proteins. It shows fluid mosaic behaviour. It is a thin
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122 BIOLOGY
semi permeable membrane layer, which surrounds the N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid
cytoplasm and other constituents of the cell. (NAM) cross-linked by short peptides.
4. (a) Cell wall is a tough, rigid layer that surrounds some 5. (a) A prokaryote is a single-celled organism that lacks a
types of cells. Cell wall is a characteristic feature to membrane-bound nucleus, mitochondria, or any other
cells of plants, bacteria, fungi, algae and some archaea. membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotic cells have a
The major function of the cell wall is to provide rigidity, region in the cell, termed the nucleoid, in which a single
tensile strength, structural support, protection against chromosomal, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule
mechanical stress and infection. It also aids in diffusion is located.
of gases in and out of the cell. Cell wall composition 6. (c) Mitochondria are the energy factories of the cells or
varies from species to species and also depends on called the power house of the cell. The energy currency
the developing stage of the organism. Bacterial cell for the work that animals must do is the energy-rich
wall is more complex than plant cell wall. In bacteria, molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is
peptidoglycan forms the cell wall. Peptidoglycan is a produced in the mitochondria using energy stored in
complex molecule composed of alternating units of food.
Reproduction in Animals 123
Chapter
REPRODUCTION IN
5 ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
Various processes like digestion, circulation, excretion and respiration are considered to be important for the survival of all living
organisms. Similarly, reproduction is also an essential biological mechanism for the continuity and diversity of species.
Reproduction is a biological process by which an individual multiplies in number by producing more individuals of its own type.
It maintains the continuity of race by replacing old dying members and helps in increasing the total number of individuals. If the
process of reproduction will not occur, all species will be extinct, once the existing species dies. Reproduction enables the
continuity of the species, generation after generation.
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The ability to reproduce is one of the unifying characteristics of all living beings. They reproduce by various means – for example,
human beings and other mammals reproduce by giving birth to babies, most birds reproduce by laying eggs and most plants
reproduce through seeds.
MODES OF REPRODUCTION
Based on whether there is participation of one organism or two in the process of reproduction, it is of two types – sexual and
asexual.
(I) Sexual reproduction :- Sexual reproduction involves fusion of gametes and results in the formation of new organism genetically
different from parent
(II) Asexual reproduction :- Asexual reproduction requires only one parent and does not involve the fusion of gametes. It is a
reproduction by which offspring arise from a single parent and inherit the genes of that parent only.
Table : Difference between Sexual and Asexual reproduction
NOTE
Gamete : It is a cell that fuses with another cell during fertilization in organisms that sexually reproduce. Gametes are of two types - male
gametes (called sperm) and female gametes (called ovum or egg).
Offspring : It is the product of the reproductive processes of an animal or plant.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Most of the animals reproduce sexually. Sexual reproduction is usually biparental i.e., involves a male and female individual producing
male and female gametes respectively. Such animals are called unisexual or dioecious. This process occurs during fertilization.
During fertilization, these gametes fuse to form a single celled structure called zygote which later develops into new individual. It is
a slower mode of reproduction. Individuals formed are not genetically identical but only resemble both the parents.
A special organ system called the reproductive system is responsible for carrying out the process of reproduction in humans. Let us
now discuss about sexual reproductive organs in human beings.
In sex cell (male or female), the nucleus carries half of the information needed for reproduction.
6. Accessory sex glands – seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral gland.
Bladder
Seminal
Pubic bone vesicle
Vas deferens Ejaculatory
duct
Urethra
Prostate
Erectile
tissue Rectum
Penis Epididymis
Scrotum
Testis
Male reproductive system
Testes
Testes (paired structure) are located outside the abdominal cavity within a sac called scrotal sac
or scrotum. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called seminiferous tubules. These Head
tubules are responsible for producing the sperm cells through a process called spermatogenesis.
Scrotum has a protective function and acts as a climate control system of the testes. It keeps the
Middle
testes temperature at 2°C, lower than body temperature. The lower temperature is required for the Piece
normal development of sperms.
Each sperm is a single motile cell with a head, middle piece and a tail region.
Tail
(i) Head : The shape of head is oval and flat. It is the essential part of sperm as it contains
nucleus and acrosome. Nucleus carries information about the cell-reproduction.
(ii) Middle piece : The middle piece of a sperm is formed of numerous mitochondria. Mitochondria
provides energy and strength for the movement of sperm.
(iii) Tail : It is fine, vibrating posterior portion of a sperm. It helps in the movement of sperm in
the fallopian tube during the fertilization process. Structure of sperm
The testes produce a hormone called testosterone. Testosterone is a male sex hormone that
controls the development of male secondary sexual characters.
NOTE
Acrosome is derived from the golgi complex and contains hydrolyzing enzymes that help in fertilization of the ovum.
Ejaculation
It is the release of sperm cells and seminal plasma from the male reproductive system.
Epididymis :
It is a long coiled tube that extends from the top of the testes along its side to its back. It collects and stores sperms temporarily. It helps
in storage, nutrition and maturation of sperms.
Vas Deferens :
It is connected with epididymis at the tail end. It transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation.
Urethra :
Urethra extends from penis to external opening. It helps in conduction of sperms, secretion of glands and carries urine to urinary
bladder. The urethra, at different times carries both urine and sperms.
Penis :
Penis is a cylindrical, highly vascularized erectile organ. Its function is to transfer sperm into vagina of female reproductive system.
The tip of the penis is called glans penis. The skin in this region is folded to form a retractable casing called the foreskin or prepuce.
NOTE
Semen/Seminal plasma
It is a milky, viscous and alkaline fluid, ejaculated from the male reproductive system during orgasm. Seman contain sperms and the
secretion of epididymis, seminal vesicle, prostate gland and bulbourethral (cowper’s) gland.
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Functions of semen
– Provides a fluid medium for sperm.
– Nourishes and activates sperm to keep them viable and motile.
– Its alkalinity protects the sperm from the acidity of the vagina.
Accessory or secondary sex glands :
The accessory or secondary sex glands includes seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral gland.
(i) Seminal vesicles – These are sac like pouches, situated between the bladder. It secretes viscous fluid which constitute the main
part of the ejaculate. It produces fructose (which provide nourishment for the activity of sperm), citric acid and prostaglandin.
(ii) Prostate gland – It s a walnut sized structure located below the urinary bladder in front of the rectum. Its fluid helps to nourish
the sperm.
(iii) Bulbourethral gland – These are pea sized structure located on the side of the urethra just below the prostate gland. It secretes
a clear, viscous mucous which is lubricating in function.
Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system consists of organs that plays an important role in the production and transportation of gametes,
process of ovulation, fertilization, pregnancy, birth and child care and production of sex hormones.
Oviduct
(or Fallopian tube)
Vagina also serves as the birth canal by stretching to allow the delivery of the foetus during child birth.
During menstruation, the menstrual flow exits the body via the vagina.
Reproduction in Animals 127
P oi n t
How is sperm different from ovum?
SOLUTION
Sperm is microscopic, motile and flagellated cell whereas ovum is larger, non-motile, spherical and food laden cell.
FERTILIZATION
Fertilization is the process where sperm (male gamete) fuses with ovum (female gametes) to form a single celled called zygote. In
humans, the fertilization process most often occurs when sexual intercourse takes place during a woman's fertile or ovulation period.
Sperms released inside the vagina travel towards the uterus to the fallopian tube to seek out the egg. Hundreds of thousands of
sperms may be released during ejaculation, but only one gets to penetrate the egg and start the fertilization process. Sperms are
capable of staying alive for 48 to 72 hours inside the female reproductive tract, and can fertilize the egg as soon as ovulation takes
place. Hence, the fusion of egg nuclei with the sperm nuclei is called fertilization.
The zygote is a “fertilized ovum” or “fertilized egg”. It is the beginning of a new individual. In multicellular
organisms, it is the earliest developmental stage of the embryo and in single cell organisms, the zygote divides
to produce offspring usually through the process of cell division.
This results in the formation of a fertilized egg or zygote. The zygote undergoes division and specific changes to grow into a new
individual.
Nucleus ovum
P oi n t
Why all kinds of characteristics run in families?
SOLUTION
Every human body gets half of its genes from each parent, therefore it inherits some of the features from the mother and some
from the father. That is why, all kind of characteristics, for example, height, run in families.
If two eggs are fertilized by two sperms, this result in fraternal twins. They are also known as non-identical twins. Fraternal
offspring may look alike, but they are genetically different and may not be all of same sex. On the contrary, identical
offspring, are genetically same and are always of same sex.
Y Y
X X
Fertilization Fertilization
XY XY
Zygoteor Zygoteor
fertilized egg fertilized egg
Develops Develops
XY XY XY XY
into two
cell stage
Each develops
into a separate
male child
XY (twins) XY XY
Conjoined twins joined at the hip, chest, back, face etc. are called Siamese twins.
CONNECTING TOPIC
TYPES OF FERTILIZATION
The process of fertilization might take place either outside the female body or inside the female body. On the basis of this, fertilization
is divided into two types – external fertilization and internal fertilization.
Reproduction in Animals 129
External Fertilization
External fertilization is characterized by the release of both sperm and egg into an
external environment. Sperm will fertilize the egg outside of the organism, as seen in
spawning. External fertilization occurs mostly in wet environments and requires both
the male and the female to release their gametes into their surroundings (usually
water). An advantage of external fertilization is that it results in the production of a
large number of offspring. One disadvantage is that environmental hazards such as
predators greatly reduce the chance of surviving into adulthood. Amphibians and
fish are examples of animals that reproduce this way. It is very common in aquatic
animals such as fish, starfish etc. Eggs of frog in a layer of jelly
Internal Fertilization
The fertilization that takes place inside the female body is called internal fertilization. In this sperm meets the egg while it is still
attached to the female body. Humans, cows, hens etc are examples of internal fertilization. Animals that use internal fertilization
specialize in the protection of the developing egg. For example, reptiles and birds secrete eggs that are covered by a protective shell
that is resistant to water loss and damage. Internal fertilization protects the fertilized egg or embryo from predation and harsh
environments, which results in higher survival rates than can occur with external fertilization.
Table : Difference between Internal fertilization and External fertilization.
The number of eggs that an individual produce for successful reproduction depends on two factors–
(i) Chances of fertilization (ii) Level of parental care
Hence, if there is low chance of fertilization and less care, then large number of eggs are produced. This is because some of eggs and
sperms may get exposed to water movement, wind and rainfall. These factors prevent the sperms from reaching the eggs. Thus,
production of large numbers of eggs and sperms is necessary to ensure fertilization of at least a few of them.
In case of hen, development of embryo takes place inside the female body. The zygote divides repeatedly and move down to fallopian
tube to form embryo. During development, embryo forms several protective layers around it. As a result a white colour hard shell is
formed around developing embryo. After this, the hen lays a fertilized egg. The parent hen then sits and warms the eggs or keeps
them safely in the warm place till they hatch. After three weeks, the chick is completely developed and it bursts open the egg shell.
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130 BIOLOGY
embryo
yolk chick
yolk blood
A fertilized egg vessels
A chick
10 days after fertilization
Stages of development in hen
Invitro Fertilization
Reproduction in Animals 131
A foetus develops the sense of vision around the 26th week. At this time, the eyes open and even begin to blink.
Gestation Period
It is the period from fertilization to birth. In human beings, the gestation period is about nine months.
DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO
Fertilization results in the formation of zygote (a single diploid 3. Cleavage
cell) that begins to develop into a multicellular embryo. The 2-Cell 4-Cell
zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells. The cells sperm
stage stage
4. Morula
then begin to form groups that develop into different tissues nuclous
8-Cell
egg stage
and organs of the body. This developing structure is called an nucleus
embryo. The embryo gets embedded in the wall of uterus for
Early
further development. The close attachment of the embryo with 2. Fertilization 5. blastocyst
Placenta (Section)
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132 BIOLOGY
Umbilical cord: The flexible cord that attaches an embryo or foetus to the placenta. The umbilical cord
contains blood vessels that supply nutrients and oxygen to the foetus and remove its wastes, including carbon
dioxide.
Function of placenta -
(i) It protects embryo / foetus from entry of pathogen from mother’s body.
(ii) It supplies oxygen from the mother to foetus and excretes CO2 from foetus to the mother’s blood.
(iii) It provides nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, lipid, vitamin etc. to the foetus from mother’s blood.
(iv) It helps in excretion of metabolic wastes, CO2 and urea from embryo into mother’s blood.
The developing foetus is protected by the uterus and a liquid called amniotic fluid. Amniotic fluid is present inside a bag called
amnion.
Uterus
Cervix
Foetus
(Developing baby after eight weeks
of fertilization)
Amniotic sac
Uterine wall
Amniotic fluid
(A fluid that protects the foetus against mechanical
shocks and temperature changes)
Anus
Vagina
Tadpole looks completely different from frog. The tadpole that emerges from the eggs contains gills, a tail and a small circular mouth.
They can swim freely within the water. During its development, tadpole grows and undergo some abrupt changes in their structure and
develops into mature frog. The metamorphosis of tadpole begins with the development of limbs, lungs development and finally the
absorption of tail by the body. As a result of such changes, the tadpole gradually gets transformed into frogs.
Mouth
Bud
Bud
Budding in Hydra
Binary fission :
Binary fission is another type of asexual reproduction seen in bacteria and Amoeba. It
Mother cell
involves the division of nucleus followed by that of the cytoplasm, breaking the body into
two young ones. It occurs in unicellular organisms.
Amoeba is a single-celled organism. It begins the process of reproduction by the division of
its nucleus into two nuclei. This is followed by the division of its body into two with each
Division of
part receiving a nucleus. Finally, two Amoebae are produced from one Amoeba. The newly Nucleus
formed daughter Amoeba is genetically identical to each other and to the parent Amoeba.
Division of
NOTE Cytoplasm
P oi n t
Why offspring are identical to one another and to their parent in asexual reproduction?
SOLUTION
In asexual reproduction, the offspring comes from the same parent. So, they are identical to one another and to their parent.
CLONING
Cloning is the process that is used to create an identical (exact) copy of a cell, tissue or a complete organism. It was
successfully performed for the first time by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland. They
successfully cloned a Scottish sheep named Dolly. Dolly was born on 5th July 1996 and was the first mammal to be cloned
from adult somatic cell. During the process of cloning of Dolly, somatic cells was collected from the mammary gland of a
female Finn Dorsett sheep. Simultaneously, an egg was obtained from a Scottish black face ewe. Then they transferred the
nucleus from the cell from Finn Dorsett sheep to the egg of the Scottish black face ewe. After few days, the egg with new
nucleus started behaving like a normal fertilized zygote, which gradually developed into an embryo. This embryo was then
surgically implanted into the uterus of a surrogate mother, which finally gave birth to a lamb called Dolly.
Though Dolly was given birth by the Scottish black face ewe, it was found to be identical to the Finn Dorsett sheep from
which the nucleus was taken.
Dolly was a healthy lamb and produced several offspring of her own through sexual means. Unfortunately, Dolly died on
14th February 2003 due to certain lung disease.
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136 BIOLOGY
SUMMARY
Reproduction is the biological process through which a living organism produces offspring that are similar to themselves.
There are two modes of reproduction –
l Sexual reproduction – Reproduction resulting from fusion of male and female gametes.
l Asexual reproduction – Reproduction in which only a single parent is involved.
The male reproductive organs includes testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, penis and accessory glands like seminal
vesicle, prostate gland and bulbourethral gland.
The female reproductive organs include ovaries, oviducts, uterus and vagina.
The testes produce male gametes called sperms while the ovary produces female gametes called ova.
The process of fusion of male and female gamete is called fertilization.
The fertilized egg is called zygote.
There are two types of fertilization –
l Internal fertilization – Fertilization that takes place inside the female body.
Eg. – Human beings, hens, cows, dogs.
l External fertilization – Fertilization that takes place outside the female body.
Eg. – Frogs, fish and starfish.
Animals such as humans, cow, etc., which give birth to young ones are called viviparous animals.
Animals such as hen, frog, lizard, etc., which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
Placenta is a vascular tissue that is present in the inner lining of uterus. It is connected to foetus by umbilical cord.
Umbilical cord is a cord containing blood vessels that connects the placenta with the foetus.
The process of release of an egg by an ovary is called ovulation.
The process of releasing blood and mucus every month through the vagina is called menstruation. It is usually a 28 day
cycle.
The transformation of the larva into adult through drastic changes is called metamorphosis.
Clones are group of genetically identical organisms derived from a single individual by means of asexual reproduction.
Budding in yeast and binary fission in Amoeba are two types of asexual reproduction.
Reproduction in Animals 137
Fill in the Blanks : 8. Umbilical cord connects placenta with the baby.
9. Head portion of human sperm carries genetic material for cell
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an reproduction.
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s). 10. Binary fission is a type of sexual reproduction.
Match the Following :
1. The type of reproduction in which only single parent is
involved is called _________ reproduction. DIRECTIONS : Each question contains terms (Given in column
I) and their features or functions (given in columns II). Terms
2. Animals which give birth to young ones are called ________
given in column I have to be matched with features given in
animals. column II.
3. Egg laying animals are called _______ .
1. Column-I Column-II
4. The type of reproduction in which both male and female (Terms) (Features)
animals take part is called _________.
A. Testes p. Produces tiny sperm cells
5. The fusion of ovum and sperm is called _________. B. Epididymis q. Transfer sperm to vagina
6. The fertilized egg is called a __________. of females
7. The male gamete is called _________. C. Vas deferens r. Lubricates the sperm
D. Urethra s. Storage and nourishes
8. The female gamete is called ________.
the sperm
9. The zygote divides repeatedly to form an ______. E. Penis t. Transfer sperm from
10. The embryo gets embedded in the wall of ________ for its epididymis to urethra
F. Prostate gland u. Carries urine and sperm
further development.
11. Amoeba reproduces by the process of __________. 2. Column-I Column-II
(Terms) (Function)
12. In humans, fertilization occurs in __________.
A. Ovary p. Produces ovum
13. An ovum is ________ celled. B. Oviduct q. Carries ovary to uterus
14. The process in which a bud appears on the body wall of C. Uterus r. Contains developing
certain organism that grows into a full organism is called foetus
_______. D. Vagina s. Receives penis during
sexual intercourse.
True / False :
Very Short Answer Questions :
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
answer as true or false.
1. Define fertilization.
1. In frog, fertilization occurs inside the body.
2. Where does internal fertilization occur?
2. Fertilization is the process where sperm fuses with ovum to
form a single cell called zygote. 3. In which type of asexual reproduction, an animal reproduces
3. In asexual reproduction the offsprings are not completely by dividing into two individuals?
identical to the parent. 4. Through which process a tadpole develops into an adult.
4. Fertilization of ova in human female occur in the vagina. 5. Name three reproductive organs found in females.
5. Placenta protects the embryo from entry of pathogen from 6. Name reproductive organs found in males.
mother’s body.
7. What is zygote?
6. In internal fertilization large number of eggs are produced.
7. Budding in Hydra is a process of asexual reproduction. 8. What is vasectomy?
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138 BIOLOGY
9. What is ovulation? 9. What is the function of ovary?
10. What is a gestation period? 10. Write about the development of butterfly.
11. What is metamorphosis?
11. What is cloning? Write the name of first cloned animal.
12. What is a test tube baby?
12. What do the sperms do after being released?
13. Expand IVF.
13. Write difference between external and internal fertilization.
14. Define cloning.
14. Write the functions of placenta.
15. What is the name of the young one of frog?
16. Name the process by which Planaria reproduce. 15. Write the differences between viviparous and oviparous.
17. Name the process by which sponges reproduce. 16. Write a short note on menstruation.
Text - Book Exercise : 10. Complete the cross-word puzzle using the hints given below.
1. Explain the importance of reproduction in organisms. 1 E R 2 I L I 3 A T I 4 N
2. Describe the the process of fertilization in human beings. E Y V
3. Choose the most appropriate answer: S G I 5
(a) Internal fertilization occurs T O P I
(i) in female body. I 6 N T E R N A L N
(ii) outside female body. 7 U D S E R A
(iii) in male body. 8 V A R Y
(iv) outside male body. U Y
(b) A tadpole develops into an adult frog by the process S
of Across
(i) fertilization. (ii) metamorphosis 1. The process of the fusion of the gametes.
(iii) embedding (iv) budding. 6. The type of fertilization in hen.
7. The term used for bulges observed on the sides of the
(c) The number of nuclei present in a zygote is body of Hydra.
(i) none. (ii) one. 8. Eggs are produced here.
(iii) two. (iv) four. Down
2. Sperms are produced in these male reproductive organs.
4. Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or
3. Another term for the fertilized egg.
False (F):
4. These animals lay eggs.
(a) Oviparous animals give birth to young ones. 5. A type of fission in amoeba.
Exemplar Questions :
(b) Each sperm is a single cell.
(c) External fertilization takes place in frog.
1. What is the importance of reproduction?
(d) A new human individual develops from a cell called 2. In markets, eggs of birds are available but never eggs of
gamete. dogs. Why?
(e) Egg laid after fertilization is made up of a single cell. 3. The eggs of frogs do not have shells for protection, yet
(f) Amoeba reproduces by budding. they are safe in water. How?
4. The term metamorphosis is not used while describing human
(g) Fertilization is necessary even in asexual reproduction. development. Why?
(h) Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction. 5. Mother gives birth to a baby but the baby has characters of
(i) A zygote is formed as a result of fertilization. both parents. How is this possible?
6. How is reproduction in hydra different from that in amoeba?
(j) An embryo is made up of a single cell. 7. How can we say that fish exhibits external fertilisation?
5. Give two difference between a zygote and a foetus. 8. Hens and frogs are both oviparous exhibiting different types
6. Define asexual reproduction. Describe two methods of of fertilisation. Explain.
asexual reproduction in animals. 9. Observe the following figures.
