Oxford Resources for IB

Chemistry – 2023 Edition

Answers

Reactivity 3.1 – Proton transfer reactions

Practice questions (page 540)

1. a. HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)
b. 2HBr(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) → BaBr2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)
2. HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
H+(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq)
Practice questions (page 541)
3. First equation:
HCO3– (conjugate acid) and CO32– (conjugate base)
H3O+ (conjugate acid) and H2O (conjugate base)
Second equation:
H2CO3 (conjugate acid) and HCO3–(conjugate base)
H2O (conjugate acid) and OH– (conjugate base)
4. H2PO4–
5. CH3COOH
Activity (page 542)
One species, NH4+, can act only as a Brønsted–Lowry acid. It can donate a proton to form the conjugate
base NH3, but it cannot accept any more protons, as none of the atoms in NH4+ has a lone electron pair.
Two species, F− and PO43−, can act only as Brønsted–Lowry bases. They can accept protons to form the
conjugate acids HF and HPO42–, respectively, but they cannot donate any protons (as they have none).
Notice that one more species, Al2O3, can theoretically accept a proton and thus also act as a
Brønsted–Lowry base, although the corresponding conjugate acid Al2O3H+ is unknown.
In aqueous solutions, reactions of Al2O3 with excess strong acids produce aluminium cations:
Al2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) → 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Five species, HF, NH3, H3PO4, H2PO4− and HPO42−, can act as both Brønsted–Lowry acids and
Brønsted–Lowry bases. Each of these species can both donate a proton and accept a proton.
Therefore, all five species are amphiprotic.
Six species, HF, NH3, H3PO4, H2PO4−, HPO42− and Al2O3, are amphoteric. Notice that any amphiprotic
species is also amphoteric. Aluminium oxide is amphoteric because it can react with both acids and bases,
but it is not amphiprotic because it has no protons and thus it cannot act as a proton donor.
Practice questions (page 543)
6. [H+] = 2 × [H2SO4] = 0.0200 mol dm–3
pH ≈ 1.70
7. 6.31 × 10–5 mol dm–3

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Skills questions (page 544)
1. Answers will vary. For example, pH paper values have a larger uncertainty, and are often between two or
three integer pH values. Measurements made using the pH probe will have higher precision.
2. pH probes:
- Advantages: higher precision, lower uncertainty, skin contact with the solution is unlikely, etc.
- Disadvantages: need calibration against buffer solutions, can be delicate, can be “shocked” by sudden
drastic changes in pH, causing them to become miscalibrated, etc.
pH paper:
- Advantages: simple to use, good for spot checks when an exact pH value is not required, etc.
- Disadvantages: can be coated in toxic substances, may require removing a drop of the solution, non-
reusable, imprecise, high uncertainty, etc.
3. Answers will vary depending on the experimental data.
4. Answers will vary depending on the reliability of the pH probe used. Make sure you justify your choice and
review the meaning of reliability (Tool 1).
6.

7.

8.

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9. When data covers a very large range, log values help us to discern the differences between the values
more easily. For example, the hydrogen ion concentrations after the addition of 4.0 cm3 of NaOH are
indistinguishable in graph 2. The first graph, which uses a log value (the pH), can be used to identify the
equivalence point and other useful features of pH curves.
Activity (page 546)
[OH–] = 0.0500 mol dm–3
[H+] = 2.00 × 10–13 mol dm–3
Activity (page 547)

Activity (1) (page 549)

HBr(aq) → H+(aq) + Br–(aq)
HCN(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CN–(aq)
HCOOH(aq) ⇌ HCOO–(aq) + H+(aq)
Activity (2) (page 549)
HClO (Cl is +1), HClO2 (Cl is +3), HClO3 (Cl is +5), HClO4 (Cl is +7)
H3PO3 (P is +3), H3PO4 (P is +5)
The acid strength increases along with the oxidation state of the central atom.
Activity (page 550)
H3PO4(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + H2PO4–(aq)
H2PO4–(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + HPO42–(aq)
HPO42–(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + PO43–(aq)
Practice questions (page 551)
8. a. i. (CH3)2NH(aq) + HCl(aq) → (CH3)2NH2Cl(aq)
(CH3)2NH(aq) + H+(aq) → (CH3)2NH2+(aq)
ii. (CH3)3N(aq) + HCl(aq) → (CH3)3NHCl(aq)
(CH3)3N(aq) + H+(aq) → (CH3)3NH+(aq)
b. i. (CH3)2NH (conjugate base) and (CH3)2NH2+ (conjugate acid)
ii. (CH3)3N (conjugate base) and (CH3)3NH+ (conjugate acid)
Practice questions (page 552)
9. a. CN–(aq) + H+(aq) → HCN(aq)
b. PO43–(aq) + H+(aq) → HPO42–(aq)
c. HPO42–(aq) + H+(aq) → H2PO4–(aq)
Practice questions (page 553)
10. a. 2Li(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → 2CH3COOLi(aq) + H2(g)
2Li(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → 2CH3COO–(aq) + 2Li+(aq) + H2(g)
b. 2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)
2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) → 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)
11. a. Fe2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2FeCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Fe2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) → 2Fe3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
b. Fe2O3(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Fe2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) → 2Fe3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)

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Practice questions (page 554)
12. a. 2KHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
HCO3–(s) + H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
b. CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Activity (page 557)

The y-intercept for the new curve will be higher, at pH = 2, as a more dilute acid solution will have a lower [H+]
and thus a higher pH.
The pH at equivalence will not be affected, as both NaCl and KNO3 are salts of strong acids and strong bases,
so neither of these salts undergoes hydrolysis.
The pH at which the curve flattens out will be lower (pH ≈ 12), as a more dilute alkali solution will have a lower
[OH–] and thus a lower pH.
Skills questions (page 559)
1 to 3. Answers will vary depending on the experimental data.
4. a. Before the equivalence point the conductivity decreases as acid-base neutralisation proceeds.
Neutralisation decreases the concentration of conductive species in solution because some of the
ions are used to create water molecules, which are not conductive.
b. At the equivalence point, conductivity is at a minimum because the solution contains NaCl and
water. Of these, NaCl(aq) conducts electricity, but not water.
c. After the equivalence point, conductivity increases again due to the presence of excess aqueous
sodium hydroxide, which is an electrical conductor.
5. Answers will depend on the experimental values obtained. The decrease in conductivity before the
equivalence point, as H