7. In which female reproductive organ does the embryo get
embedded?
8. What is metamorphosis? Give examples. (a) (b)
9. Differentiate between internal fertilization and external
fertilization.
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HOTS Questions : 6. Visit a poultry farm near to your home and observe the steps
of development of eggs to chick.
DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions. 7. How does a leech do reproduction?
8. What is “parental care”? Give some idea about parental care
1. Collect information about first test tube baby of the world. with different examples?
2. Why cows always produce one baby, whereas dog produces 9. Production of sperms requires low temperature. How is it
more than one puppies at a time? accomplished in human body?
3. Why most of the twins are similar? 10. An ovum allows the entry of only one sperm at a time. Why?
4. Some twins are identical but some twins are non-identical. 11. Collect information about amniocentesis? Why it is necessary
What is the reasons behind it? to ban amniocentesis?
5. How will you determine the sex of foetus while inside the 12. Why umbilical cord is called as life line of developing baby?
mother’s womb? Explain.
Reproduction in Animals 141
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
The tissues become fluid and then development of adult Long Answer Questions :
butterfly starts.
1. Diagrammatic representations of embryo in uterus.
11. Cloning is the process of creating genetically identical copies
of biological matter. This may include genes, cells, tissues or
entire organisms. Cloning from adult animals was introduced
to the public in 1997 when scientists announced the birth of
Dolly, the first animal cloned in this way.
12. The sperms swim in the oviduct to reach the egg. When they
reach the egg one of the sperm may fuse the egg to form
zygote.
13.
External fertilization Internal fertilization
(i) External fertilization occurs Internal fertilization occurs
outside the female body. within the female body
gender of the foetus and if the foetus was a girl the baby urethra travels through the penis and carries semen as
would be aborted. Seeing this reason amniocentesis is banned well as urine. In females, the urethra is shorter than in
in India. the male, and it emerges above the vaginal opening.
12. The umbilical cord (also called birth cord) attaches the 7. (b) Each sperm cell has three parts: a head, middle piece,
placenta to the foetus. It is made up of three blood vessels: and tail. An acrosome at the head tip produces enzymes
two smaller arteries (which carry blood to the placenta) and that helps penetrate the female ovum (egg). During
a larger vein (which returns blood to the foetus). It can grow conception, chromosomes (genetic material) in the
to be 60 cm long, allowing the baby enough cord to safely nucleus (cell control centre) join with chromosomes in
move around without causing damage to the cord or the the ovum. The middle piece contains mitochondria
placenta. Umbilical cord development begins around the fifth which provide energy for the sperm. The mitochondria
week of the embryonic period of foetal development. The are tightly spiralled around the axial filaments
umbilical cord is derived from the yolk sac and allantois (contractile portion) of the flagellum (tail). Centrioles
(which, in turn, were derived from the same zygote that the form the tail, which moves the sperm toward the ovum.
foetus develops from) and replaces the yolk sac as the foetus' 8. (c) The genetic information is carried by head part of the
source of nutrients. Umbilical cord blood contains stem cells sperm for more refer answer 7.
that can be used to treat some immune disorders and cancers,
9. (a) An ovary is large due to presence of yolk. Yolk is a
so it is sometimes collected after the cord has been cut from
yellow, usually spherical portion of an egg of a bird or
the new born baby. Due to all these reasons umbilical cord is
reptile, surrounded by the albumen and serving as
called the lifeline of the foetus.
nutriment for the developing young.
10. (b) Estrogens are hormones that are important for sexual
and reproductive development, mainly in women. They
are also referred to as female sex hormones. In women,
Multiple Choice Questions : estrogen is produced mainly in the ovaries, but it is
also produced by fat cells and the adrenal gland.
1. (c) Leech is a hermaphrodite. A hermaphrodite is an Estrogen is involved in the onset of puberty, playing a
organism that has reproductive organs normally role in the development of secondary sex
associated with both male and female sexes. characteristics, such as breasts, and pubic and armpit
2. (c) Testosterone is a steroid hormone, secreted primarily hair.
by the testicles of males and the ovaries of females, 11. (d) Another name of oviduct is fallopian tube. The
although small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal fallopian tubes, also known as the uterine tubes, are a
glands. It is the principal male sex hormone. In men, pair of 4-inch (10 cm) long narrow tubes connecting
testosterone plays a key role in the development of the ovaries to the uterus. Ova (egg cells) are carried to
male reproductive tissues such as the testis and prostate the uterus through the fallopian tubes following
as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics ovulation. The ova may also be fertilized while in the
such as increased muscle, bone mass, and the growth fallopian tubes if sperm is present following sexual
of body hair. intercourse.
3. (b) Sperm is a single celled gamete. It is smaller, usually 12. (a) The umbilical cord connects a baby in the womb to its
motile male reproductive cell of most organisms that mother. It runs from an opening in baby's stomach to
reproduce sexually. Sperm cells are haploid -they have the placenta in the womb. The average cord is about
half the number of chromosomes as the other cells in 50cm (20 inches) long.
the organism's body). In male animals, sperms are 13. (a) Unisexual animals are those organism or species which
normally produced by the testes in extremely large are capable of producing only male or female gametes
numbers in order to increase the chances of fertilizing (sex cells) but never both.
an egg.
14. (d) Vasectomy is a surgical procedure for male sterilization
4. (b) Testes produces male gamete called sperm. and/or permanent birth control. During the procedure,
For more refer answer 3. the male vasa deferentia are severed and then tied/
5. (c) Parthenogenesis is a type of asexual reproduction in sealed in a manner so as to prevent sperm from entering
which a female gamete or egg cell develops into an into the seminal stream (ejaculate) and thereby prevent
individual without fertilization. Animals including most fertilization from occurring.
kinds of wasps, bees, and ants that have no sex 15. (b) Refer answer 11.
chromosomes reproduce by this process. 16. (a) In frog, fertilization is external in water. In almost all
6. (c) Urethra is not a part of female reproductive system. It frogs, egg fertilization happens outside the female's
is a tube that leads from the bladder and transports body instead of inside. The female releases her eggs
and discharges urine outside the body. In males, the and the male releases his sperm at the same time. In
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148 BIOLOGY
order to make sure that the sperm reaches the eggs, the inherit the genes of that parent only. The offsprings
male and female get into a mating posture called will be exact genetic copies of the parent. Regeneration
amplexus. is the ability of an organism to replace its lost or
17. (a) The number of chromosomes is 8. damaged body parts. Hydra has great power of
regeneration.
18. (a) Vas deferens connects the epididymis to the seminal
vesicles. The vas deferens is a muscular tube that 2. (a) Asexual reproduction is the primary form of
reproduction for single-celled organisms such as the
passes upward alongside the testicles and transports
archaebacteria, eubacteria, and protists. Types of
the sperm-containing fluid called semen. The
asexual reproduction are budding, binary fission,
epididymis is a set of coiled tubes (one for each testicle) fragmentation, regeneration etc. [For more refer answer
that connects to the vas deferens. 2 of long questions.]
19. (b) After sperms move through the vas deferens they enter 3. (c) Gonads are the reproductive cells found in the testes
the urethra. in males and the ovaries in females. They produce
20. (c) Sperm tail consists of flagellum. Tail helps in swimming. gametes which are haploid in nature.
This ability to swim is essential for the male fertility as 4. (a) Scrotum is a pouch of skin arising from the lower
the sperm has to swim up the vaginal canal, cervix, and abdominal wall and hanging between the legs. The two
uterine canal to reach the ovum. testes lie in respective scrotal sacs. The scrotum acts
21. (b) Zygote is a fertilized egg. It is the cell produced by the as a thermoregulator and provides an optimal
temperature for the formation of sperms. This
union of two gametes, before it undergoes cleavage.
temperature is 1-3 degree Celsius lower the temperature
22. (c) Mature human sperm cell contains 23 chromosomes. of the body. Failure of testes to descend into scrotum
causes sterility. Because formation of sperms does not
Assertion & Reason :
occur at abdominal temperature. It occurs at a
1. (b) Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction by temperature that is 2 degree centigrade lower than the
which offsprings arise from a single organism, and body temperature.
Reaching the Age of Adolescence 149
Chapter
REACHING THE AGE OF
6 ADOLESCENCE
INTRODUCTION
Changes in human body start from the day it comes to this world. Humans pass through various stages in their life. These are
- infancy, childhood, adolescence and adult-hood. Infancy is the first stage. A new born baby remains infant till one year. An
infant can see, feel the touch, hear sounds and react by crying, smiling or moving hands and legs. Childhood is the stage
between infancy and adolescence during which a child learns about his surroundings and culture. As he grows up, he develops
various ideas and thoughts. Adolescence, the time period between childhood and adulthood, is the transitional stage during
which various biological and psychological changes occur. Human beings become adults by the age of 18. An adult becomes
physically, psychologically and socially mature. He reaches the maximum height, becomes sexually active and mentally and
emotionally strong.
In this chapter, we will learn about all such changes that take place in the human body after which a person becomes capable of
reproduction. Also we will discuss the role played by hormones in bringing these changes in a child.
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For girls, puberty generally begins sometimes between ages 9-13 and for boys between ages 10-15!!
P oi n t
Is puberty and adolescence the same thing?
SOLUTION
No. Puberty is the start of the time when a boy is biologically ready to become a father and a girl is biologically ready to
become a mother. It basically refers to the bodily changes of sexual maturation rather than psychological and cultural aspects
of adolescence.
PUBERTY
Puberty is the process of physical changes by which a child's body becomes an adult and capable of reproduction. It occurs at about
age 12 in girls and age 14 in boys. Puberty is characterized by maturing of the genital organs, development of secondary sex
characteristics in boys, and in girls, onset of menstruation. Both sexes experience a swift increase in body size and changes in body
shape and composition. Puberty marks the beginning of adolescence and ends when an adolescent reaches reproductive maturity.
Puberty attained before the normal age is called precocious puberty. Early puberty keeps the female shorter.
CHANGES AT PUBERTY
Puberty involves all sorts of big and small changes to the body and brain. During puberty, body grows faster than at any other time
in your life, except for when you were a baby.
The various changes that takes place in adolescents during puberty are - increase in height, voice change, change in body shape,
increased activity of sweat and sebaceous glands, development of sex organs and reaching mental, intellectual and emotional
maturity.
INCREASE IN HEIGHT
Increase in height is the most visible change during puberty. During this time, the long bones of the arms and the legs elongate and
make a person tall. Epiphysis is a vital growth area near the end of a long bone, which later fuses with the main bone through
ossification. Epiphyseal plates serve as the site of bone growth/elongation. Both boys & girls reach their maximum height by the time
they reach the age of 18. The growth rate varies from individual to individual. When you go through puberty, it might seem like your
sleeves are always getting shorter and your pants are creeping up your legs. Why it is happening so ? It is because your body is
going through a growth spurt that lasts for about 2 to 3 years.
Reaching the Age of Adolescence 151
The other parts of body, especially feet, are growing faster than everything else. During adolescence, to ensure healthy growth of
bones, muscles and other parts of body needs the correct nutrition.
Initially girls grow faster than boys but by about 18 years of her age, both will reach their maximum height. Some children grow
suddenly at puberty and then slow down, while some grow gradually.
Have you ever thought why do we stop growing after a period. We stop growing after a period of certain age because we are
genetically programmed to do so. Genes, inherited from our parents, are responsible for growth and development. Our genes start
working at the moment of conception when a single cell becomes a complex organism in which billions of cells work in concert. Once
we are born, we continue to grow and develop until the completion of puberty. At this point our genetic program tells us to stop
growing. The complex interaction of genes, nutrients and hormones cause bone cells to proliferate at the growth plate of long bones.
The key hormones in this process are growth hormone, thyroxine, androgens and estrogen. They are secreted by the pituitary, thyroid
and reproductive glands respectively. At the completion of puberty, the reproductive glands in both males and females increase the
production of the hormone estrogen. It is the high concentration of estrogen in the blood that causes the growth plates of our bones
to fuse. This fusion effectively closes the growth centres of long bones and renders them unable to respond to the hormones that
initiate growth.
Growth spurt
Growth spurt is a period of rapid increase in growth or is a short burst of activity or something that happens
in a hurry. When that growth spurt is at its peak, some kids grow 4 to more inches in a year. At the end of your
growth spurt you will reach your normal adult height or just about. The average growth spurts lasts 24–36
months.
We continue to grow, but only slightly, after the age of 25 and we reach our maximum height at about the age of 35 or 40. After that we
shrink about half an inch every ten years. The reason for this is the drying up of the cartilages in our joints and in the spinal column
as we get older.
P oi n t
Why the height of an individual is more or
less similar to their mother or father or other family members?
SOLUTION
The height of an individual depends on the genes inherited from parents. Genes provides instruction for making proteins and
proteins determine the structure and function of each cell in the body. Genes are responsible for all the characteristics one
inherits. But though genetic help determines character, environmental influence have a considerable impact on shaping an
individuals physical appearance and personality. So really, the way one’s body looks and functions is a combination of
genes and environment.
iN THE LAB
How can we calculate the full height of an individual?
The full height of an individual can be calculated by using the following formula.
Present height (cm)
×100
% age of full height at this age
The given table gives the average rate of growth in height of boys and girls with age. The figures in columns 2 and 3, give the
percentage of the height a person has reached at the age given in column 1. For example, by the age 14, a boy has reached 92% of
his probable full height, while a girl has reached 98% of her full height. These figures are only representative and there may be
individual variations. Use the table for your friends and work out how tall they are likely to be.
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% of full height
Age of years Boys Girls
8 72 77
9 75 81
10 78 84
11 81 88
12 84 91
13 88 95
14 92 98
15 95 99
16 98 99.5
17 99 100
18 100 100
Example: A girl is 10 years old and 124 cm tall. Calculate her full height (using the above formula) at the end of her growth period.
VOICE CHANGES
Both boys and girls experience voice change as they grow older. A boy’s voice may change from sounding like a little bird to
sounding like somebody’s dad! Why it is so ? This is due to changes in larynx.
The larynx (also known as voice box) is a part of respiratory system that holds vocal cords. Larynx helps the individual to talk, sing,
hum, yell, cough and make all sort of noises. During puberty larynx gets bigger. When a boy reaches puberty his body starts secreting
a hormone called testosterone. This testosterone causes the boy’s larynx to grow and his vocal cords to get longer and thicker. Vocal
cords are thin muscles that stretch across the larynx like rubber bands.
Larynx is also responsible for preventing food from entering the airway and controlling the airflow during
breathing.
When you speak, air rushes from the lungs and makes vocal cords to vibrate and produce the sound of your voice. Before you reach
puberty, your larynx is small enough and your vocal cords are small and thin. That is why your voice is higher than an adult’s. As you
go through puberty, the larynx gets bigger and the vocal cords get lengthened and thickened. This makes your voice deeper. As your
body adjusts to this changing structure (larynx) your voice may ‘crack’ or ‘break’. But this process lasts only for few months. Once the
larynx has finished growing, your voice won’t make those unpredictable noises. The growing voice box in boys can be seen as a
protruding part of the throat called Adam’s apple. When the larynx grows bigger, it tilts to a different angle and part of it sticks out
inside the neck. It can be seen at the front of the throat.
Reaching the Age of Adolescence 153
Adam’s apple
For girls, the larynx also grows bigger but not as much as in boys. It means there is no Adam’s apple in a women’s neck. Generally, girls
have a high pitched voice whereas the voice in boys is deep. Sometimes, the muscles of the growing voice box go out of control and
voice becomes hoarse.
• Adam’s apple is the largest cartilage of the larynx and is named so because it looks like a small, rounded
apple located in front of throat.
• The process of sound production in the larynx is know as phonation.
LARYNX
Anatomy of larynx
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Sweat, itself has no smell. The stinky smell of sweat arises when the sweat mixes with the bacteria that line on
our skin.
Laughter increases the amount of natural killer cells which destroys tumours and viruses, lowers blood
pressure and increases oxygen in the blood.
Reaching the Age of Adolescence 155
But have you ever thought what initiates changes at puberty? The changes that occur at puberty
or adolescence are controlled by hormones. Hormones from pituitary
Hormones are chemical substances produced in the body that control and regulate the activity of
Stimulates
certain cells or organs. They are secreted by endocrine glands (ductless) of endocrine system
directly into the bloodstream. Each hormone has a definite function and acts on a particular tissue. Gonads
Once a hormone is secreted, it travels through the bloodstream to the cells designed to receive its
message. These cells are called target cells. The changes at puberty in males and females are Releases
triggered by secretion of male and female sex hormones from testes and ovaries respectively. Male Testosterone (in male)
hormone is called testosterone and female hormone is called estrogen. Testosterone and estrogen Estrogen (in female)
released by these glands is again released into the blood and reaches the target sites to trigger in the blood stream
various body changes such as growth of facial/pubic hair and growth of breasts and mammary (milk
producing) glands. Reaches
Hormones are primarily controlled by endocrine system. Endocrine system operates as a chemical
communication system. They work closely with the nervous system in regulating certain activities Respective target sites–
of the body. Testes and ovaries
Stimulates
• In 1902, first hormone discovered was secretin by Bayliss and Starling.
• Types of hormones on the basis of their chemical composition: Changes in the
- Amine (Thyroxine, epinephrine, norepinephrine) body and the
onset of puberty
- Steroids (Hormones of adrenal cortex, testis and ovaries)
- Proteinaceous and peptides hormones (Hormones of hypothalamus,
The onset of puberty is
pancreas and pituitary) controlled by hormones.
P oi n t
Why don’t women have beards?
SOLUTION
Because the various glands and hormones in the bodies of female deliberately act to prevent the growth of beards in women.
The female sex hormone estrogen works in such a way that growth of hair on the head is developed while the growth of beard
and body hair is inhibited.
The male sex hormone, testosterone, on the other hand, works in such a way that beard and body hair are developed while
the growth of hair on the head is inhibited or slowed down in the development.
CONNECTING TOPIC
GLANDS
Glands are specialized organ in an animal's body that synthesizes a substance such as hormones for release into the bloodstream
(called endocrine gland) or into cavities inside the body or its outer surface (called exocrine gland).
TYPES OF GLANDS
Exocrine glands
The glands that release their secretions with the help of ducts at specific site are called exocrine glands. For example, the salivary
gland secretes saliva in the mouth through salivary duct. Similarly, digestive glands secrete their secretions in the digestive tract
with the help of ducts. Sweat gland is also an example of exocrine gland.
Endocrine glands
The glands that pour their secretions directly into the blood are called endocrine glands. Endocrine glands are also called
ductless glands as they do not have ducts. The secretions reach their target through blood. The major endocrine glands that make
up the human endocrine system are – pituitary gland, hypothalamus, thyroid glands, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pineal
body and reproductive glands (that include testes in male and ovaries in female).
Heterocrine glands
Heterocrine glands are partly exocrine with duct and partly endocrine without duct. Exocrine part releases secretion in duct while
endocrine part releases hormones in blood.
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For example, pancreas and gonads.
Tear (lachrymal)
glands
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Parathyroid glands
Salivary glands
Thyroid gland
Thymus gland Mammary
glands (women)
Adrenal glands
Liver
Pancreas
Ovaries (women)
Intestinal gland
Testes (men)
Urethral
glands (men)
Fig. 6.3 : Endocrine Glands Fig. 6.4 : Exocrine Glands
about the physical changes that make a boy look like an adult male. These changes are called male secondary sexual characteristics,
which you have learnt in previous chapter. Similarly, in girls during puberty the ovaries begin secreting the hormones called estrogen
and progesterone. These hormones develop female sexual features. The activity of testes and ovaries are under the control of
hormones from another gland called the master gland or pituitary gland. This gland is located at the base of the brain. Pituitary gland
is small (about 0.5 grams in weight) pea sized gland, present in brain. It secretes various hormones in blood, which stimulate the target
sites (testes and ovaries) to secrete their hormones. During puberty, the hypothalamus produces gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) which stimulates the anterior portion of the pituitary gland to produce luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH), these in turn induce cells of the ovary in girls and testis in boys to produce sex hormones that are necessary for
ovulation and spermatogenesis and corresponding secondary sex characteristics.
Periods (Menstrual cycle) usually come once in a month. But sometimes initially at the start of puberty it may
become irregular and some girls may skip a month.
Last day
28th
27th
26th
1st day
25th 2nd
3rd
24th
4th
Menstruation
23rd (uterus lining is shed) 5th
22th
6th
21th
7th
19th 9th
Ovulation
18th (Ovum is 10th
released
17th from ovary) 11th
16th 12th
15th 14th 13th
Menstrual cycle
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Many girls experience cramps before or during their periods (menstrual cycle). These cramps are caused by
prostaglandins which is produced to make the muscles of the uterus contract. The constricting muscles help
push the blood out through a girls vagina during her period.
transcription factor called the sex-determining region Y protein. A transcription factor is a protein that
attaches (binds) to specific regions of DNA and helps control the activity of particular genes. The sex-
determining region Y protein causes a foetus to develop as a male.
XY
XX
Girl
XY
XX Boy
Sex determination in humans
Therefore, it is the Y chromosome that is essential for the development of the male reproductive organs, and with no Y chromosome,
an embryo will develop into a female. This is because of the presence of the sex determining region of the Y chromosome, also known
as the SRY gene.
P oi n t
1. The gender of the baby depends on the father’s sperm and not on mother’s egg cell.
Many people blame the mother for the birth of a girl. Do you think it is scientifically true?
2. Is it possible to find out the sex of the baby while inside the mother’s womb.
SOLUTION
1. No, this is not scientifically correct. Male gender is decided by the presence of Y chromosome. The sperm cell carrying
either X or a Y chromosome determines the sex of the child because the egg cell from the mother (ovum) contains only
X chromosomes.
Cells in testis Cells in Ovary
(Male sex organ) (Female sex organ)
XY XX
XX XX XY XY
2. Doctors determine the sex of the child with the help of special techniques called sonography. Using the reflections of
high-frequency sound waves to construct an image of a body organ (a sonogram) is called sonography. It is commonly
used to observe foetal growth or study bodily organs. The process of killing foetus in mother’s womb is called abortion.
This killing of girl foetus is known as female infanticide.
The branch dealing with the study of endocrine glands and actions of thier hormones is called endocrinology.
How nervous system is different from endocrine system?
1. Hormones are transported around (to their target organs) the body by the blood. Therefore, hormonal
response are relatively slow compared with nervous responses.
2. Many hormonal responses (for example, growth) occur over relatively long period of time.
3. The main function of endocrine system is to maintain homeostasis within the body i.e. to keep the internal
environment of body constant whereas the main function of nervous system is to receive and respond to
stimulus.
4. Generally endocrine system is controlled by the nervous system through the hypothalamus, mediated by
pituitary gland.
HYPOTHALAMUS
Hypothalamus is located in the basal part of forebrain and it regulates wide range of body functions. It contains neurosecretory cells
that produces hormones. These hormones regulate the synthesis and secretion of pituitary gland. It is the main link between
endocrine and nervous system.
Reaching the Age of Adolescence 161
PITUITARY GLAND
It is a small pea-shaped gland located at the base of the brain and is attached to hypothalamus by a infundibular stalk.
The pituitary gland is anatomically divided into an – anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary
The hormone secreted by pituitary gland influences the secretion of other glands. Therefore, they are known as Trophic hormones.
Types of hormones secreted by pituitary glands are: thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH), prolactin (PRL), growth hormone (GH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), antidiuretic hormone (ADH)/vaso-
pressin, and oxytocin.
Hormones and functions of pituitary gland.
Anterior Pituitary Gland
- Growth hormone : Stimulates growth and development of body.
- Prolactin : Stimulates milk production after giving birth.
- ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) : Stimulates the adrenal glands.
Reaching the Age of Adolescence
- TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) : Stimulates the thyroid gland.
- FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) : Stimulates the ovaries and testes. LH (luteinizing hormone) : Stimulates the ovaries or testes.
Pineal gland
The pineal gland is a small pine cone shaped gland of the endocrine system. The pineal gland is composed of
cells called pinealocytes and cells of the nervous system called glial cells. It produces several important
hormones including melatonin. Melatonin influences sexual development and sleep-wake cycles.
Pituitary gland is also called as master gland of the endocrine system. Because:
(i) The hormones it secretes play an active part in controlling the functions of other endocrine glands.
(ii) Its job is to receive messages about the need for a particular hormone and to secrete the hormones that cause the
manufacture and release of the hormone.
THYROID GLAND
Thyroid gland is located in front of the neck below the larynx. The thyroid gland produces thyrox-
ine and calcitonin hormones. Iodine is required for the production of thyroxine hormone. Thyroxine
(also called T4) regulates the body temperature and also plays a major role in growth and develop-
ment of body.
The enlargement of thyroid gland due to deficiency of iodine in blood is termed goitre. This
condition can be prevented by eating vegetables and fishes as they contain iodine in it. The Thyroid
abnormal secretion of thyroxine affects the body. Trachea
Hypothyroidism is a condition caused by underproduction of thyroxine. It is characterized by low
energy production, slowing down of heart beat, loss of appetite and lethargy. Hyperthyroidism is
a condition caused by over production of thyroxine. It is characterized by increased energy pro- Thyroid Gland
duction, increased heart-beat, increased appetite, frequent sweating and shivering of hands.
Apart from all these, it also causes a condition called cretinism which is characterised by the retardation of mental and physical
development. In adult, the deficiency of thyroxine leads to a disease called Myxoedema while the over secretion of thyroxine leads to
exophthalmic goitre.
Calcitonin, also called thyrocalcitonin, is a protein hormone and plays an important role in calcium and phosphorus metabolism. In
particular calcitonin has the ability to decrease the blood calcium level at least in parts by effects on two well-studied target organs:
bone and kidney.
Calcitonin along with parathormone, produced by parathyroid gland regulates the level of calcium ions in blood.
Thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland in the human body. Thyroid gland is made up of two types of
cells-
(i) Follicular cells (secrete thyroxine, T4 and T3)
(ii) Parafollicular: cells (also called G-cells, secretes calcitonin)
PARATHYROID GLAND
Parathyroid glands are 4 small glands which are located on the posterior side of thyroid gland.
They regulate the level of calcium ions in the blood by secreting parathyroid hormone (PTH).
What happens if there is increase production of parathormone in blood? Calcium salts are
absorbed from the bones and added to blood. As a result, bones become brittle. Also, the kidneys Parathyroid
filter and excrete more calcium from the blood. This leads to stone formation in kidneys. gland
The deficiency of parathormone leads to tetany. Tetany is abnormal increase in the excitability of
nerves and muscles resulting in spasms of legs and arms. Parathyroid Gland
P oi n t
1. How can deficiency of calcium in blood be rectified?
2. What is the role of thyroid gland in regulating the level of calcium ions.
SOLUTION
1. The deficiency of calcium in blood can be rectified by stimulating parathyroid to release parathormone. As a result,
calcium is removed from bone, intestine and nephron to blood, there by increasing its quantity
Reaching the Age of Adolescence 163
2. When the level of calcium ions increases in blood, thyroid gland is stimulated to release calcitonin. Calcitonin, in turn
causes the excess calcium to excrete through urine or to get accumulated in the bones.
ADRENAL GLAND
Adrenal glands, which are also called suprarenal glands, are small, triangular glands Medulla
located on top of both kidneys. An adrenal gland is made of two parts: the outer region is
Cortex
called the adrenal cortex and the inner region is called the adrenal medulla.
Adrenal Cortex
The adrenal cortex secretes hormones that have an effect on the body's metabolism, on
chemicals in the blood, and on certain body characteristics. The adrenal cortex secretes
corticosteroids and other hormones directly into the bloodstream. The hormones pro- Adrenal gland
duced by the adrenal cortex include:
(i) Aldosterone - Aldosterone helps to maintain the balance of salts and water in the
blood, inhibits the sodium excrected into urine.
(ii) Cortisol - Cortisol stimulates the break down of proteins and fats. It also stimulates
synthesis of glucose from amino acids. Continuous use of cortisol causes elevation
of glucose level in blood.
Adrenal Gland
Adrenal Medulla
The adrenal medulla helps a person in coping with physical and emotional stress. The adrenal medulla secretes the following
hormones :
(i) Epinephrine (also called adrenaline) – This hormone increases the heart rate and force of heart contractions, facilitates blood
flow to the muscles and brain, causes relaxation of smooth muscles, helps with conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver
and other activities.
(ii) Norepinephrine (also called noradrenaline) – This hormone has little effect on smooth muscles, metabolic processes and
cardiac output, but has strong vasoconstrictive effects, thus increasing blood pressure.
ADRENALINE
Adrenaline is often known as the fight or flight hormone because it prepares the body to act, especially when the body
encounters stress. Hence it is also termed as stress hormone because it helps to calm down when one is very angry,
embarrassed or worried. It is released under emergency situations. Some of the physiological changes brought about by
adrenaline are –
• The rate and intensity of heart beat increases.
• Blood pressure increases
• Blood flow to the limbs inncreases
• Hair of skin rises
• Blood glucose level increases
• Blood flow to alimentary canal and skin reduces.
• It results in overall increase in energy level in the body.
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164 BIOLOGY
CONNECTING TOPIC
PANCREAS
Pancreas is the second largest endocrine gland. It is located near
the liver i.e. below the stomach. The pancreas is classified as a
heterocrine gland because it contains both endocrine and exocrine
glandular tissue. The exocrine tissue makes up about 99% of the
pancreas by weight while endocrine tissue makes up the other 1%.
The exocrine glands produce enzymes important to digestion. The
endocrine tissue is arranged into many small masses known as acini.
The endocrine portion of the pancreas is made of small bundles of
cells called islets of Langerhans. Islet cells create and release im-
portant hormones directly into the bloodstream. Two of the main
pancreatic hormones are insulin, which acts to lower blood sugar,
and glucagon, which acts to raise blood sugar.
Deficiency of insulin leads to high level of sugar in body. This con- a cells
dition is called diabetes.
b cells
OVARIES Pancreas
Ovaries are two in number and located in the pelvic region of female body. The hormones secreted are oestrogen and progesterone.
Estrogen stimulates the growth and development of female seconedary sex organs and female secondary sexual characters (such as
development of breasts).
Progesterone play an important role in regulation of menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
During pregnancy progesterone helps in attaching embryo to uterine wall, development of placenta and growth of secretory alveoli
in mammary glands.
TESTES
Like ovaries testes are also two in number. The testes consists of two flat oval organs in the scrotum. Endocrine part of testes is
formed of group of cells called interstitial cells or leydig cells. The hormone released by leydig cells is testosterone.
Testosterone controls the development of secondary sexual characters in males such as facial hair, beard, moustaches etc. It
stimulates spermatogenesis (formation of sperm).
Diabetes
- Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough insulin, or the cells of the body not responding
properly to the insulin produced.
- The two types of diabetes are referred to as type 1 and type 2. Former names for these conditions were insulin-
dependent and non-insulin-dependent diabetes, or juvenile onset and adult onset diabetes.
- Symptoms of diabetes include increased urine output, thirst, hunger, and fatigue.
- Diabetes is diagnosed by blood sugar (glucose) testing. A normal sugar level is currently considered to be
less than 100 mg/dL when fasting and less than 140 mg/dL two hours after eating.
Reaching the Age of Adolescence 165
THYMUS GLAND
Thymus gland is a ductless gland, which starts functioning in the embryonic stage itself, becomes active during childhood and
undergoes regression and gradually stops functioning after adolescence.
Thymus produces hormone called thymosin that imparts resistance to diseases in children. However it continues to be the
production centre of lymphocytes.
Thymus is the first developing lymphoid organ. It reaches its greatest size at puberty.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
During adolescence, there is rapid mental and physical growth. The physical and mental well being of an individual is regarded as an
individual’s health. Therefore for proper individual health, every human being needs –
(i) To have a balanced diet.
(ii) To observe personal hygiene and cleanliness regularly
(iii) To undertake adequate regular exercise.
PERSONAL HYGIENE
The basic aim of maintaining personal hygiene is to keep the bacteria and microorganisms away from entering the body or infecting the
food we consume. Personal hygiene is necessary for adolescents because the increased activity of sweat glands sometimes make the
body smelly. Taking a bath every day and cleaning all parts of the body is essential, otherwise, there are chances of catching bacterial
infections. Girls should keep track of their menstrual cycle and should be especially careful about hygiene during menstruation.
SAY NO TO DRUG
Adolescents are advised not to feel confused or insecure. You are just passing through a period of much activity in the body and mind,
which is a normal part of growing up. So if anybody suggests that you will get relief by taking some drugs just say ‘No’ to them. Drugs
are actually addictive and once taken, there is a tendency to take them again and again. They harm the body in the long run, thereby
ruining the health and happiness.
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The first recorded case of HIV infection dates back to 1959 from Democratic Rebublic of Congo in Africa.
Reaching the Age of Adolescence 167
SUMMARY
The period of life, when the body undergoes certain noticeable changes, leading to reproductive maturity is called adolescence.
Puberty is the start of the time when a immature boy or girl become sexually mature and capable of reproduction.
Changes at puberty
l Both males and females rapidly become taller. But on average, boys grow more and so usually end up taller adults than
girls.
l Girls develop a more rounded body outline, especially on the shoulders and hips while boys become more angular with
broader shoulders.
l The reproductive or menstrual cycle begins in girls while reproductive organs in the male body begins to develop sperm
cells.
Secondary sexual characters are those features that help to distinguish the male from the female. In girls, breast begin to
develop and boys begin to grow facial hair.
The changes at puberty are controlled by hormones.
Hormones are chemical messengers of the body that transfer information from one set of cells to another.
Glands are group of specialised cells that produce and secrete hormones.
Glands are of two types -
(i) Exocrine gland release their secretions with the help of ducts at specific site. Ex- Salivary gland
(ii) Endocrine gland release their secretions directly into blood. Eg Adrenal gland.
The endocrine glands play a vital role in controlling and co-ordinating activities of life.
The various hormones of pituitary gland control the secretion of hormones secreted from other endocrine gland.
The pituitary and hypothalamus are connected by nerve fibres and blood vessels.
Various types of glands and their secretions are as follows :-
l Pituitary - Master gland of body
l Thyroid gland - Thyroxine and calcitonin
l Parathyroid - Parathormone
Testes - Testosterone
l Gonads
Ovaries - Estrogen and Progesterone
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168 BIOLOGY
True / False : 1. Write the name of the medium by which endocrine gland
release hormones?
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your 2. What is a hormone?
answer as true or false. 3. Which hormone is responsible for maintenance of
pregnancy?
1. Exocrine glands are called ductless gland. 4. Which organ is known as the sound box?
2. Thyroid stimulating hormone is responsible for the growth
5. Which hormone is responsible for the change of vocal cord
and development of body.
in boys?
3. At puberty stage mammary glands develop inside the breasts.
6. Write the role of hypothalamus in the body?
4. 23 pairs of chromosome is found in every normal human cell.
7. What is the age of puberty in boys and girls?
5. The stage at which the body becomes capable of
reproduction is called menstruation. 8. Write the names of hormones secreted by pituitary gland?
6. Deficiency of insulin hormone may cause diabetes. 9. Write the location of parathyroid gland?
7. At adolescence stage, adolescents get mental, intellectual 10. What is the important role of adrenaline hormone?
and emotional maturity. 11. Which hormone controls the metamorphosis in caterpillar?
8. Metamorphosis in insects is controlled by adrenaline 12. Name the hormone secreted by thymus gland.
hormone. 13. What developmental changes occur in uterus at the time of
9. Female cells contain XX chromosome. menstruation?
Match the Following : 14. What is menopause?
15. How many pairs of sex chromosomes are found in human
being?
DIRECTIONS : Each question contains statements given in two
columns which have to be matched. Statements terms (A, B, C, 16. Which hormone is responsible for the growth of bones?
D)in column I have to be matched with statements terms (p, q, r, 17. Which technique determines the sex of the child?
s) in column II. 18. What is the functions of aldosterone in human body?
Reaching the Age of Adolescence 169
Short Answer Questions : 11. List the changes in male body that take place at puberty.
12. Write a short note on adrenal gland.
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in 2-3 sentences. 13. Write a short note on exocrine gland.
14. Write the name of two hormones secreted by the thyroid
1. What is the difference between puberty and adolescence. gland.
2. What is ‘teenage”? 15. What is ductless gland?
3. What are the secondary sexual characters in male and female?
16. What are the main functions of pituitary gland?
4. What is infanticide?
5. What are tropic hormones? Long Answer Questions :
6. What is the difference between hypothyroidism and
hyperthyroidism? DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
7. What is the necessity of balance diet for adolescents? 1. Explain the structure and functions of different endocrine
8. Why personal hygiene is necessary for everyone? glands found in human body.
9. What are drugs? 2. Explain the role of hormone in your body?
10. Expand AIDS? Write different methods of transmission of 3. What is menstrual cycle?
AIDS virus. 4. Discuss the various habits that adolescents should acquire
to have a proper physical health.
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170 BIOLOGY
4. What is dwarfism? What are the reasons of dwarfism? 7. Why do most of the people get acne and pimples on the
5. “Some human female starts developing male characteristics face during puberty?
like beard, degeneration of uterus and ovaries etc. in their 8. What is the reason for irregularity in menstrution?
growing period.”
Give reason for the above statement. 9. Heavy supplements are not good during physical
exercise in adolescence
6. During growth period, many adolescence get excessive
growth, resulting into a symmetrically giant body. Why it
happens so? Do you agree. Give reason in support of your answer.
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172 BIOLOGY
Multiple Choice Questions : 10. Which hormones regulates the growth of metamorphosis in
frog?
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 15 multiple choice (a) Adrenaline (b) Insulin
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out (c) Thyroxine (d) Cortisol
of which ONLY ONE is correct. Choose the correct option. 11. Which hormone is responsible for ovulation?
(a) LH (b) Testosterone
1. What is hormone?
(c) Estrogen (d) FSH
(a) Organic complex substances
12. Which hormone regulates calcium level in blood ?
(b) Chemical messenger
(a) Glucagon (b) Insulin
(c) Glandular secretion
(c) Thyroxine (d) Parathormone
(d) Blood cells
13. Which hormone controls the blood pressure in emergency?
2. Which of the following system exhibits body
(a) Thyroxine (b) Prolactin
co-ordination?
(c) Insulin (d) Adrenaline
(a) Blood vascular system
(b) Nervous system 14. Which hormone stimulates the stomach to secrete gastric
juice?
(c) Brain
(a) Gastrin (b) Parathormone
(d) Nervous and endocrine system
3. Which of the following flows directly into blood? (c) Thyroxine (d) Insulin
(a) Enzyme (b) Hormone 15. Which hormone is associated with milk secretion in mammals?
(c) Minerals (d) Proteins (a) Estrogen (b) Prolactin
4. Which of the following is not a gland? (c) Adrenaline (d) GH
(a) Pancreas (b) Adrenal Assertion & Reason :
(c) Pituitary (d) Kidney
5. Endocrine glands DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an assertion
(a) do not possess ducts followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question
(b) sometime have duct on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that
(c) always have duct best describes the two statements.
(d) pour their secretion through ducts.
6. Which hormone regulates the process of spermatogenesis (a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
and sperm formation? correct explanation of Assertion.
(a) Follicle stimulating hormone (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
(b) Growth hormone the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) Thyroxine hormone
(c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) Glucagon
7. Pituitary gland is found in (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
(a) pancreas (b) brain 1. Assertion : The dietary deficiency of iodine causes goitre.
(c) gonads (d) trachea Reason : Iodine is required for the formation of thyroid
8. Which hormone controls secretion of estrogen? hormone.
(a) Progesterone 2. Assertion : Prolactin is also called ‘Milk ejection hormone’.
(b) Follicle stimulating hormone Reason : Prolactin stimulates contraction of smooth muscles
(c) Aldosterone of mammary glands.
(d) Adrenaline 3. Assertion : Adrenaline is known as fight, fright and flight
9. Which of the following disease results by endocrine disorder? hormone.
(a) Typhoid (b) Jaundice Reason : The hormone adrenaline helps the body to combat
(c) Goitre (d) Pneumonia against stress and emergency condition.
Reaching the Age of Adolescence 173
4. Assertion : A tadpole deprived of thyroid gland fails to 5. Assertion : Excess amount of calcium is regulated by
metamorphose into adult. calcitonin.
Reason : Thyroxine stimulates tissue differentiation therefore Reason : Parathormone is produced by parathyroid gland.
affects metamorphosis of tadpole into an adult. 6. Assertion : Sweat glands sometimes make body smelly.
Reason : It is due to infection by bacteria.
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174 BIOLOGY
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
8. Personal hygiene is necessary for everyone, because due to Long Answer Questions :
unhygiene, different bacteria may cause odour and infection
1. Different endocrine glands are:
in the body.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a part of the brain which
9. Drugs are chemical substances used in the treatment, cure, serves many different functions in the nervous system. It is
prevention, or diagnosis of disease or used to otherwise also responsible for the direct control of the endocrine system
enhance physical or mental well-being. through the pituitary gland.
10. AIDS: Acquired immune deficiency syndrome. AIDS virus Pituitary gland: The pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland
can be transmitted by several methods like, located in the centre of the skull, inferior to the hypothalamus
i. sexual contact with an infected person. of the brain and posterior to the bridge of the nose. The
ii. Transmission via donated blood or blood clotting pituitary gland is made of 2 completely separate structures:
factors. the posterior and anterior pituitary glands. It is an important
iii. Sharing needles, syringes or other injection equipment link between the nervous and endocrine systems and releases
with someone who is infected. many hormones which affect growth, sexual development,
iv. Mother to child transmission metabolism and human reproduction.
11. Changes that take place in male during puberty are: Pineal gland: The pineal gland is a small mass of glandular
tissue found just posterior to the thalamus of the brain. The
- Voice becomes deeper.
pineal gland produces the hormone melatonin that helps to
- Increase in body weight.
regulate the human sleep-wake cycle known as the circadian
- Muscles develop and shoulder broadens. rhythm.
- Hair develops under armpit, on the chest and in the pubic Thyroid gland: The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland
region. located at the base of the neck and wrapped around the
- Facial hair such as beard and moustaches develops. lateral sides of the trachea. The thyroid gland produces 3
12. The adrenal glands, also called suprarenal gland, are small major hormones: calcitonin, triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine
structures attached to the top of each kidney. Each gland (T4). The thyroid plays an important role in regulating the
consists of two parts: an inner medulla, which produces body's metabolism and calcium balance.
epinephrin e an d norepinephrin e (adrenaline an d Parathyroid glands: The parathyroid glands are 4 small
noradrenaline), and an outer cortex, which produces steroid masses of glandular tissue found on the posterior side of the
hormones (aldosterone, cortisol). The two parts differ in thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands produce the hormone
embryological origin, structure, and function. The hormones parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is involved in calcium
help control heart rate, blood pressure, the way the body ion homeostasis.
uses food, the levels of minerals such as sodium and Adrenal glands: The adrenal glands are a pair of roughly
potassium in the blood, and other functions particularly triangular glands found immediately superior to the kidneys.
involved in stress reactions. The adrenal glands are each made of 2 distinct layers- the
13. Exocrine glands : The glands that release their secretions outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla. The adrenal
with the help of ducts at specific site are called exocrine cortex produces many cortical hormones in 3 classes:
glands. For example, the salivary gland secrete saliva in the glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens. The
mouth through salivary duct. Similarly, digestive glands adrenal medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine
secrete their secretions in the digestive tract with the help of hormones. Both of these hormones help to increase the flow
ducts. Sweat gland is also an example of exocrine gland. of blood to the brain and muscles to improve the "fight-or-
14. Thyroid gland secretes thyroxin and calcitonin hormone. flight" response to stress. These hormones also work to
15. The gland which does not have duct and release the increase heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure while
hormones directly into the blood stream, is called ductless decreasing the flow of blood to and function of organs that
gland. are not involved in responding to emergencies.
16. Pituitary gland produces several hormones that control water Pancreas: The pancreas is a large gland located in the
balance, growth and also release of other hormones. abdominal cavity just inferior and posterior to the stomach.
The pancreas is considered to be a heterocrine gland as it
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176 BIOLOGY
contains both endocrine and exocrine tissue. The endocrine Once the wall is shed, it begins to build up again. This
cells of the pancreas are called islets of Langerhans. Within contituous building and shedding of the inner wall of the
these islets are 2 types of cells-alpha and beta cells. The uterus occurs during a menstrual cycle. In a mature female,
alpha cells produce the hormone glucagon, which is normally one egg is formed during the menstrual cycle. The
responsible for raising blood glucose levels. Glucagon duration of one menstrual cycle is about 28 days. At the end
triggers muscle and liver cells to break down the of the cycle, the egg is released from the ovary.
polysaccharide glycogen to release glucose into the 4. Proper physical health in adolescents is a need.
bloodstream. The beta cells produce the hormone insulin, • Balanced diet : balanced diet contains the right amounts
which is responsible for lowering blood glucose levels after of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals
a meal. Insulin triggers the absorption of glucose from the
• Fast food which is tasty but does not have adequate
blood into cells, where it is added to glycogen molecules for
nutrition, such as chips or aerated drinking, should not
storage.
be used as substitute for meals.
Gonads: Gonads (ovaries in females and testes in males) are
• Personal hygiene due to increased activity of sweat and
responsible for producing the sex hormones of the body.
sebaceous glands, proper personal hygiene is very
Testes are pair of ellipsoid organs found in the scrotum of
important for adolescents, otherwise body odour and
males that produce the testosterone hormone. Testosterone
bacterial infection may result. Girls should be especially
controls the growth and development of the sex organs and
careful about hygiene during menstruation.
body hair of males, including pubic, chest, and facial hair.
• Physical exercise like walking, jogging, aerobics, outdoor
The ovaries are a pair of almond-shaped glands located in
the pelvic body cavity. The ovaries produce the female sex games, etc., are good for the growing adolescent body.
hormones progesterone and estrogen. Progesterone is most
active in females during ovulation and pregnancy where it
maintains appropriate conditions in the human body to
support a developing foetus. Estrogen triggers the
Text - Book Exercise :
development of female secondary sex characteristics such
as uterine development, breast development, and the growth 1. The are chemical messengers that transport signal from one
of pubic hair. cell(or gland) to another cell (or gland).
Thymus: The thymus is a soft, triangular-shaped organ found 2. Adolescence is defined as that period of life, when the
in the chest posterior to the sternum. The thymus produces body undergoes changes, leading to reproductive maturity.
hormone called thymosine that helps to train and develop T- It begins around the age of 11 and lasts upto 18 or 19 years
lymphocytes during foetal development and childhood. The of age. Since this period covers the ‘teens’ years of age (13
thymus becomes inactive during puberty and is slowly to 18 or 19), adolescents are also called ‘teenagers’. In girls,
replaced by adipose tissue throughout a person's life. adolescence may begin a year or two earlier than in boys.
2. Hormones are chemicals naturally occurring within human Also, the period of adolescence varies from person to
bodies. They are produced by cells or glands and their role person.
is to affect other organs. Hormones are responsible for 3. In a female ovaries, the ova begin to mature with the onset
simulation of growth, control of cell's life span, control of of puberty. There are 2 ovaries. One ovary releases one
immune system, metabolism regulation, control of phases of ovum once in about 28 to 30 days. During this period, the
life, self-preservation reactions, sexual functions, wall of the uterus becomes thick and gets ready to receive
reproductive cycle. Human bodies need different hormones the egg, in case of fertilization. If fertilization does not occur,
for various stages of life. the released egg, and the thickened lining of the uterus along
3. When the egg is released from the ovary, the lining of the with its blood vessels are shed off. This causes bleeding in
uterus begins to become thicker. If the egg gets fertilized, it women which is called menstruation. Menstruation occurs
attaches itself to the wall of the uterus and receives once in about 28 to 30 days.
nourishment. If the egg is not fertilized, the lining of the 4. Common changes that occur among boys and girls during
uterus is shed. This is known as menstruation or periods. puberty:
Reaching the Age of Adolescence 177
(i) Sudden increase in height. maintenance of the primary and secondary sexual
(ii) Change in body shape characters as well as functions of sperms.
(iii) Change in voice. Voice becomes deep and harsh in 2. In female, the ovaries secrete estrogen an d
boys whereas in girls it is high pitched voice. progesterone which are responsible for the primary and
(iv) Increased activity of sweat and sebaceous glands. secondary sexual characters.
(v) Reproductive organs begin to mature. 7. (a) (ii) proper diet is needed for the rapid growth taking
(vi) Appearance of secondary sexual characteristics. place in their body.
Changes in Boys during puberty: (b) (i) menstruation starts.
1. Development of facial hairs such as beard and (c) (ii) chapati, dal, vegetables.
moustaches. 8. (a) Adam's apple: It is the protruding part of the throat. It
2. Development of hair under the armpit, under chest and is the enlarged voice box or larynx which gets enlarged
in the pubic regions. and becomes visible from outside in boys at the onset
3. Voice becomes deeper. of puberty. This is why the voice of boys is hoarse.
4. Muscles develop, and shoulder becomes broad. (b) Secondary Sexual Characters are those characters
5. Increase in weight. which distinguish a male from female. A few of these
Changes in Girls during puberty: are descibed below:
1. Development and enlargement of breasts. Boys:
2. Development of hair under the armpit and in the pubic 1. Facial hairs such as beard and moustaches develop.
regions. 2. Hair develops under the armpit, under chest and in the
3. Hips broaden and pelvic region widens pubic regions.
4. Initiation of menstrual cycle. 3. Voice becomes hoarse.
5. Deposition of fat around hips. 4. Muscles develop, and shoulder broadens.
5. 5. Weight increase.
Endocrine Glands Hormones secreted
Girls:
i. Pituitary Growth Hormones 1. Development and enlargement of breasts.
ii. Thyroid Thyroxine 2. Development of hair under the armpit and in the pubic
iii. Adrenal Glands Adrenalin regions.
iv. Pancreas Insulin 3. Hips broaden and pelvic region widens
4. Initiation of menstrual cycle.
v. Testes Testosterone
5. Deposition of fat around hips,
vi. Ovaries Estrogen, Progestrone (c) Sex determination in unborn baby: 23 pairs of
6. Hormones which regulate the secondary sexual characters chromosomes are present in the nuclei. Each cell of a
are called sex hormones. human body has these two chromosomes and the sex
In general, hormones work instantly when they are released chromosomes, named X and Y. A female has two X
in the blood stream. Sex hormones are different because chromosomes, while a male has one X and one Y
they start to work at later stages and gradually prepare the chromosome. The gametes (egg and sperm) have only
body for reproduction. one set (23) of chromosomes. The unfertilised egg
The sex hormones are responsible for the fundamental always has one X chromosome. But sperms are of two
change in growth and development. They stimulate the kinds. One kind has an X chromosome, and the other
development of secondary sexual characters. The testes and kind has a Y chromosome. When a sperm containing X
the ovaries are the reproductive Organs; both are stimulated chromosome fertilises the egg, the zygote would have
by the pituitary during Puberty. That's the reason these are two X chromosomes and develops into a female child.
called sex hormones. If the sperm having Y chromosome fuses with the egg
Functions of Sex Hormones: the zygote would develop into a male child. This
1. In male the sex hormone is testosterone relased by concludes that the sex chromosomes of the father
testes. This hormone helps in the development and determines the sex of an unborn baby.
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178 BIOLOGY
9. See figure below. body. Drug can be addictive too and can ruin our health and
1
happiness.
T
E 6. No, this thickening of the uterine wall is not permanent.
S
T If the egg gets fertilised, it starts developing and gets
2
O
S
embedded in the uterine wall resulting in preganancy.
T
H T During pregnancy no more eggs are released and the
Y E
R R
thickened lining is discharged only when the baby is
O O born. However, if fertilisation does not occur, the released
I N
3
A D A M S A P P L E egg and the thickened lining are shed off resulting in
D
mensturation.
O
L 7. In our country, the legal age for marriage is 18 years for girls
4 N D O C R I N E
E
S 5
T
and 21 years for boys. This is because teenage mothers are
6
L C
7
A not prepared mentally or physically for motherhood. Early
A E P I T U I T A R Y
8
H O R M O N E U G marriage and motherhood causes health problems in both
9 N S U L I
Y
N 10
C
S T R P G
B
E N
E
T
mother and the child. It also curtails employment
I E
X R S opportunities for the young woman and may cause mental
T I
Y T
agony as she is not ready to shoulder responsibilities of
E motherhood.
10. Conclusion: Also, the boys before that age may not be mentally matured
(i) Girls are taller than boys till they reach the age of 12 and financially secure enough to take on the responsibilities
years. of a family.
(ii) Till the age of 16 years, the height of both boys and 8. (Open Ended) students may write about the effects of
girls remain the same. nutrition, hormones, exercises, disease, etc. on the height.
(iii) After 16, both boys and girls gain increase in height. In
general, boys are taller than girls. HOTS Questions :
Height BOYS Height GIRLS 1. Many adolescent do not grow according to their age. This is
170 170 due to lack of balanced diet. A balanced diet gives your
150 150
130 130
body the nutrition it needs to function properly.
110 110 2. The first phase of pregnancy is a period of major
90 90 development for foetus and of profound physical and
70 70
emotional changes for mother. Expecting mothers are not
4 8 12 16 20 Age 4 8 12 16 20 Age advice to do heavy work at the first phase of pregnancy
because her centre of gravity and balance has changed and
Exemplar Questions :
additionally because the hormones of pregnancy have
1. (a) Target site caused her connective tissue, ligaments and tendons so
(b) Sweat glands/salivary glands/oil glands (any one) soften. So, if she lifts a heavy load she can injure herself, but
(c) Hormones will probably do no harm to the pregnancy or the baby.
(d) Puberty 3. Initially, girls grow faster than boys but by about 18 years of
2. Testosterone. age, both reach their maximum height. The rate of growth in
3. Estrogen. height varies in different individuals.
4. Two features seen in boys at puberty are: 4. Dwarfism is a condition of short stature. It is caused by
(i) Growth of facial hairs deficiency of growth hormone. From early age growth of
(ii) Voice becomes hoarse. long bones and of the body stops prematurely, making the
Two features seen in girls at puberty are: patient dwarf.
(i) Development of breasts. 5. Excessive secretion of male hormone (androgen) in a female
(ii) Region below the waist becomes wider. foetus before complete formation of ovaries causes abnormal
5. Several medicines have adverse side effects and have development of muscles, beard and moustache. Sometimes
specific dosage levels which if not followed may harm the it results in female sterility.
Reaching the Age of Adolescence 179
6. Many adolescents get excessive growth, which results into attached to it by nerve fibres. It is part of the endocrine
a giant body during its growing period. It is caused due to system and produces hormones which control other
secretion of excess of growth hormone after adolescence. glands as well as various bodily functions.
As a result, the bones like lower jaw and limb (arms, hands, 8. (b) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) control secretion of
legs) become abnormally large. estrogen hormone. FSH is synthesized and secreted by
7. During puberty, there is an increased secretion of sweat and anterior pituitary gland. Development of the ovarian
oil (sebaceous) glands. It is because of the increased follicle is largely under FSH control, and the secretion
secretion that many young people get acne and pimples on of estrogen from this follicle is dependent on FSH and
their faces. LH. FSH regulates the development, growth, pubertal
8. Menstruation is the periodic blood that flows as a discharge maturation and reproductive processes of the body.
from the uterus. Menstrual irregularities can be caused by a 9. (c) Goitre is an enlarged thyroid gland. It can develop as a
variety of conditions, like pregnancy, hormonal imbalances, result of numerous different conditions. It can be
infections, malignancies, diseases, excessive weight gain or associated with over-function of the thyroid gland
loss, trauma, and certain medications. (hyperthyroidism, or excessive thyroid hormones) or
9. Heavy supplement intake during physical exercise causes with under-function of the gland (hypothyroidism, or
abnormal changes in growth of muscle, stiffness of muscle inadequate levels of thyroid hormones).
and maturity before age. 10. (c) Metamorphosis (in an insect or amphibian) is the process
of transformation from an immature form to an adult
form in two or more distinct stages. Thyroxine regulates
the growth of metamorphosis in frog.
11. (a) Ovulation is the release of egg from the ovary. In women,
Multiple Choice Questions : LH stimulates estrogen and progesterone production
1. (b) Hormone is a chemical substance produced in the body from the ovary. A surge of LH in the midmenstrual cycle
that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells is responsible for ovulation, and continued LH secretion
or organs. Hormones are released directly into the body. subsequently stimulates the corpus luteum to produce
Hormones are essential for every activity of life, progesterone.
including the processes of digestion, metabolism, 12. (d) Parathormone (PTH) regulates calcium level in blood.
growth, reproduction, and mood control. Many PTH is released from the parathyroid glands when
hormones, such as neurotransmitters, are active in more calcium ion levels in the blood drop below a set point.
than one physical process. PTH stimulates the osteoclasts to break down the
2. (d) Nervous and endocrin e system exhibit body calcium containing bone matrix to release free calcium
coordination. They both work closely in regulating ions into the bloodstream. PTH also triggers the kidneys
certain activities of the body. to return calcium ions filtered out of the blood back to
the bloodstream so that it is conserved.
3. (b) Refer answer 1
13. (d) Adrenaline and noradrenaline hormones help to increase
4. (d) Kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the
the flow of blood to the brain and muscles to improve
size of a fist. They are located just below the rib cage,
the "fight-or-flight" response to stress. These hormones
one on each side of the spine. The kidneys perform the
also work to increase heart rate, breathing rate, and
essential function of removing waste products from the
blood pressure while decreasing the flow of blood to
blood and regulating the water fluid levels.
and function of organs that are not involved in
5. (a) Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system
responding to emergencies.
that secrete their products, hormones, directly into the
14. (a) Gastrin is a hormone which stimulates secretion of gastric
blood rather than through a duct.
juice and is secreted into the bloodstream by the
6. (a) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a hormone
stomach wall in response to the presence of food.
associated with reproduction and the development of
15. (b) Prolactin (PRL) is hormone secreted by the pituitary
eggs in women and sperm in men.
gland that stimulates lactation (milk production). It also
7. (b) The pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure located at has many other functions, including essential roles in
the base of the brain, just below the hypothalamus and the maintenance of the immune system.
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180 BIOLOGY
Assertion & Reason : adult. Metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by
thyroxine concentration in the blood because thyroxine
1. (b) Goitre is an enlargement of the thyroid gland. The
stimulates tissue differentiation therefore affects
thyroid can't manufacture its hormones without
metamorphoses of tadpole into adult.
sufficient dietary iodine.
5. (b) Calcitonin is released when calcium ion levels in the
2. (c) Prolactin is a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland
blood rise above a certain set point. Calcitonin functions
that stimulates lactation (milk production). Prolactin
to reduce the concentration of calcium ions in the blood
levels rise during pregnancy and drop for a short period
by aiding the absorption of calcium into the matrix of
just before birth, then they rise once again a few hours
bones. The parathyroid glands produce the hormone
after delivery, or immediately when the baby is put to
parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is involved in
the breast. It also has many other functions, including
calcium ion homeostasis. PTH is released from the
essential roles in the maintenance of the immune system.
parathyroid glands when calcium ion levels in the blood
3. (a) Adrenaline is known as an emergency hormone.
drop below a set point.
Adrenaline and noradrenaline hormones help to increase
6. (a) Sweat glands (also known as sudoriferous) are small
the flow of blood to the brain and muscles to improve
tubular structures of the skin that produce sweat. There
the "fight-or-flight" response to stress. These hormones
are two main types of sweat glands: eccrine sweat
also work to increase heart rate, breathing rate, and
glands (distributed almost all over the body) and
blood pressure while decreasing the flow of blood to
apocrine sweat glands (limited to the axilla (armpits)
and function of organs that are not involved in
and perianal areas in humans). Sweat glands make body
responding to emergencies.
smelly due to infection of bacteria.
4. (b) Thyroxine is secreted by thyroid gland. Hence, a tadpole
deprived of thyroid gland fails to metamorphosize into
Pollution of Air and Water 181
INTRODUCTION
The contamination of the environment with substances that are harmful to living beings is called pollution. The contaminants
which lowers the quality of atmosphere after entering into it are called pollutants.
Today pollution is a major concern word wide and this problem is getting bigger with every passing year, some of the evidences
of environmental pollution are listed below.
Over the past 2 decades, India’s most famous tourist attraction Taj Mahal located at Agra, has become a matter of concern.
Experts have warned that air pollution is discolouring its white marble.
Many government projects like Ganga Action Plan for river Ganga, Yamuna Action Plan for river Yamuna etc. are running to
improve quality and avoid contamination of precious water resources.
Now, we will discuss types, causes, impacts and proventive measures of environmental pollution in detail.
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Before discussing air pollution in detail let us understand the answers to the following questions which may arise in the mind of reader
• What is air and what are its general characterics
• What is the role of air
• Why air is a vital component for existance of life on our planet.
Air is a form of matter. It has weight and occupies space. We cannot see air but we know that it is all around us because we can feel it
when it moves or when we move through it.
Why clean air is important to us?
Before discussing air pollution in detail let us understand the answers to the following questions which may arise in the mind of reader
• What is air and what are its general characterics
• What is the role of air
• Why air is a vital component for exitsance of life on our planet.
Air is a form of matter. It has weight and occupies space. We cannot see air but we know that it is all around us because we can feel it
when it moves or when we move through it.
Aerated water ; Aerated water is water containing dissolved oxygen from air. It is essential to life in water i.e.
aquatic life.
NOTE
Oxygen is a vital constituent of air for living organism. It occupies 20.95% of air by volume. The oxygen used up is replenished by
plants through photosynthesis.
The content of water vapour in air is called humidity.
AIR POLLUTION
How does air got polluted?
Addition of unwanted and harmful substances in the air or increase in the quantities of constituents of Air beyond the normal level
that affects the living organisms is called air pollution.
The common pollutants of air are carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), lead compounds, dust
particles, unburnt hydrocarbons etc.
Discharge of harmful gases in air pollution results into formation of complex pollutants like smog. It is of following two types:
(i) Classical smong : It is formed due to presence of SO 2 and humidity in the air which combine to form H 2SO4 fog which
deposits on the particulates. It involves smokes and fog. It is formed in the months of winter particularly in the morning
hours when the temperature is low. It causes bronchitis i.e. irriatation in lungs.
(ii) Photochemical smong : It is formed as a result of complex reactions between oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons in
presence of sunlight. It is formed in the months of summer during afternoon when there is a bright sunlight. It causes
irritation in the eyes.
(6) Unburnt carbon particles given out during the burning of fuels or from the exhausts of vehicles, and fine particles of cement
given out from a cement factory are examples of SPM. The finer of these particles cannot be filtered by the hair in our noses and
hence are a major cause of lung diseases. They also settle on plants and interfere with photosynthesis.
These particles also reduces visibility.
(7) CFCS discharged into air from air conditioning industries depletes Earth’s ozone layer. This damage to ozone layer results into
increase in amount of harmful UV radiations reacting the Earth’s Surface thereby causing damage to eyes and skin cancer.
Deviced like catalytic converter can convert harmful exhaust gses like carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide
into less harmful carbondioxide, nitrogen and water.
NOTE
(i) The complete combustion of a fuel containing carbon gives CO2, which is not poisonous.
(ii) For complete combustion, twice as much oxygen is needed as for incomplete combustion.
The green house : A green house is an enclosure of glass in which plants are kept to protect them from cold air
outside. The glass traps the heat of the sun, making the air inside warmer.
A green house is that “body” which allows the short wavelength incoming solar radiations to enter in, but
does not allow the long wavelength outgoing infra red radiations to escape out.
P oi n t
Out of carbon dioxide and chlorofluoro carbons
which one has more potential to cause global warming.
SOLUTION
Chloro fluro carbons have much higher tendency to cause global warming.
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Consequence of green house effect
The infra-red absorptive tendency of carbon dioxide has caused rise in temperature of the earth with increase level of green house
gases called global warming. Scientists believe that the average global temperature may rise as much as 2°C by the end of the century.
The global warming so caused may result in-
(a) occurrence of more cyclones, hurricanes and early snow melts in certain regions resulting in flood and devastation.
(b) a decrease in world food production and biological productivity due to warming of surface layer of earth.
Several countries have signed the kyoto protocol to reduce the emission of greed house gases.
Control of air pollution
(i) Government should emphasize and invest in non-pollutant energy resources like wind energy, solar energy etc.
(ii) Drastic cut in consumption of fossil fuels in industrialised areas or use of “biogas” as an alternative source of energy. Rain mixed
with sulphuric acid is called acid rain. It damages buildings and corrodes metal structures. It also reduces the fertility of soil by
making the soil acidic. Acid rain also causes harm to plants.
Use of smokeless fuels such as LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) and CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) reduces the emission of
carbon particles and harmful gases such as carbon monoxide.
(iii) Enhancing “re-forestation” since trees help to utilise CO2 during photosynthesis and also reduce dust particles in the air.
(iv) Resolving transportation technique by use of unleaded petrol, catalytic convertors in cars and other antipollution devices.
(v) Exhaust emitted by manufacturing industries should be treated before discharge. Use of water serubbers remove harmful gases
like SO2, NO2 etc. Use of electrostatic preciptitatory remove solid partides like carbon from industrial exhaust.
WATER CYCLE
As we are now well aware that water is one of the key resource to sustain life on earth. At the apply of fresh water is limited then why
not all fresh water is getting used up. This is because water cycle constantly replenish this most valuable resource to sustain life on
earth. The heat converts water from rivers and oceans to vapour in atmosphere, where it condenses to fall as rain on land before
draining into streams and rivers on its way back to the sea and oceans. In this way water is conserved.
The water cycle takes place because of evaporation, and condensation. The water evaporates from lakes, oceans and other places and
water vapour is formed. Plants and animals also give out water vapour. As the air rises, it cools. The water vapour condenses in to
droplets of water. The droplets crowd together to form a cloud. The cloud becomes bigger and heavier as more water droplets
combines. When the droplets of water in cloud becomes too big they fall to the earth as rain. Rainwater flows down mountains into
rivers, lakes, seas and oceans.
The presence of heavy metal like Pb, Cd, Hg etc, makes water extremely toxic. Cd and Hg can lead to Kidney
damage where as poisoning by lead can have harmful effect on brain, Kidneys, liver as well as on the central
nervous system. They are not excreted and thus they aggregate in the body.
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WATER POLLUTION
Polluted water is water which can only support life to a limited degree (or not at all)
Water pollution is also defined as the contamination of water by harmful substances.
The water pollution is indicated by
(i) its bad taste
(ii) its bad smell
(iii) presence of oil or grease floating over it
(iv) a decrease in population of fish in the water body from which the sample has been taken
(v) an unchecked growth of weeds in water body from which the sample has been taken
Pesticides such as DDT can get into the bodies of fishes through the water. Other animals, including humans,
get poisoned if they eat these fish.
NOTE
Fertilizers from various land and animal waste increase aquatic life, using up more oxygen. When dissolved oxygen is exhausted it will
result in to death of aquatic plants and animals.
Causes of Water Pollution
(1) Many industries do not have proper waste management system and drain the waste in the fresh water which goes into rivers,
canals and later in to sea.
(2) In villages where proper sanitation facilities are not available, people defecate in the open. Rain washes off the human excreta
and animal dung into nearby water sources.
(3) Use of pesticides, fertilizers and weedicides in agricultural practices result into runoff of these chemicals into nearby water body.
(4) Household sewage is discharged into water bodies untreated. Sewage contains kitchen waste, soaps and detergents, excreta
and many harmful micro organisms bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites.
(5) Dumping solid wastes and littering by humans in rivers, lakes and oceans, Littering items include cardboard, Styrofoam,
aluminium, plastic and glass.
(6) Oil spillage from accidents of boats and ships use to carry oils leads to heavy pollution of water bodies and damage aquatic life.
(7) Mining activities emit several metal waste and sulphides from the rocks and is harmful for the water.
(8) Acid rain produced as a result of air pollution also damages aquatic life.
Effect of Water Pollution
(1) Industrial exhaust contains lead, arsenic, mercury, fluorides etc which results into toxicity thereby damaging aquatic life and also
effects man and land animals drinking toxified water. These toxic substances effects fishes which can be later eaten by human.
(2) The temperature of the waste water from factories that is discharged into rivers is often higher than the temperature of the river
water. The resultant increase in the river water temperature is itself a form of pollution as it adversely affects aquatic plants and
animals.
(3) Agricultural runoff contaminate water and also leads to excess nutrients in water. These nutrients serves as a food for algae as
a result a green layer of algae is formed over water known as Eutrophication. Once this algae die it serves as a food for
decomposers in this process lot of oxygen dissolved in water. Low levels of oxygen does not able to support life in water body.
(4) Sewage water contains disease causing pathogens thus it spreads water born diseases like cholera, typhoid, jaundice, dysentery,
diarrhoea, cholera etc.
(5) Oil spills in the water causes animal to die when they ingest it or encounter it. Oil does not dissolve in water so it causes
suffocation in fish and birds.
NOTE
PPM : It is the small unit used for measuring concentration. Its full form is parts per million.
Ganga is one of the ten most endangered rivers in the world (Fig). Everyday it is polluted by the disposal of large quantities of garbage,
untreated sewage, dead bodies and many other harmful things.
The agricultural and industrial runoff also results into soil and ground water contamination. It results into
change in acidity of soil, decrease of fertility and growth of worms, etc.
Pollution of Air and Water 187
NOTE
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the dissolved oxygen that is required by micro-organism to oxidise biological
pollutants. Clean water has a BOD value of less than 5 ppm whereas highly polluted river water may have a BOD value of 17 ppm or
more.
P oi n t
Out of hospital, domestic and industrial waste
which leads to more biological water pollution.
SOLUTION
Hospital waste.
(b) Disease caused by micro-organisms : The diseases caused are typhoid, dysentery, cholera, hepatitis etc.
Water which is suitable for drinking is called potable water. It is not necessary that the water will be fit for drinking if we are not
abole to see any kind of impurity floating in it. The water might contain certain microorganisms which are harmful for us.
Thus purification of contaminated water is very necessary to make it suitable for drinking and other house hold purposes. For
purification of water following methods can be adopted.
Boiling the water for 15-20 minutes kills all germs.
Ultraviolet light : A special type of light called ultraviolet light kills germs.
Chlorination : Chlorine added to water in the form of chlorine tablets or bleaching powder kills germs. However, care has to be
taken to add the right quantities of chlorine.
Control of water pollution
Some of the methods are :
(i) People should be well aware of water pollution consequenced and importance of water conservation.
(ii) Treatment of sewage : Sewage should be treated in a sewage treatment plant, which allow only clean water to be discharged in
a water body (river or lake etc)
(iii) Proper toilets and drainage system should be provided to slum and village people to avoid defecation in open.
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188 BIOLOGY
(iv) Treatment of industrial wastes : Industrial wastes should be treated for removal of harmful substances and only after such a
treatment the waste may be discharged into a water body (i.e. river, lake etc.) Street legal action should be taken against
industries which violating norms of waste disposal.
(v) Limited use of pesticides and fertilizers
(vi) Proper disposal of hospital wastes
(vii) Proper disposal of dead bodies : Dead bodies should be cremated or burried and not disposed off in a river or lake.
Water treatment plants remove solids by filtration and then use chlorine to kill bacteria so that water is safe
for drinking. In some areas, fluorides are added to domestic water to prevent tooth decay.
Make a project report on water pollution by highlighting 10 major causes of water pollution. Provide some
statistical data on increase in water pollution of some famous water bodies in past few decades. Mention 5
major ways to control water pollution. Also discuss about water harvesting and water recycling and their
benefits in detail. You can discuss with your friends and teacher and can take the help of internet, television,
science magazine etc.
Water can also be purified by passing through a semi-permeable membrane containging very fine pores which
allows only water to pass through not impuritied and germt. Thus technique is known as reverse osmosis.
P oi n t
Why does green house effect lead to the global warming?
What could be the consequences of global warming?
SOLUTION
The high concentration of CO2 molecules in the atmosphere absorbs the terrestrial heat radiations emitted by the earth,
doesn’t allow it to escape, thus gradually raising global temperature. This may lead to the melting of polar ice caps, which
would flow into the oceans raising sea-level due to which many lowlying areas and islands may become submerged.
Pollution of Air and Water 189
SUMMARY
Fill in the Blanks : 7. The cause of water pollution is lack of dissolved oxygen in
water.
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an 8. Green house effect refers to the progressive warming up of
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s). earth’s surface due to blanketing effect of man made carbon
dioxide or any other major green house gas.
1. Aquatic animals utilise for their respiration the _______ 9. Thermal pollution causes a decrease in dissolved oxygen.
oxygen.
10. CO2 and SO2 when treated with water form their respective
2. _________ are responsible for the depletion of the ozone acids.
layer in the atmosphere (CFCs/carbon dioxide)
11. Ganga Action Plan is related to reduce cutting of trees.
3. Sewage wastes should be treated well to remove ________
12. Corrosion of marble is also known as marble cancer.
substances, before being released into water. (green/toxic)
13. Carbon monoxide is a green house gas.
4. More and more __________ plants should be put up, so
that water can be used many times and in many ways, before 14. Chlorofluro carbon is responsible for depletion of ozone
it is disposed off. (water recycling/soil transplanting) layer
5. Cholera is a __________ borne disease. 15. Smog is the thick fog- layer in the atmosphere
6. Water which is suitable for drinking is called _________. 16. Air contains highest percentage of oxygen
7. Vehicles produce high levels of pollutants like ________. 17. Green house effect causes global warming.
8. Dust and smoke cause ___________ of air when present 18. Ganga action plan was launched in 1985
in excess. 19. Lead is used to purify water.
9. The oxides of .....................and ............................cause acid 20. Van Mahotsav is celebrated every year to plant trees
rain. 21. Ultraviolet rays is harmful for us
10. Acid rain has made Taj Mahal’s marble ..................... . 22. Volcanoes and forest fires are natural sources of air pollution.
11. Smog is a mixture of ...............and ...................... . 23. Smog is made up of smoke and carbon dioxide.
12. While __________ your teeth, leaving the __________ Match the Following :
running may waste several ___________ of water.
13. Water which looks clean still has disease carrying ________ DIRECTIONS : Each question contains statements given in two
and __________ impurities. columns which have to be matched. Statements (A, B, C and D)
True / False : in column I have to be matched with statements (p, q, r and s) in
column II.
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your 1. Column I Column II
answer as true or false.
(Present in air) (Effect)
1. An increase in the levels of CO2 in atmosphere increases A. Carbon dioxide (p) No adverse effect
the temperature of earth. B. Carbon monoxide (q) Lead to global warming
2. The two types of water pollution are chemical pollution and C. Nitrogen dioxide (r) Causes acid rain
biological pollution. D. Water vapour (s) May cause death
3. Use of fertilizers has no role on water pollution. 2. Column I Column II
4. Excessive use of pesticides help to decrease water pollution. A. CFC’s (p) Acid rain
5. Methane is not a green house gas. B. Pb (q) Depletion of ozone
6. Aerated water is the water containing dissolved oxygen C. CO (r) Respiratory problems
from air.
D. NO2 (s) Nervous disorders
Pollution of Air and Water 191
3. Match column-I with Column-II and select the correct answer 13. Name the pollutants formed by incomplete combustion of
using the code given below the columns. fuels.
Column I Column II 14. Name any two sources which cause air pollution due to
A. Marble cancer (p) Global warming suspended particulate matter.
B. Smog (q) Reduce, Reuse & Recycle
15. Name any two water pollutants which are toxic for plants
C. CO2 (r) Corrosion of marble and animals.
D. Our mantra (s) Smoke and fog
(a) A ® s, B ® r, C ® t, D ® p, Short Answer Questions :
(b) A ® p, B ® s, C ® t, D ® q,
(c) A ® r, B ® s, C ® p, D ® q, DIRECTIONS : Give answer in 2-3 sentences.
(d) A ® s, B ® q, C ® p, D ® r,
1. Mention any three observations that indicate that a given
4. Column I Column II sample of water is polluted.
A. Boiling point of pure (p) 100°C 2. Name any four chemical pollutants of water.
water
3. Name any three oxygen demanding biological pollutants of
B. Temperature of (q) 4°C
water?
maximum density
of water 4. Name any three diseases caused by polluted water
C. Boiling point of (r) 104°C containing disease causing bacteria.
impure water 5. Explain the adverse effect of carbon monoxide on human
containing some being.
dissolved impurities 6. Name a few steps that can help to prevent water pollution.
D. Aerated water (s) water containing 7. What is eutrophication?
dissolved oxygen
8. What is meant by green house effect? Name three green
Very Short Answer Questions : house gases.
9. How can the growing of plants help in control of air
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
pollution ?
1. What is meant by polluted air? 10. How do chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) cause air pollution ?
2. What is meant by polluted water? 11. Give the effects of acid rain.
3. What is chemical pollution of water? 12. What are the sources of CO and SO2 in air?
4. Name the two main types of biological pollutants of water. 13. Name the pollutants produce by vehicles.
5. Name the product formed on complete combustion of 14. A lot of dry leaves are collected in a school garden and are
hydrocarbons. burnt every day. Do you think that it is right to do so? If not,
6. Which problem arises by air pollution? what should be done to dispose off the dry leaves?
7. Which gases are responsible for acid rain? Long Answer Questions :
8. Which phenomenon causes global warming?
9. Which fuel is pollution free? DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
10. What do you mean by potable water? 1. How is acid rain formed ? Discuss the ill effects of acid rains
11. Which rays is harmful for us? 2. What are the consequences of green house effect?
12. What is alternative fuel instead of the fossil fuel? 3. What are the causes of water pollution? Discuss how you
can contribute in reducing water pollution?
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192 BIOLOGY
Text Book Exercise : 6. What do CFCs atand for? Name some devices where CFCs
are used. Why CFCs are considered as pollutants?
1. What are the different ways in which water gets
7. We should plant trees and nurture the ones already present
contaminated ?
in the neighbourhood, why?
2. At an individual level, how can you help reduce air
8. Explain the traditional way of purifying water to make it fit
pollution?
for drinking.
3. Clear, transparent water is always fit for drinking. Comment.
4. You are a member of the municipal body of your town. HOTS Questions :
Make a list of measures that would help your town to ensure 1. In which season and what time of the day, there is
the supply of clean water to all its residents. photochemical smog?
5. Explain the differences between pure air and polluted air. 2. Why is CO more toxic than CO2?
3. Write the name of gas produced in Mathura refineries which
6. Explain circumstances leading to acid rain. How does acid
can damage the great historical monument “Taj Mahal”?
rain affect us?
4. Why is acid rains considered a threat to TaJ Mahal?
7. Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas?
5. Fish do not always grow in warm as well as in cold water,
(a) Carbon dioxide why?
(b) Sulphur dioxide 6. Explain giving reasons “the presence of CO
(c) Methane reduces the amount of haemoglobin available in the blood
(d) Nitrogen for carrying oxygen to blood cells.”
8. Describe the ‘Green House Effect’ in your own words. 7. The quality of air at various locations is monitored regularly
by government and other agencies? In what way can you
9. Prepare a brief speech on global warming. You have to deliver use these data?
the speech in your class.
8. Combustion of fossil fuels generates a lot of air pollution.
10. Describe the threat to the beauty of the Taj Mahal. Can you suggest any two alternative sources of energy
11. Why does the increased level of nutrients in the water affect which do not cause any pollution?
the survival of aquatic organisms? 9. In the following statements, the underlined words are
Exemplar Exercise : jumbled up. Write them in their correct form.
(a) Air contains 78% Ginroten and 21% Gonexy.
1. Name any two sources which cause air pollution due to (b) Vehicles produce high level of pollutants like carbon
suspended particulate matter. dioxide, nitrogen oxides, Nobrac Moondexi and Mosek.
2. Name two gases which are mainly responsible for acid rain? (c) Carbon dioxide, Thaneme, nitrous oxide and water
3. Name any two water pollutants which are toxic for plants vapour are known as Heengrouse Sesga.
and animals. (d) Gangotri glacier in Himalaya has started melting
because of Lablog Ringwam.
4. A lot of dry leaves are collected in a school garden and are
(e) Whenever harmful substances such as Wagese, toxic
burnt every day. Do you think that it is right to do so? If not, chemicals, silt, etc. get mixed with water, the water
what should be done to dispose off the dry leaves? becomes potdulle.
5. The level of air pollution is higher at a busy traffic 10. How can we reduce, reuse and recycle water?
intersection. Why?
Pollution of Air and Water 193
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
to water bodies due to rain and floods, causing causing global warming, which adversely affects life on Earth.
contamination of water bodies. 9. Global warming is the increase of Earth’s average surface
2. Air pollution can be reduced in following ways: temperature due to increase in level of green house gases.
(i) Using public transport whenever possible and avoiding Global warming can cause sea levels to rise dramatically. In
use of cars, scooters, etc. as much as possible. many places, coastal areas have already been flooded. Global
(ii) Using clean fuels like CNG and LPG instead of petrol warming could result in wide ranging effects on rainfall
and diesel. patterns, agriculture, forests, plants and animals. Global
(iii) Using bicycle or go by foot for short distances instead warming has become a major concern for governments world
of using vehicles. wide. Many countries have reached an agreement to reduce
the emission of green house gases. The Kyoto Protocol is
(iv) Saying no to crackers helps in reducing air as well as
one such agreement.
noise pollution.
10. Acid rain is a major threat to the beauty of the Taj Mahal.
(v) By planting as much trees as possible air pollution can
The industries located in and around Agra like rubber
be controlled.
processing, automobile, chemicals and especially Mathura
(vi) Disposing garbage and dry leaves instead of burning Oil Refinery have been responsible for producing pollutants
them. sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide which causes acid rain.
3. No, it is not necessary that transparent water is always fit Acid rain corrodes the marble of the monument. This
for drinking. It may contain harmful micro-organisms and phenomenon is called “Marble Cancer”. Soot particles
other impurities that are not visible to our eyes. Water should emitted by Mathura Oil Refinery, has contributed towards
always be purified before drinking either with the help of the yellowing of the marble.
water purifier or by boiling it. 11. The increased level of nutrients in water bodies help algae
4. List of measures are as following: to flourish. These algae when die, they serve as food for
(i) Water should be treated properly to make it free from decomposers like bacteria. A lot of oxygen is utilised in this
germs and impurities. process. This results in a decrease in the oxygen level which
(ii) Proper maintenance of pipes supplying water to avoid may kill aquatic organisms.
leakage or corrosion.
Exemplar Questions :
(iii) Enforce laws to treat water and chemicals before
disposing into water bodies. 1. (i) Combustion of fuel
(iv) Organize awarness programmes to keep water (ii) Industrial activities
resources clean. 2. (i) sulphur dioxide
5. Pure Air Polluted Air (ii) nitrogen dioxide
(i) Pure air is free (i) Polluted air has increased 3. Lead, arsenic, fluorides (any two)
from harmful and level of harmful and 4. It is not right to burn dry leaves as it causes air pollution.
poisonous gases. poisonous gases. The right way to dispose off the dry leaves is to convert
them into compost.
(ii) Pure air is good (ii) Polluted air affects wildlife,
5. A large number of automobiles stop for a short period at red
for crop production crops and is unfit for
light through out the day and release a large quantity of
and wildlife and breathing and causes gases which create air pollution.
fit for breathing. disease like asthma, 6. Hint:
cancer etc. – CFCs stand for chlorofluorocarbons.
6. Pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide – Refrigerators, air conditioners etc.
released by burning of fossil fuels react with water vapours – Damage the ozone layer of the atmosphere.
present in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid and nitric 7. Hint:
acid respectively. These acids when drop down on earth – To reduce air pollution
along with rain is called acid rain. – To control global warming.
Acid rain damages crops inhibits germination of plants, 8. Hint:
causes skin irritation, adversely affects soil fertility. It also 1. Filtration
causes corrosion of building and bridges. 2. Boiling
7. (d) Nitrogen is not a green house gas. 3. By adding chlorine tablets.
8. The process due to which solar radiations are absorbed by
green house gases like CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, water HOTS Questions :
vapours, etc and is transmitted in all direction is called green
1. In summer, in the afternoon.
house effect. Green house gases helps in keeping our planet
2. CO is a poisonous gas released from industries and motor
warm and makes life possible on the earth. However, an
indiscriminate increase in the amount of green house gases vehicles. It combines with haemoglobin and reduces the
can results to excessive increase in Earth’s temperature oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin. It causes nausea,
headache, nervous and cardiovascular disorders. CO 2
EBD_7029
198 BIOLOGY
causes greenhouse effects. It allows sunlight to pass
through it to reach earth, but absorbs the heat normally
radiated back from surface of earth. This causes a rise in
atmospheric temperature. It is thus less toxic than CO. Multiple Choice Questions :
3. Sulphur dioxide.
4. Oxides of N and S released by the Mathura refinery and by 1. (a)
the automobile causes acid rain formation over Agra. This 2. (b)
acidic rain water reacts with marble of TaJ Mahal causing 3. (b) [They create holes in ozone layer]
pitting, therefore acid rain is a threat to TaJ Mahal. 4. (d) [Many organic substances break up into simpler
substances by taking up dissolved oxygen in presence
CaCO 3 + H 2SO 4 ¾¾
® CaSO 4 + H 2 O + CO 2
of some bacteria. As they continue, dissolved oxygen,
5. If the water is warm the oxygen dissolved becomes less runs short for aquatic life, which is then badly affected.
than 6 ppm and thus the growth of the fish is retarded
Moreover many harmful products are formed]
whereas in cold water fish grow well because the
5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (c)
concentration of dissolved O2 doesn’t falls.
10. (a) Pesticides cause water pollution.
6. CO combines with haemoglobin of the red blood corpuscles
11. (d) 12. (c)
about 200 times more easily than does oxygen to form
13. (d) Pollution is not caused by hydrolytic power plant,
carboxyhaemoglobin.
whereas thermal power plants, automobile and
Hb + CO ¾¾ ® HbCO radioactive power plant are the causal agent of
Therefore, the presence of CO reduces the amount of pollution.
haemoglobin available in the blood for the transport of 14. (c) The beauty of Taj Mahal is endangered due to air
oxygen to the body cells and with less O2 levels, normal pollutants like SO2 released from oil refinery.
metabolism is impaired. 15. (b) Photochemical smog is formed in noon in summer.
7. These data can be used to generate awareness about air 16. (d) Depletion of ozone layer causes skin cancer.
pollution among people. 17. (d) DDT causes water, air and soil pollution.
8. Solar energy and wind energy.
18. (d)
9. (a) nitrogen, oxygen
19. (a) Phosphate pollution is caused by sewage and
(b) carbon monoxide, smoke
(c) Methane, greenhouse gases agricultural fertilizers.
(d) global warming 20. (c) Water is often treated with Cl2 to kill germs.
(e) sewage, polluted 21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (d)
10. We should follow 3R’s mantra. 25. (a) 26. (d)
The three R's of waste management: Reduce, Reuse, and Assertion & Reason :
Recycle. Practicing all three of these activities every day is
important for a healthy environment. 1. (b)
Reduce – Wash vegetables and fruits in a bowl, not under 2. (b) Eutrophication is a natural process which literally means
the tap. Do not leave the tap running while brushing your well nourished or enriched. It is a natural state in many
teeth, shaving or soaping your hands, washing utensils. lakes and ponds which have a rich supply of nutrients.
On regular basis check household water fittings there should Eutrophication become excessive, however when
be no leakage.
abnormally high amount of nutrient from sewage,
Water garden plants early merning and avoid watering when
fertilizers, animal wastage and detergent, enter streams
it’s windy.
and lakes causes excessive growth or blooms of
Reuse – Water used for washing vegetables and fruits should
microorganisms. With increasing eutrophication, the
be reused to water garden plants.
Water used in industries for cooling can be reused for diversity of the phytoplankton community of a lake
irrigation and toilet flushing purposes. increases and the lake finally becomes dominated by
Stored rainwater can be used for gardening purpose. blue - green algae.
Recycle – Recycled water is most commonly used for 3. (c) Other gases like CFCs, Ozone, water vapour and nitrous
nonpotable purposes likes agriculture, landscape, public oxide also show green house effect.
parks, and golf course irrigation. Another important 4. (b)
application of recycled water can be its use as a coolant for 5. (a)
power plants and industries. 6. (b)
Life Processes 199
Things which have life are called living things. All the plants and animals are the example of living things. We can see various
example of living things in our surroundings, like the birds flying in the sky, horse grazing in field, a small plant that grows to a
big tree, a small baby that grows to an adult, cows giving birth to calves etc.
Generally, as we know that an individual — referring to human life, animal life or plant life — needs food and air (oxygen) for the
sustenance. True it is, but there is something beyond it. Requirement of sustenance also includes transportation of food within
the body (or across different cells), as well as flushing of wastes out of the body. Just eating without digestion and transportation
makes no sense. And, digestion/ transportation of food without excretion seems to be a dangerous proposition.
So, various life processes keep on occurring inside the body of all living organisms and all these processes are very necessary
for all the organisms. These maintenance functions keep on going even when we are not doing any particular work i.e. at rest
time. The processes which together perform these maintenance job are called ‘life processes’.
NUTRITION
Nutrition refers to all activities included in obtaining food and its utilization in the body. As we all know, all living organisms need food
that provides energy for various activities of the body. Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are vital for energy or growth. They are called
nutrients. Vitamins minerals and water are accessory food, that helps human body to work properly.
Different organism take food through different modes. Based on the mode of getting food, organisms can be classified as follows :-
Nutrition
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
An adult man of average weight and doing moderate work needs about 500 gms of carbohydrate
CHLOROPHYLL
in the leaf A chemical reaction
traps takes place.
LIGHT ENERGY
from the sun
SUGAR + OXYGEN
Life Processes 201
P oi n t
Why is photosynthesis so important?
SOLUTION
Photosynthesis is very important firstly because it makes food. All animals, whether they are plant-eaters or animal-eaters,
ultimately depend on plants for food. There will be no food for the animals if there are no plants or no photosynthesis.
Secondly, photosynthesis keeps the air fresh by removing carbon dioxide and replacing it with oxygen. This ensures that
there is always enough oxygen in the air for plants and animals to breathe. Plants and animals will suffocate and die if the air
does not have enough oxygen.
P oi n t
What is the difference between autotrophs and heterotrophs.
SOLUTION
Autotrophs : 1. They can make their own food from raw materials in presence of sunlight.
2. They take in simple inorganic substances and change it into complex organic food. e.g., all green plants.
Heterotrophs : 1. They cannot make their own food.
2. They take in complex food and break it into simple food e.g., all animals and fungi and non-green plants.
Respiration involves exchange of gases, i.e. breathing and oxidation of food to release
energy. The oxygen taken in during breathing oxidises the food to release energy. Car-
bon dioxide is released during this process and is given out. The process of taking in
oxygen (inhalation) and giving out carbon dioxide (exhalation) is called respiration. It is
the most vital process that never stops in organisms.
Respiration in plants : Respiration or exchange of gases among plants takes place
through the pores called stomata. Stomata are found in leaves and stems of plants,
which allows oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour to in or out of plants. The sto-
matal pores are enclosed by two guard cells which are surrounded by several subsidiary Stomata
cells. Generally, more number of stomata are present on the lower surface of leaf.
Respiration in animals : Some unicellular animals such as Amoeba and Hydra take oxygen and give out carbon dioxide through cell
membrane. Insects such as cockroach, mosquito take oxygen through the air holes (spiracle) present on the side of the body. Fishes
respire through gills. The tadpoles take oxygen through gills but when they are metamorphosed into adult frog, gills are replaced by
lungs.
Higher organisms like tigers, birds, rats, snakes, human have lungs as their respiratory system.
Respiratory system in humans :-
The respiratory system is made up of lungs and the passages that lead to them. Humans breathe air into lungs, and oxygen from the
air passes into the blood, which carries it around whole body. Waste, carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the lungs and is
breathed out.
Sea anemone has the simplest type of respiratory surface and diffusion starts across a thin layer.
P oi n t
Why do we sneeze?
SOLUTION
We sneeze to expel foreign particles from our nose. When pollens, dust or smoke enter our nose, they cause irritation.
Sneezing involves a sudden and violent expiration of air through the nose and mouth. When the nerve endings in the nose
lining detect any irritating substances, it controls involuntary actions. The brain then sends signals to the respiratory
organs, like lungs and pharynx, to squeeze and then expel a gust of air with a loud blast.
TRANSPORTATION
By now, we have learnt that every cell needs a regular supply of nutrients and oxygen to
provide energy. The food that we eat is broken down into smaller components to be Heart
absorbed by the cells. The oxygen that we inhale is also absorbed by all the cells of the
body. Our body also requires a constant removal of wastes materials such as carbon Vein
dioxide. Have you ever thought how these nutrients and oxygen is transported in our
Artery
body? OR How the oxygen is transported to all the body cells? The oxygen is transported
through blood and the blood is pumped to different parts of our body through an organ
called heart. For the supply of useful materials and removal of wastes from the body cells,
human body consists of a transport system called circulatory system. It is the transportation
system of our body. Transportation is the movement of substances, especially oxygen,
water, food molecules, carbon dioxide and waste products into or out of cell.
Circulatory system
EBD_7029
204 BIOLOGY
Circulatory System
The human circulatory system is composed of three major parts.
• Heart: A pumping organ to transport blood
• Blood vessels: Arteries, Veins, Capillaries
Super
• Blood: Red blood cells (RBCs), White blood cells (WBCs), Platelets Vena Cave
Heart
Heart is a hollow muscular organ as big as your fist. It contracts and relaxes Aorta
Pulmonary
Artery
rhythmically to pump blood throughout the body. The heart beats approximately
70-90 times per minute. Pulmonary
Vein
Human heart consists of four chambers. The upper two chambers are called atria
while the lower two chambers are called ventricles. Left
Atrium
Right
Hence, the human heart is four chambered. The right atrium receives carbon Atrium
Mitral
Valve
dioxide rich blood from the body. Blood from the right atrium then enters the right
ventricle, which contracts and pumps the blood to the lungs. In the lungs the Pulmonary Left Aortic
blood becomes oxygenated with the help of the oxygen present in the lungs as a Vein Ventricle Valve
Right
result of breathing. On the other hand, oxygen rich blood from the lungs returns Tricuspid Ventricle
to the left atrium. From the left atrium, blood enters the left ventricle. The left Vein
ventricle contracts and pumps the blood to all parts of the body.
The rhythmic contraction and expansion of various chambers of the heart maintains
Interior Vena Cava
the transport of oxygen to all the parts of the body.
Human Heart
Blood
What happens when your finger is pricked with a needle? A red colour fluid, called blood flows out. The main function of blood is to
transport oxygen and nutrients to various parts of the body.
There is no substitute for human blood. It is known as river of life. A new born baby has about one cup of blood
in his body.
The blood consists of liquid or fluid called plasma with red blood cells, white blood cells Red blood cell (RBC) White blood cell (WBC)
and platelets floating in it. Plasma is the colourless fluid of the blood. It helps in the
transport of food, CO2, wastes and salts.
1. Red blood cells (RBCs): Red blood cells are the most abundant cells in the blood.
These cells contain a red pigment called haemoglobin. It is the haemoglobin which
carries oxygen and transports it to all parts of the body. Platelets Vein valve
2. White blood cells (WBCs): WBCs are colourless cells without haemoglobin. They A Blood Vessel
are the largest cell of the blood. They fight against infections and protect the body
from foreign particles. The foreign particles include germs and bacteria. Basically, WBCs are like soldiers that protect the body
from various infections.
3. Platelets: Platelets are small irregular bodies present in the blood. They contain essential chemicals that help in clotting. The
main function of platelets is to prevent bleeding.
P oi n t
When you get injured, blood comes out from the site of injury. But within few minutes, the
blood stops and a dark red colour clot appears.
How red colour clot is formed?
SOLUTION
The clot is formed because of platelets. Platelets release blood clotting chemicals at the site of injury. These chemicals form
a clot and prevent further bleeding.
Our blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) are over 60000 miles long which is long enough to go
around the world more than twice!
Life Processes 205
Blood Vessels
Blood vessels are hollow tubes that carry blood to all parts of the body. They are located throughout the human body.
There are three types of blood vessels: Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
1. Arteries: Arteries are tough, elastic tubes that carry blood from the heart to various organs of the body. They generally carry O 2
rich blood except for pulmonary artery. Pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries CO2 rich blood from heart to lungs.
Gently place your middle and index finger of right hand on the inner side of your left wrist. Artery
Observation: You will feel something beating strongly or violently. This is called your pulse.
Conclusion: Pulse arises due to rhythmic contraction and expansion of the arteries with each
beat of the heart. The number of beats per minute is called the pulse rate.
2. Veins: Veins are thin walled, non elastic blood vessels. They transport blood towards the heart
from the various organs. Veins carry CO2 rich blood except for pulmonary vein. Pulmonary
vein carries oxygen rich blood from the lungs to the heart. Though veins are thin-walled but
they possess valves. The valves are present to prevent the backflow of waste materials to the
tissues.
3. Capillaries: As the arteries move away from the heart to the various organs and tissues, they
divide into smaller vessels called capillaries. The wall of the capillaries is very thin. They Pulse in wrist
form networks which reach every living cell of the body. These capillaries then join to form
veins which carry blood to the heart.
You can check your pulse rate where an artery comes close to the skin such as your wrist, neck, temple area
behind the knee or top of your foot.
Count the number of beats of your pulse in 30 seconds by placing your middle and index finger of right hand on the inner side of your
left wrist. Then double the count result to get the number of beats per minute. How many pulse beat could you count?
A resting person usually has a pulse rate between 72 to 80 beats per minute.
BLOOD PRESSURE
The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure. This pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins.
The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular systole (contraction) is called systolic pressure and pressure in artery during
ventricular diastole (relaxation) is called diastolic pressure. The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic pressure
is 80 mm of Hg.
Blood
pressure 120/80
(120 systolic, Pressure Pressure Pressure
80 diastolic) in cuff in cuff
(to be measured) in cuff
above 120 above 120 above 80
Artery
closed
Sounds Sounds
audible in stop
Artery stethoscope
Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer. High blood pressure is also called hypertension and is
caused by the constriction of arterioles, which results in increased resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the rupture of an artery and
internal bleeding.
EBD_7029
206 BIOLOGY
Doctors use a stethoscope for listening to the sound generated by heart inside
your body.
The waste products are usually toxic and they may prove to be fatal if retained Entry of Exit of water
and oxygen
inside the body. These wastes need to be removed. The biological process which carbon-dioxide
remove of these harmful metabolic wastes from the body into the surrounding, is
called excretion.
Excretion in Plants :-
Plants use a variety of methods to get rid of waste materials. For example, they get
rid of excess of water by transpiration. Transpiration is the evaporation of water Left renal
from the plants. The water evaporates through the stomata, present on the surface artery
of leaves. Some plants may store waste materials in the cell vacuoles as gum and
Left kidney
resin. Also oxygen is excreted through stomata of leaves as a waste product during Left renal vein
photosynthesis. Aorta
Left ureter
Excretion in Animals :- Vana cava
The process of removing waste products produced in the cells of living organism is Urinary bladder
called excretion. It is an essential process in all forms of life.Different organisms Urethra
have different kind of mechanism for excretion. In one celled organisms, wastes are
discharged through the surface of cell. In humans, the main organs of excretion are
the kidneys. Human Excretory System
The organs involved in the process of excretion form the excretory system.
Respiratory
Excretion in Humans :- Waste Products
The excretory system of humans consists of- a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters,
Nitrogenous
a urinary bladder and a urethra. The main excretory organs of the human body
Waste Products
are the kidneys. They are connected via the ureter to the urinary bladder,
which is then connected to urethra. The most important structure in the Bile Pigments
kidneys is the microscopic blood capillaries that filter the blood to produce Excretory Wastes in Humans
urine.
P oi n t
How urine is produced in body?
SOLUTION
During blood circulation the blood passes through the kidneys. This blood contains both useful and waste materials. The
kidneys filter the wastes from the blood and produce urine. From the kidneys, the urine goes into the urinary bladder through
two narrow tubes called the ureters. The urinary bladder stores the urine until it is forced out of the body, through an opening
known as the urethra.
Kidney receives more blood for their size than any other body organ about 1.2 litres every minute.
All the body’s blood flows through the kidney more than 300 times a day.
Life Processes 207
SUMMARY
The maintenance of life requires processes like nutrition, respiration, transportation of materials with in the body and
excretion of waste products.
Plants show autotrophic nutrition, wheras animals show heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
The process of nutrition in animals includes ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.
Some plants are heterotrophic. Heterotrophs are divided as insectivorous, saprophytes, parasites and symbiotic.
Transport of minerals and water takes place through xylem and phloem.
In human beings, transport of material such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, food and excretory product is a function of the
circulatory system. The circulatory system consists of heart, blood and blood vessels.
Respiration may be aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic respiration makes more energy than anaerobic respiration.
In plants respiration takes place by stomatal pores.
Plants do not have specialised excretory organ but remove waste through stomata.
Human beings excrete sweat through skin, urea through kidney and carbon dioxide through lungs.
EBD_7029
208 BIOLOGY
Multiple Choice Questions : 12. Vessels that take blood to the heart from the body are called.
(a) Arteries (b) Veins
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 16 multiple choice (c) Capillaries (d) None
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out 13. Animals that only eat plant material for food are called
of which ONLY ONE is correct. (a) Carnivores (b) Herbivores
(c) Omnivores (d) None of the above
1. The major site of biological action of the human circulatory
14. Which of these is a part of your digestive system?
system is –
(a) the arteries (b) the veins (a) Stomach (b) Pancreas
(c) the capillary bed (d) the heart (c) Rectum (d) All of the above
2. Which of the following is not an important function of the 15. What tube is used by both the digestive and respiratory
vertebrate circulatory system – systems ?
(a) transport of nutrients and respiratory gases (a) Esophagus (b) Larynx
(b) regulation of body temperature (c) Pharynx (d) None of these
(c) protection of the body by circulating antibodies Assertion & Reason :
(d) removal of waste products for excretion from the body
3. The exchange of gases in human beings takes place in–
DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion
(a) in skin (b) in mouth
followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question
(c) in nostrils (d) in lungs
on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that
4. The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires :
best describes the two statements.
(a) Carbon dioxide and water (b) Chlorophyll
(c) Sunlight (d) All of the above
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
5. Plants are green in colour because –
correct explanation of Assertion.
(a) they absorb green light only
(b) they reflect green light (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
(c) they absorb green light but reflect all other lights the correct explanation of Assertion.
(d) none of the above are correct (c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
6. Digestion of food in human starts from – (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
(a) duodenum (b) small intestine
(c) mouth (d) large intestine 1. Assertion : ATP is the energy carrier of cell.
7. Blood vessel carrying blood from lungs to heart is– Reason : ATP is a nucleotide
(a) pulmonary artery (b) pulmonary vein 2. Assertion : Thick layers of muscles are present in the wall
(c) coronory artery (d) none of these of alimentary canal.
8. Excretion is removal of – Reason : The muscles help in the mixing of food materials
(a) CO2 with the enzymes coming from different gland in the
(b) Harmful and useless ingredients alimentary canal.
(c) Extra water 3. Assertion : Saliva is the secretion of salivary glands.
(d) Metabolic waste Reason : Saliva is a mixture of water and electrolyte derived
9. The by-products of photosynthesis are –
from blood plasma.
(a) O2 and H2O (b) CO2 and H2S
4. Assertion : Fishes respire through gills.
(c) O2 and CO2 (d) H2O and H2S
10. The process of carbon assimilation is known as – Reason : Counter current flow occurs in gills.
(a) transpiration (b) respiration 5. Assertion : Arteries carry blood from various body organs
(c) photosynthesis (d) excretion to heart.
11. Phloem transports – Reason : Veins carry blood from various body organ to heart.
(a) Minerals 6. Assertion : Cardiovascular system involves blood, blood
(b) Food prepared by leaves vessels and heart.
(c) Water Reason : The human circulatory system is composed of
(d) All the above heart, vessels and blood.
Life Processes 209
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
Chapter TISSUES
9
INTRODUCTION
All living organisms are made up of cells. Some organisms are unicellular (made up of one cell) and the others are multicellular
(made up of many cells). These cells are capable of performing different functions such as respiration, digestion and so on. In
multicellular organisms, because of large body size it is difficult for each cell to efficiently cope with the vast variety of the
physiological needs of the organism, so cells group together to form tissues. These tissues are specialised to carry out a
particular function at definite place in the body. For example, the muscle cells form muscular tissues that help in movement.
Similarly, nerve cells form nervous tissue that helps in transmission of message. Likewise in plants, phloem cells form phloem
tissue that conducts food from leaves to other parts of the plants. This is known as division of labour in multicellular organism.
This division of labour allows the multicellular organism to perform all functions properly.
Tissues are group of cells similar in structure that work together to perform a particular function. In this chapter, we will be
discussing about the different types of plant tissues and animal tissues. Let us first, discuss about plant tissues.
Tissues 211
PLANT TISSUES
Plants are autotrophic organisms that prepare their own food by photosynthesis. They are stationary organisms that need not have
to move from one place to another in search of food. Most of the tissues of plants are supportive that provide them structural strength
or support. Further, there are some tissues in plants that divide throughout the life. Based on division in tissues, the various plant
tissues can be classified as meristematic and permanent tissues.
Plant Tissues
Meristematic Permanent
tissues tissues
1. MERISTEMATIC TISSUES : Meristematic tissues are composed of cells that divide Cytoplasm
continuously. These cells show the following characteristics :-
(i) The cells may be spherical, oval, polygonal or rectangular. Cell wall
(ii) The cells of meristematic tissue are similar in structure and have thin cell wall,
made up of cellulose.
(iii) The cells are compactly arranged without inter cellular spaces.
(iv) The cells contain abundant – cytoplasm and nuclei are large.
(v) Vacuoles are absent and if present, they are few in number. Nucleus
Occurrence : Meristematic tissues are found in growing tips of root and shoot. Based Meristematic tissue
on their position in the plants, meristems are divided into three types :
(i) Apical meristem, (ii) Lateral meristem and (iii) Intercalary meristem
(i) Apical meristems are found at the growing tips of stems and roots. It helps to Apical
initiate growth in new cells of seedling, at the tip of roots and shoots. It results in meristem
increase in height of the plant.
(ii) Lateral meristems are found beneath the bark. It increases the diameter of the Intercalary
stem. meristem
(iii) Intercalary meristem are located at the base of leaves or internode. It increases
the length of internode.
Cells derived from division of meristematic tissues take up specific function and
thereby lose the ability to divide. Thus, they form permanent tissue. The
developmental process by which cells take up a permanent shape, size and function
is called differentiation.
2. PERMANENT TISSUES : Permanent tissues are tissues that are derived from
Lateral
meristematic tissues that have lost the power of division and have attained their
meristem
definite forms. They are classified into two main types –
(A) Simple permanent tissue
(B) Complex permanent tissue
Permanent Tissue A B
Cytoplasm
Intercellular air spaces
extremely small or non-existent
Middle lamella
thinner side walls
Thickenings of extra
cellulose at each corner
Collenchyma tissue
Functions :
Lignified
1. Collenchyma is a mechanical tissue. It provides mechanical support to the secondary
stem. wall Empty lumen
2. They provide tensile strength with flexibility to those organs in which it is (No living
content)
found.
(iii) Sclerenchyma : Sclerenchyma are found abundantly in stems, roots, vein of
leaves, and hard covering of seeds and nuts.
• These are dead cells that are devoid of protoplasm.
• The cell wall is evenly thickened with lignin. Due to excessive thickening
of the wall of a sclerenchyma cell, its cell cavity or lumen becomes nearly
absent.
• A conspicuous middle lamella exists between two sclerenchymatous cells.
Cells of sclerenchyma are of two types :- Simple
(i) Fibres : They are usually pointed at both ends and are clustered into strands. They pit
consists of very long, narrow, thick and lignified cells.
(ii) Sclereids : Sclereids, also called stone cells, are irregular-shaped. They are found in the
cortex, pith, phloem, hard seeds, nuts and stony fruits. Their function is to give firmness Sclerenchyma tissue
and hardness to the part concerned.
You most have noticed that flesh of pear and guava are sometimes gritty . Can you guess why it is so? It is due to the presence
of sclereids. These cells are thick-walled, hard and strongly lignified.
Function : They give mechanical support to the plant by giving rigidity, flexibility and elasticity to the plant body.
NOTE
Lignin is a complex polymer that hardens cell wall. It makes the cell wall impermeable so that substances can not pass through it.
Tissues 213
Husk of coconut is made of sclerenchymatous tissue. It is present in the mesocarp of fruit of coconut.
Protective tissue :
(i) Epidermis : These tissues are usually present in the outermost layer of the plant body such as leaves, stem and root. It
includes epidermis and cork.
• Epidermis is usually present in the outer most layer of plant body such as leaves, stem and roots.
• It is one cell thick and covered with cutin and protects the underlying tissue present in plant body.
The main function of epidermis is to protect the plant from desiccation and infection. It also helps in exchange of gases
through the stomata.
(ii) Cork : As roots and stems grow older with time, tissues at the periphery become cork cells.
• Cork cells are dead, they have no intercellular spaces and the cell walls are heavily thickened by the deposition of
suberin. Suberin makes the cork cell impermeable to water and gases.
• Cork is protective in function. They prevent loss of water from plant body, protect plant from infection and mechanical
injury.
iN THE LAB
How epidermal cells help in gaseous
exchange? Let us perform an activity : Guard Cells
Take a freshly plucked leaf of a Rhoe plant.
Stretch it from upper side and break it by
applying pressure. While breaking it ,
stretch gently so that peel projects out.
Stomatal Aperture
Place this peel in a petri dish filled with a
Outer Wall Inner Wall
water. Add a few drops of safranine stain
to it. Observe it under microscope. Epidermal Cells
What did you observe? You will find tiny
pores of stomata along with the epidermal
cells. The stomata are bound by a pair of
Chloroplasts
guard cells. Guard cells are the two curved Stomata
Stomata
cells on the either side of the pore. By
changing their shape they can open or close the pore. When guard cells absorb water, they bend outwards, so that the pore
between them opens up. When they lose water they go back to a less curved shape, closing the pore between them.
Functions of stomata :-
(i) Stomata helps in transpiration. Transpiration is the process of evaporation of water from the leaf surface.
(ii) Stomata allows the exchange of gases (CO2 and O2) with the atmosphere.
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B. Complex Permanent Tissues : The complex permanent tissues consists of more than one type of cells. All these cells co-
ordinate to perform a common function. They transport water, salt and prepared food material to various parts of the plant
body.
Complex tissues are of two types :-
I. Xylem
II. Phloem
(I) Xylem : Xylem is a conducting tissue that conducts water and minerals to various parts of the body. It is composed
of four different types of cells.
Xylem
NOTE
Except for Xylem parenchyma, all other xylem elements are dead and bounded by thick lignified walls.
Functions :
(i) Xylem conducts water and minerals upward from the roots to different parts of plant.
(ii) Cells that are lignified such as tracheids, vessels and parenchyma fibres are used to give mechanical strength to the plant
body.
(iii) Xylem parenchyma stores food and helps in lateral conduction of water.
(II) Phloem : Phloem is also a conducting tissue that transports prepared food from leaves to other parts of plant. It is
composed of four different types of cells.
Phloem
(a) Sieve tube elements : They are living, tubular cells linked Sieve
Fibre
end to end. Their end walls are perforated and form a sieve plate
plate, which allows bidirectional flow of solutes and
Companion
hormones. Cytoplasm of sieve tube element is thin and
cell
peripheral. They have cellulose cell walls, which allows
exchange of substances across them.
Each sieve tube element is directly connected via strands of Sieve
cytoplasm known as plasmodesmata to its own companion areas
cell. The companion cell controls movement of solutes in the
sieve tube element. Plasmodesmata allows exchange of
substances between the sieve tube element and the
companion cell.
(b) Companion cell : They are small cells containing large nucleus
and abundant other organelles e.g., ribosomes, mitochondria
and golgi body. Nucleus controls the activities of sieve tube
element. Ribosomes allow production of enzymes and Sieve element
mitochondria produce ATP for active transport in sieve tube
element.
(c) Phloem parenchyma : Parenchyma provide support through
Components of Phloem
turgidity.
(d) Fibres : They are sclerenchymatous cells that provide support and some protection for delicate sieve tube
elements.
NOTE
Except for phloem fibres, phloem cells are living cells.
Let us now summarise how Xylem is different from phloem.
Xylem Phloem
Xylem is a complex tissue that comprises of dead elements. Phloem is a complex tissue that comprises of living tissue
Xylem conducts water and minerals from roots to other aerial Phloem conducts prepared food from leaves to all parts of the
parts of plant. body.
Difference table between simple tissue and complex tissue.
Simple tisse Complex tissue
These tissues consist of only one type of cells These tissues are made of up of more than one type of cells
The cells are more or less similar in structure and Different types of cells perform different functions. For example in
perform similar functions. the xylem tissue, tracheids help in water transport, whereas
parenchyma stores food
Three types of simple tissues of plants are Two types of complex permanent tissues in plants are xylem and
parenchyma, collenchyma and Sclerenchyma. phloem.
Difference table between meristematic tissue and permanent tissue.
Sl. No. Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue
1 Meristematic tissue are composed of cells that divide Permanent tissue are composed of cells that are derived
continuously from meristematic tissue that do not divide
2 The cells are undifferentiated The cells are fully differentiated.
3 The cells are small in size and isodiametric The cells are variable in shape and size
4 Intercellular spaces are generally absent Intercellular spaces are present.
5 The cell walls are thin Cell walls may be thin or thick.
ANIMAL TISSUES
Breathing is the most vital process that never stops. Along with heart, it is the most essential activity of the body. When we breathe,
we feel the movement of our lungs and diaphragm. Have you ever thought, which part of our body helps us in moving? Yes, it is
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muscle cells. The contraction and relaxation of these muscle cells result in movement. Every physical activity whether it is blinking an
eyelid or turning a somersault, involves muscles into play. Muscle is a type of tissue in our body.
In higher animals like man, cells are organised into four types of tissues.
Animal Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Simple Stratified
It is composed of a It is made up of
single layer of cells. several layers of cells
Depending upon the shape and function of the cells, the epithelial tissues are further divided into four types.
Epithelial Tissue
Cytoplasm Nucleus
Cytoplasm Columnar
cell
Nucleus
Nucleus Basement
Basement membrane membrane
(iii) Columnar Epithelium : It consist of cells that are pillar-like (i.e. taller than broader). The nuclei are towards the base. The
free ends of cells have a brush border containing microvilli. It forms lining of the stomach and small intestine, forming
mucous membrane.
Functions :
(a) They help in absorption of digested food material from stomach and intestine.
(b) They help in secretion, for example, secretion of mucus by goblet cells or mucous membrane.
(iv) Ciliated Epithelium : The cuboidal or columnar cells (have a free border)
Cilia
that bear thread-like cytoplasmic outgrowth called cilia, forms the ciliated
epithelium. Ciliated epithelium lines the trachea, bronchi, kidney tubules and Columnar
oviducts. cell
Function : The beating of cilia helps in movement of solid particles in one Nucleus
direction.
2. Muscular Tissue : Basement
membrane
Muscle tissue helps in the movement of internal organs such as heart and
alimentary canal in your body. It helps in contraction and relaxation of body
organs. Every movement, every breathe, every mouthful you chew- all these
Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
actions and more are carried out by the body’s muscle cells.
Structure of a muscle : A muscle contains bundles of long, thin muscle fibres called
myofibres, about the width of human hair. Each fibre is made of even thinner parts called muscle fibrils (called myofibrils) which in turn
contains even narrower parts called myofilaments. There are two kinds of filaments, made of different types of proteins.
(i) Actin which is thin and (ii) Myosin which is thick.
Over time the appearance of skin changes in our body. It becomes more wrinkled and creased. It is because as
people change, the collagen fibres in their skin weaken, causing the skin to become loose.
These slide past each other to shorten the fibrils causing the whole muscle to contract.
By weight, muscles make up more than 40 percent of the body. They include most of what we call our flesh, and
they also form the main part of all our internal organs. Altogether, the body has about 650 separate muscles.
Muscle tissues are made of muscle cell that are elongated and large-sized. A single muscle can do only one task that is to get shorter
to pull on body parts. But by working together in a very precise and co-ordinated way, hundreds of muscle in our body carry out
thousands of different activities every day.
Tendon
Tendon
Muscle belly Tendon Biceps Triceps Biceps
Epimysium (contracted) (contracted) (relaxed)
Tendon
Fasciculus
Endomysium Tendon
Sarcolemma
Triceps
Myofibril
Perimysium (relaxed)
Single muscle fiber
Nuclei
Movement of Muscle
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Can you recall from your previous knowledge, how does a muscle work? Muscles are attached to the bones of the skeleton by cords
called tendons. If you want to lift your arms, your brain sends a signal to your arm muscles through nerves. Thus muscles contract (get
smaller) and pull the bones of the forearm up.
When a muscle works (contracts or relaxes), it uses energy. This energy comes from chemical Myofibril
action between glucose (stored in muscle) and oxygen from the blood. The chemical action Sarcolemma
forms lactic acid. As the acid builds up, the muscle begins to feel tired. However, when the
muscle rests, the acid is reconverted to glucose.
On the basis of their location structure and function, there are three types of muscle fibres : Nucleus
(i) Skeletal muscles (ii) Smooth muscles
(iii) Cardiac muscles
(i) Skeletal muscle : The muscle that allows you to move around from one place to another Dark
is called skeletal muscles. Since, they are attached to bones and are responsible for body bands
movement they are called skeletal muscles. They are also known as striated muscle
because of light and dark parts of the muscle fibre that make them look striped. They are Sarcoplasm
also voluntary muscles as these are the muscles that are under the control of will. They
are long, cylindrical, unbranched cells with a number of nuclei, situated towards the
periphery of muscle fibre. Striated muscles
How do skeletal muscle allows movement of body? Our skeletal muscle is attached to a tendon which in turn is attached to our
bone. This tendon allows us to move our body. A tendon is a tough cord that attaches muscle to bone. Striated muscles are
located in muscles of limbs, body wall, face, neck etc.
Function : Striated muscles provide the force for locomotion (movement) and all other voluntary movements of the body.
(ii) Smooth muscles : These are smooth and involuntary muscles. You cannot control
Myofibrils
this type of muscles as they work involuntarily. This means that your brain and body
tell these muscles what to do without you even thinking about it. Each muscle fibre
is long, narrow, spindle shaped tapering cells. Now can you guess what causes the
movement of food in alimentary canal? Yes, it occurs by contraction and relaxation
of smooth muscle, found in the wall of alimentary canal. Smooth muscle helps to
push food from your stomach into your small intestine. They do not bear any stripes
across the muscle, hence, called unstriated or smooth muscles.They are found in
visceral organs except heart. That is why they are also called visceral muscles. They
are found in walls of alimentary canal, urogenital duct, blood vessels etc. Smooth muscle cells (fibres)
Smooth muscles contract slowly but can remain contracted for long period of time.
• The muscles used to smile are called voluntary muscles because we can control how and when we use
them to express how we are feeling.
• More than 50 muscles work in each arm when playing sports such as volleyball.
P oi n t
Identify the type of muscle shown in each of the given illustrations.
A B C
SOLUTION
3. Connective Tissue :
Have you ever thought how various body organs are connected to each other? OR Why organs do not get displaced during
body movements? Yes, it is because of connective tissue. The connective tissue is specialised to connect and anchor various
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body organs. It also gives support to various parts of body forming packing around organs so that organs do not get displaced
by body movements. The main functions of connective tissue are :
(a) It helps in binding of tissues
(b) It helps in supporting various parts of body.
(c) It helps in packing different organs of the body.
Structure : The cells of connective tissue are living, loosely spaced and very less in number. Homogenous, gel-like substances
called matrix forms the main bulk of connective tissue. The non-living matrix can be solid as in case of bone and cartilage and
fluid as in blood. Matrix is fibrous in nature and bind other tissues. The nature of matrix decides the function of connective
tissue.
NOTE
When a muscle is very active, it needs much greater supplies of glucose. So the heart beats faster than normal and the blood vessels
to the muscles widen, supplying the muscle with three times more blood than it has when it is at rest.
There are five types of connective tissue.
Connective Tissue
(a) Areolar tissue : It is a loose connective tissue. The tissue has a matrix that consists of scattered special cells and fibres that may
be yellow or white.
mast cells
macrophage
collagen
fibres
plasma
cell
fat cell
elastin
fibres
amorphous
ground
substance
fibroblast
smooth
muscle
cell
Tendon
Muscle
Bone
Ligament
Functions :
(i) It act as a fat reservoir.
(ii) It acts as an insulator. It reduces loss of fat from the body, that is, it regulates body temperature.
(d) Skeletal Tissue : It is a connective tissue whose matrix is composed of elastin. It is of two types – bone and cartilage.
There are 206 bones in the average skeleton of human body, but a baby’s skeleton has over 340 bones. This is
because as the baby grows, some separate bones join together to form the bone.
(i) Bone : Touch your limbs or fingers. Do you feel something hard inside. What is it? The hard parts in the body are the
bones. More than 200 bones form the body’s internal supporting frame work, called the skeleton. Bones are strong
and stiff, giving the body its shape, protecting internal organs and holding together the soft parts such as blood
vessels, nerves etc.
A single bone is rigid and tough and can hardly bend. But the whole skeleton can move because its bones are linked
at flexible joints, designed to reduced rubbing and wear. Bones are very strong, yet they are also very light weight.
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Structure of Bone : Most bones are not solid bone
Compact
throughout. They have three layers. Outside is a shell bone
of hard or compact bone, which is strong and stiff. Marrow
Inside this is a layer of spongy bone with tiny holes
for lightness. In the middle is the marrow, a soft and
jelly like substance that makes new red and white
cells for the blood. The whole bone is covered by a Spongy
bone
tough skin-like layer, the periosteum.
Bones form endoskeleton of human beings. The main Blood
functions of bones are : vessel
Osteon
(a) They provide shape to the body. (rod-like
(b) They provide skeletal support to body. subunit
Periosteum
bone)
(c) They serve as storage site of calcium and phosphate.
(d) They anchor the muscles. Structure of a bone
Have you ever thought, what happens if a bone breaks ?
It starts to repair itself. Bones are actually made of living tissues, so if they break, microscopic cells called osteoblast begin
to make new bone that fills the break or gap. After a few months the gap is joined and the bone is repaired.
A chemical agent called acetycholine is secreted at the axonic ends of many neurons. It is responsible for the
transmission of a nerve impulse across a synpase.
(ii) Cartilage : Touch your ear pinna, or your nose tip. Do you feel something hard but flexible. What is it? It is specialized
connective tissue that is compact and less vascular and very flexible. It is commonly known as cartilage. It is found in joints
and discs between vertebrae.
Functions :
(i) Cartilage provides support and flexibility to body parts.
(ii) It also smoothens surface at joints.
P oi n t
What will happen, if there are no bones in
the body?
SOLUTION
Bones provide the strong framework that supports the whole body and holds its parts together. Without bones you would
flop down in the floor like a jellyfish.
(e) Fluid connective tissue : This type of connective tissue links different parts of body and forms a continuity in the body. It
includes, blood and lymph.
(i) Blood : Blood is a fluid connective tissue, because in this tissue, cells move in a fluid or liquid matrix called blood
plasma. Basically, blood consists of a fluid called plasma that contain three types of blood cells. These blood cells are:
1. Red blood cell or Erythrocytes that carry oxygen.
2. White blood cells or Leucocytes to fight diseases.
3. Platelets to help blood to clot and seal a wound.
One cubic mm of blood (the size of a pinhead) contains 5 million red cells, 8000 white cells and 350,000
platelets.
Tissues 223
Functions of Blood : Blood has more than hundred jobs to do. Red blood Monocyte
(i) They transport oxygen, nutrients and hormones to the tissues. cells (white blood cell)
(ii) They transport excretory products from tissues to the liver
and kidney. Basophil
(iii) The red blood cells (RBCs) carry oxygen to tissues for (white blood cell)
Platelets
breakdown of food.
(iv) White blood cells (WBCs) play an important role in engulfing
and destroying foreign bodies.
(v) Platelets help in the clotting of blood. Lymphocyte
(white blood cell)
About one twelth of the body’s weight is blood.
Components of Blood
Germ
iN THE LAB
(i) Take a drop of blood on a clean slide.
(ii) Then observe it under microscope.
You will observe different types of blood cells in it. Identify them and write their functions.
(ii) Lymph : Lymph is a colourless fluid that has filtered out of blood capillaries. It is similar to blood but does not have RBCs and
some blood proteins. In lymph, white blood cells are abundant. Lymph flows in special vessels called lymph vessels.
Functions :
1. They transport nutrients that have filtered out of blood capillaries back into heart to be circulated again in body.
2. It brings waste products from tissue fluid to blood.
3. Lymph also protects the body against infection. It forms the immune system of the body.
An adult has about 5 liters of blood. It is roughly enough blood to fill seven wine bottles. More than half is
plasma.
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P oi n t
Why blood is considered a vital fluid?
SOLUTION
Without blood, the cells that make up the body’s tissue could not live. Blood carries food and oxygen to them to nourish
them and to enable new cells to develop. It also removes carbon dioxide and other waste products, so that they can be
expelled harmlessly from the body. Blood also carries hormones, the chemical substance that controls many of the body’s
activities. Its other function includes fighting infection, and helping to control temperature by carrying excess heat to skin
surface.
4. Nervous Tissue :
Brain
Close your eyes and feel things. Can you recognize the object? Yes, you can do.
But have you ever thought, how do you remember things?. Do sense organs help Spinal Cord
you remember things? No, the sense organs only collect information from your Peripheral
surroundings. It is the nervous system that helps you to remember and feel things. nerves
A tissue that is specialised to transmit messages in our body is nervous tissue.
Like a computer network, it sends tiny electrical signals to and fro, carrying
information from one part of body to another. The electrical signals are called
nerve messages and they travel along wire-like nerves, which spread in a vast
network through the entire body. The control of the whole nervous system and the
whole body comes from the brain.
The nervous system has three main parts —
1. Brain; 2. Spinal cord; 3. Peripheral nerves Human Nervous Tissue
The brain consists of billions of nerve cells and other tissue in top half of the
head. Its lower end merges into the spinal cord. Spinal cord is the body’s main
nerve. The spinal cord is inside a tunnel formed by the row of holes inside the Cyton
vertebrae of the backbone (or spine). Peripheral nerves branch out from the spinal Dendrites
cord and brain to reach every body part.
Neuron : The nervous system is built up of billions of very specialised cells called
nerve cells or neurons.Neuron is the basic functional unit of nervous system.
They are unique and the only type of cells that stop reproducing shortly after
birth. When neurons die, they are not replaced. They have specialised structure
Neurilemma
called axon and dendrites that send and receive information. There are more than
100 billion neurons in our body.
Nucleus
Different types of nerve fibres carry signals at different speeds. The Node of Ranvier
fastest signal travels at more than 120 m/sec. The slowest signals Medullary sheath
travel at 1-2 m/sec.
Axon
Each neuron consists of :-
(1) Cell body or cyton with a nucleus and cytoplasm. Cell body has two extensions
known as axons and dendrites.
(2) An axon is a long thread like extension of nerve cells that transmits impulses
away from the cell body. Terminal
(3) Dendrites, on the other hand, are thread like extensions of cell body that receive branches
nerve impulses.
Thus, axon transmits impulses away from the cell body while dendrites receive
nerve impulses. This coordinated function helps in transmitting impulses very A neuron – a unit of
quickly. nervous tissue
Nervous tissue exhibits two unique properties :-
(i) Irritability : It is the capacity of tissue to respond to the stimulus.
(ii) Conductivity : It is the capacity to transfer the response from one region to another.
SUMMARY
Tissues are group of cells similar in structure that work together to perform a particular function.
Plant tissues are of two types :
• Meristematic - Cells that are capable of cell division.
• Permanent - Mature cells that are incapable of cell division
Meristematic tissues are further classified as - Apical, lateral and intercalary meristems
Permanent tissues are classified as simple and complex tissue.
Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma are three types of simple tissues while xylem and phloem are two types of
complex tissues.
Animals tissues are of four types
• Epithelial tissue - It comprises squamous, cuboidal, columnar and glandular epithelium.
• Muscular tissues - It comprises striated, unstriated and cardiac muscles.
• Connective tissue - It comprises areolar tissue, adipose tissue, bone, cartilage, tendon, ligament and bone
• Nervous tissue - It is made of neurons that receive and conduct impulses
Neuron is the basic functional unit of nervous system. Each neuron consists of cell body, axon and dendrites.
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SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
INTRODUCTION
Importance of classification:
(i) It determines the methods of organizing the diversity of life on Earth.
(ii) It helps in understanding millions of life forms in detail.
(iii) It helps in understanding the interrelationship among different groups of organisms.
(iv) It also helps in predicting the line of evolution. Evolution is a complex process by
which the characteristics of living organisms change over many generations.
Based on evolution, organisms can be divided into two types: Primitive and advanced
starfish amoeba
organisms. A primitive organism or lower organism is the one which has a simple body
structure and ancient body design or features that have not changed much over a period
of time. An advanced organism or higher organism has a complex body structure and organization. For example, an Amoeba is more
primitive as compared to a starfish. Amoeba has a simple body structure and primitive features. So, it is considered more primitive than
a starfish. Thus classification helps in predicting the line of evolution.
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
Organisms are classified on the basis of characteristics. It could be in terms of appearance or behaviour. These characteristics give
clues about how species evolved.
The broadest divisions are based on the most basic characters. For example, the primary characteristic on which the first division of
organisms is made is the nature of the cell. It is considered to be the fundamental characteristic for classifying all living organisms.
Nature of the cell includes the presence or absence of membrane-bound organelles. Therefore, on the basis of this fundamental
characteristic, we can classify all living organisms into two broad categories of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Then, further classifica-
tion is made on the basis of cellularity or modes of nutrition.
Some basic characters used in classification are-
1. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes
2. Unicellular and multicellular organisms
3. Autotrophs and heterotrophes
4. Level of organization of organisms
5. Type of body development.
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
Nomenclature is the process of giving scientific names to plants and animals. Carl Linnaeus devised a binomial system of
nomenclature (naming system) in which an organism is given two names:
(i) A generic name which it shares with other closely related organisms which has features similar enough to place them
in the same group.
(ii) A specific name which distinguishes the organism from all other species. No other organism can have the same
combination of genus and species.
The scientific name derived by using the system of nomenclature is followed all over the world as they are guided by a set of
rules stated in the International Code of Nomenclature.
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Carl Linnaeus was the father of modern botany. He was a Swedish naturalist who laid the foundation of
modern classification and nomenclature in 1758.
HIERARCHY OF CLASSIFICATION
For developing a hierarchy of classification, we choose the fundamental characteristic among several other characteristics. For
example, plants differ from animals in the absence of locomotion, chloroplasts, cell wall, etc. But, only locomotion is considered as the
basic or fundamental feature that is used to distinguish between plants and animals. This is because the absence of locomotion in
plants gave rise to many structural changes such as the presence of a cell wall for protection, and the presence of chloroplast for
photosynthesis (as they cannot move around in search of food like animals). Thus, all these features are a result of locomotion.
Therefore, locomotion is considered to be a fundamental characteristic. By choosing the basic or fundamental characteristic, we can
make broad divisions in living organisms as the next level of characteristic is dependent on these. This goes on to form a hierarchy of
characteristics.
R.H. Whittaker proposed a five kingdom classification of living organisms on the basis of Linnaeus' system of classification. The five
kingdoms proposed by Whittaker are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
Living organisms are divided by groups called taxa (singular, taxon). The taxa ranges from having very broad characteristics
to much more specific characteristics. The smallest taxon is species. At the species level, organisms look alike and are able
to breed with one another. The next largest taxon is genus. At the genus level, there is a group of similar species that are
closely related.
As you can see from the figure, a species is the most specific group. A genus is a group of similar species. A family is a taxon
of similar genera. Take an example, Lion (Panthera leo) and tiger (Panthera tigris) are different species but they belong to the
same genus. This genus (Panthera) and another genus (Felis) which includes the domestic cat, also share some common
characteristics. Therefore, there is the larger cat-family (Felidae) which includes the genus of lion and tiger, and the genus of
the domestic cat. An order is a taxon of similar families. For example, the family of cats (lions, tigers, cats) and the family of
dogs (dogs, foxes, jackals, etc.) possess some common features and so they make an order. In the example cited here the
order is “Carnivora”. A class is a taxon of similar orders. For example, the orders of different animals like those of dogs, cats,
bats, whales, monkeys etc., have some common features such as hairy skin and milk-glands. The particular class of the
animals mentioned here is “Mammalia”. A phylum is a taxon of similar classes. For example, the classes of different animals
like the mammals, birds, reptiles, frogs, fishes, etc., together constitute the phylum chordata. (Plant taxonomists use the
taxon division instead of phylum). A kingdom is a taxon of similar phyla (plural for phylum). The Plant Kingdom consists of
all kinds of plants. The Animal Kingdom consists of all kinds of animals.
Diversity in Living Organisms 231
MNEMONIC
Classification of human beings:
Kingdom- Animalia
Phylum- Chordata
Class- Mammalia
Order- Primates
Family- Hominoidea
Genus- Homo
Species- sapiens
Try this memory tool to help you remember the order of the groups from kingdom to species : Keep Putting Chocolate Out For
Goodness Sake. The first letter of each word stands for one of the taxa.
Try to make the similar classification for DOG, TIGER, and CAT.
Protists include all microscopic organisms that are not bacteria, not animals, not plants and not fungi.
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III. KINGDOM FUNGI
• They are unicellular or multicellular eukaryotes.
• Cell walls in fungi are made of chitin.
• These do not contain chlorophyll and hence are heterotrophic. They may be
saprophytic (depend on dead or decaying organic matter for their food) or may be
parasitic (depend on living organisms for their food).
• Examples: Yeast, Mushrooms, Bread mould (Mucor), Lichen etc.
• Lichen is a group which has two varieties of plants, an alga and a fungus living
together. They co-exist for mutual benefit. This relationship is known as symbiosis. Paramecium Ameoba
Protista
The fungus absorbs water and mineral salts and supplies it to the alga. The alga
prepares food and supplies it to the fungus.
IV. KINGDOM PLANTAE:
• They are multicellular eukaryotes.
• They are usually autotrophic. They prepare their own food by the process of
photosynthesis.
• Their cells have cell wall, made of cellulose.
• They do not move from one place to another. They are stationary. Yeast Mushroom
• Examples: Moss, Riccia, Pinus, Mango etc. Fungi
With over 250,000 species, the plant kingdom is the second largest kingdom. Plant species range from the tiny
green mosses to giant trees.
Pinus Cedar
Plantae
P oi n t
List two ways in which fungi and plants are different.
SOLUTION
The cell wall in fungi are made of chitin, a complex carbohydrate. Plants have cell wall made of cellulose.
Also fungi do not contain chlorophyll and hence are heterotrophic. They may be saprophytic (depend on dead or decaying
organic matter for their food) or may be parasitic (depend on living organisms for their food). Plants, on the other hand, are
autotrophic. They prepare their own food by photosynthesis.
Eichler in 1883 suggested a system to classify the plant kingdom which is well accepted. He said that the plant
kingdom is subdivided into two subkingdoms: Cryptogamae and Phanerogamae
The plant kingdom is broadly divided into two groups on the basis of reproductive organs and embryo
structure.
Cycas Pinus
Gymnosperms
(5) Division Angiospermae
• This group constitutes the largest group of plants.
• Seeds are produced inside an ovary which later becomes the fruit.
• These are highly evolved group of plants.
• The plant body is distinctly differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.
Based on the number of cotyledons (seed-leaves) that form the seed, this group is divided into:
(i) Monocotyledons: Example: Rice, Wheat
(ii) Dicotyledons: Example: Beans, Mango
The plant with the largest flower is Rafflesia, which grows up to 1 m across.
The Welwitschia plant of the southern African scrub has two leaves, each many metres long, which lasts for
hundreds of years.
P oi n t
How gymnosperm is different from angiosperms?
SOLUTION
Gymnosperm Angiosperm
They are non-flowering plants They are flowering plants
They have naked seeds not enclosed inside They have seeds enclosed inside fruits.
fruits.
Examples include, Pinus, Cedar, Cycas, etc Examples include, Coconut, mango etc.
Diversity in Living Organisms 235
V. KINGDOMANIMALIA
• They are multicellular eukaryotes
• They have heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
• Cell wall is absent.
• Examples: Round worm, Tape worm, House fly, Man etc.
The animal kingdom is the largest kingdom with over 1 million known species.
Animals are arranged progressively from simple single-celled protozoans to highly complex mammals. Kingdom Animalia is divided
into two major groups on the basis of presence or absence of a notochord.
Non-chordates do not possess a notochord, while all members of the phylum chordates possess a notochord.
Non-chordate is further divided into subgroups on the basis of the following features:
True tissue- Absent or Present
Body cavity- Absent or Present
Type of body symmetry- Radial or Biradial
Type of coelom development- Acoelom, Pseudocoelom or True coelom.
Type of true coleom- Enterocoelom or Schizocoelom
On the basis of the above features, non-chordates are divided into the following subgroups: Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes,
Nematodes, Annelids, Molluscs, Arthropoda, and Echinodermata.
Members of the animal kingdom are found in the most diverse environments in the world.
(1) Phylum Porifera (Sponges): These are simplest multicellular animals. They are mostly marine, non-
motile and found attached to the rocks. The cells are loosely held together and do not form tissues.
Example, Spongilla and Euplectella.
(2) Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria): They are exclusively marine animals that either live in colonies or
have a solitary life span. Example includes Hydra, Corals etc.
Sycon
Poriferans
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(3) Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) : Body is dorsoventrally flat and leaf like or ribbon-like with bilateral symmetry. The body
cavity has only one opening which serves as both the mouth and the anus. Example Planaria, Taenia, Fasciola.
(4) Phylum Aschelminthes (Round Worm): They have triploblastic body showing bilateral symmetry.
Alimentary canal begins with the mouth and ends with the anus. Example Ascaris
(5) Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms) : Body is covered by a non-chitinous cuticle which may have
chitinous setae, or parapodia. The body is divided into several identical segments. Example Earthworm,
Leech.
(6) Phylum Arthropoda (Animals with jointed legs): This is the largest phylum with almost 80% of the
animal's kingdom in these phyla. Body is bilaterally symmetrical and segmented. It is divided into Aschelminthes
head, thorax and abdomen.
Arthropoda
(7) Phylum Mollusca : They are aquatic in habitat but some land forms are also seen. Body is soft
and divided into three regions- head, dorsal visceral mass and ventral foot. Example Snail, Slugs,
Octopus
Pila
Mollusca
(8) Phylum Echinodermata: Body is radially symmetrical, star shaped, spherical or elongate.
Exoskeleton is spiny. Head is absent and five radially arranged arms are present. Example Starfish,
Sea urchin
(9) Phylum Hemichordata : They have characteristics of both invertebrate and chordate. Body is
divided into proboscis, collar and trunk.
(10) Phylum Chordata : All members of the phylum chordata possess
(i) A notochord
(ii) A dorsal nerve cord
(iii) Paired gill pouches Starfish
(iv) Post anal tail Echinoderms
Diversity in Living Organisms 237
Tetrapods
(i) Class Pisces: This class includes fishes such as Scoliodon, Tuna, Rohu, Shark, etc. These animals mostly live in water. Hence,
they have special adaptive features such as a streamlined body, presence of a tail for movement, gills, etc. to live in water.
Mackerel
Eel
Gurnard
Lamprey
Swordfish
Pisces
(ii) Class Amphibia: It includes frogs, toads, and salamanders. These animals have a dual mode of life. In the larval stage, the
respiratory organs are gills, but in the adult stage, respiration occurs through the lungs or skin. They lay eggs in water.
Examples: Frogs, toads and salamanders are amphibians.
Amphibians were the first animals to venture onto land. They emerged from the oceans over 300 million years
ago.
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Adhesive disk
Salamander
Newt
Common toad
Amphibians
(iii) Class Reptilia: It includes reptiles such as lizards, snakes, turtles, etc. They usually
creep or crawl on land. The body of a reptile is covered with dry and cornified skin Rattlesnake Viper
Reptiles
(iv) Class Aves: It includes all birds such as sparrow, pigeon, crow, etc. Most of them have feathers.
Their forelimbs are modified into wings for flight, while hind limbs are modified for walking and
clasping. They lay eggs.
(v) Class Mammalia: It includes a variety of animals which have milk producing glands to nourish
their young ones. Some lay eggs and some give birth to young ones. Their skin has hair as well
as sweat glands to regulate their body temperature.
Blue whale is the largest mammal and water shrew is the smallest mammal.
Rhinoceros
Hippopotamus
Aves
Giraffe Elephant
Mammals
Diversity in Living Organisms 239
SUMMARY
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
Multiple Choice Questions : 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (b)
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (a)
5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (b) Assertion & Reason :
9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (b)
1. (a) 2. (c)
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Chapter GENETICS
11
INTRODUCTION
Every living being produces offsprings that resemble, their parents in certain fundamental characters. For example, mango plant
produces seeds that germinate and give rise to mango plants. Similarly dogs produce puppy that grows into dogs, and humans
produce baby that grows into adult human. Hence, similarities intend to increase between members of a family i.e. parents and
offsprings. These similarities are not merely due to coincidence but due to some inherent mechanism called heredity. It is genetic
continuity between successive generation. But the heredity is never complete, the offsprings differ
from their parents. This difference is called variation. Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with
the study of heredity and variation.”
Modern genetics began in 19th century with the work of Gregor Johann Mendel, who formulated the
basic concept of heredity. Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) was a monk at Brunn, Austria. In 1856 to
1865 he worked as a teacher in natural history and mathematics at university of Vienna. During this
period Mendel developed curiosity over the pattern of inheritance of characters from parent to offspring.
Mendel is regarded as the ‘father of modern genetics’ for his significant and pioneering contributions to the field of genetics.
Genetics 243
The puzzle of how characteristics are passed on from one generation to the next, or even why some characteristics skip a generation,
was solved by an Austrian monk called Gregor Mendel (1822- 1884). Mendel grew peas, and studied their sizes and colours. By
recording how these characteristics were passed on from one generation to the next, he worked out on a set of the basic rules of
genetic inheritance on how different characteristics are passed down through the generations.
NOTE
Hybrid : A plant and animal produced by parents that have different hereditary characteristics.
Mendel appeared in 1850 for passing a teaching certificate. Though he studied little science in school and
has never attended a university, he succeeded in passing the examination in physics but failed in Geology and
classification of mammals. He spent his last day in a conflict of church and died in 1884, without even
knowing that he will be father of genetics in future.
MENDEL’S EXPERIMENT
Mendel performed experiments in three stages :
(i) Selection of pure or true breeding parents.
(ii) Hybridisation and obtaining first (F1) generation.
(iii) Self pollination of hybrid to get generations like F2 and F3 and So on.
(i) Selection of Parents:
NOTE
A pure breeding variety produces offspring having similar characterstics. For example : white flower plant produces white flowered
offsprings etc.
Mendel selected fourteen pure breeding variety of peas as the material for his experiments. The pure breeding nature of each variety
was insured through self pollination. He eliminated the plants which did not form similar offsprings. The true breeding plants formed
the parent (P) generation.
Mendel employed seven characters with easily distinguishable contrasting forms. The characters were seed colour, seed shape,
flower colour, pod colour, pod shape, flower position and plant height.
The following table represents the contrasting characters:-
Parameters Contrasting characters
1 Length of stem Tall and dwarf
2 Position of flower Axial and terminal
3 Nature of the pod (fruit) Inflated and constricted
4 Colour of unripe pod Green and yellow
5 Colour of seed coat Grey and white
6 Nature of the seed coat Round and wrinkled
7 Colour of flower Purple and white
An organism is homozygous for a trait, when it has two copies of same allele. An organism is Heterozygous for
a trait when it has two different alleles.
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Seed shape
Spherical Wrinkled
Seed color Flower
position
Yellow Green
Ped color
Green Yellow
Tall Dwarf
NOTE
In genetics, genes are represented by letters. A capital letter shows that a gene is dominant, and a small one that it is recessive.
Parents X
Progeny
(F1 Generation)
The gene which decides the appearance of an organism even in the presence of an alternative gene is known
as dominant gene. On the other hand, the gene which can decide the appearance of an organism only in the
presence of another identical gene is called a recessive gene.
Genetics 245
Selfing of F1 X
F2generation
3 tall : 1 short
NOTE
Genotype is the description of genes present in an organism. For example, TT, tt or Tt.
Phenotype is the characteristic which is visible in an organism. For example, tall or dwarf are phenotypes of a plant.
MENDEL’S OBSERVATION
(i) The F1 hybrids always showed one of the parental forms of the trait.
(ii) Both the parental forms of the trait (contrasting forms of the trait) appeared without any change in the F2 generation.
(iii) The two contrasting forms in a trait did not show any blending either in the F1 generation or in the F2 generations.
(iv) The form of the trait that appeared in the F2 hybrids is called dominant form and it appeared in the F2 generation about three
times in frequency as its alternate (recessive) form.
MENDEL’S FINDINGS
On the basis of the experiment, Mendel postulated three laws which are known as Mendel’s law of heredity. These are:
(i) Law of dominance
(ii) Law of segregation
(iii) Law of independent assortment.
(1) Law of Dominance
This law has its basis for monohybrid cross. According to this law “when a cross is made between two homozygous (pure line)
individuals considering contrasting allele of same characters, then the allele that appears in F1 hybrid is called dominant and the other
is recessive”.
(2) Law of segregation or law of purity of gamete
According to this law “In F1 hybrid the dominant and recessive character though remain together for long time but they do not mix with
each other and separate or segregate at the time of gamete formation. Thus the gamete formed, receive either dominant or recessive
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character out of them. This law is called law of purity of gametes i.e., a gamete when
formed is always pure for a particular trait, just because of the fact that they always ×
contain the factors which determines single trait pertaining to a particular character.
RR yy rr YY
NOTE (round. green) (wrinkled yellow)
Monhybird cross: It involves cross between two parents that differ only in one
heritable character. For example : Tallness and dwarfness.
Dihybrid cross: It involves cross between two parents that differ in two heritable
characters. For example, round-yellow seeds and wrinkled green seeds. Ry rY
(3) Law of independent assortment
In dihybrid cross the phenotype observed were round yellow, wrinkled yellow, round
green and wrinkled green and appeared in the ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1. Such a ratio was F1
observed for several traits.
Mendel crossed pea plants having round green seeds (RRyy) with pea plants having
wrinkled yellow seeds (rrYY). Rr Yy
(round. yellow)
Since the F1 plants are formed after crossing pea plants having green round seeds
and pea plants having yellow wrinkled seeds, F1 generation will have both these An example of dihybrid crosses
characters in them. However, as we know that yellow seed colour and round shape of
seeds are dominant characters, therefore, the F1 plants will have yellow round seeds.
Frederick Meisher was the first who proved that DNA is a genetic material.
Genetics 247
NOTE
Autosomes: The chromosomes other than the sex chromosome. Each member of an autosome pair (in diploid organisms) is similar in
length and in the gene it carries.
P oi n t
Why are genes important?
SOLUTION
Genes are important as they are responsible for transmitting traits, characteristics, diseases and all other hereditary information
from one generation to another. Genes are the basic chemical units of DNA molecules found in chromosomes. Our behaviour
and personality traits are determined by our genes. Each gene carries instruction for specific characteristic such as curly or
straight hair, eye colour, or albino skin.
It is the inherited traits that makes their physical appearance so similar. An inherited trait is a particular genetically determined
characteristic that distinguishes a person. The traits of children are determined by the traits that are passed on from their
parents. Some traits are obvious in a family, a child’s nose is shaped like their mother’s nose, but some traits are less obvious.
You may have similar traits to many of your classmates even though you are not related to them. For example you roll
tongue but your brother may not.
There are numerous traits in humans, but some traits occur more frequently than others. About 70-90% of the human
population have free-hanging earlobes and can roll their tongue. The traits which occur more commonly are called dominant
and those which are less are called recessive trait.
HUMAN GENETICS
The process of creating new life is called reproduction. A man’s body makes male sex cells, which are called sperms, and a woman’s
body produces ova, which are female sex cells. When a sperm joins with an ovum, a new cell is formed. This cell contains all the
information needed to build a unique human being.
The instructions that tell the body how to develop genes, and the study of genes is genetics. Genes are sections of a long thread like
structure are called DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid), which is packed in bundles, called chromosomes. Chromosomes are packed inside
a control unit called nucleus. Human cells have 46 chromosomes, which are inherited from parents.
DNA is a double-straned coiled molecular chain held together by linearly held nucleotide. They make gene.
Father Mother
XY XX
XX XY XX XY
GENETIC DISORDERS
A large number of diseases are known to be inherited from the parents to the offspring. Such diseases are known as genetic disorder.
Most of these diseases are caused by the expression of recessive genes.
Most common and prevalent disorders are haemophilia, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anaemia, colour blindness, thalassemia etc.
Some genetic diorders are discussed below :
(i) Haemophilia:
• It is a sex linked recessive disease. It transmits from unaffected carrier female to some of the male progeny.
• In this disease a single protein that is a part of the cascade of proteins involved in the clotting of blood is affected. Due to this,
in an affected individual a simple cut will result in non-stop bleeding.
• The heterozygous female (carrier) for haemophilia may transmit the disease to sons.
• The possiblity of a female becoming a haemophilic is extremely rare because mother of such female has to be at least carrier and
father should be haemophilic. It is called royal disease, because it shows a number of haemophilic descents as queen Victoria
was a carrier of the disease.
Genetics 249
h h
XX XY XX XY
Normal Normal Carrier Haemophilic
female male female male
P oi n t
When was haemophilia discovered
in the royal line?
SOLUTION
Haemophilia is an inherited deficiency whereby the substance necessary for blood clotting is missing. The transmission of
this condition is sex linked, being present mostly in males but carried solely by females. Sons of a haemophilic male are
normal, but daughters, although outwardly normal, may transmit this deficiency to half of their sons. The existence of
haemophilia in certain royal families of Europe is well known. Working from family trees it seems probable that Queen Victoria
naturally produced the gene for haemophilia.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Scientists have discovered how to extract genes and use them in different ways, for instance in medicine, farming and
industry. This manipulation of genes is known as genetic engineering.
The main technique used in genetic engineering is called gene splicing. Chemicals called restriction enzymes are used to cut
specific genes out of DNA. Other enzymes, called ligases, are used to splice, or join, the genes with DNA taken from a
suitable organism.
This modified DNA, known as recombinant DNA (rDNA), can then be used in different ways. For example, it may be placed
in a fast-breeding bacterium. This reproduces very quickly to create lots of bacteria, each containing the rDNA with the
specific gene.
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SUMMARY
The process by which characters or traits are passed from the parents to the offspring is called heredity.
Variations means differences between the individuals of the same species.
The science which deals with the study of heredity and variations is known as genetics.
An Austrian monk namely Gregor Johann Mendel was the first person to study genetics. He is known as ‘Father of Genetics’.
Mendel proposed that a pair of factors which are now called genes, control inheritance.
Genes were found to occupy specific position on thread like structure called chromosome.
The paired condition is known as diploid.
DNA is the most important constituent of a chromosome.
DNA is a macromolecule in which a large number of nucleotide units are present.
The females carry two X-chromosomes as sex chromosome.
The males carry one X and one Y chromosome as sex chromosome.
Genetics 251
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions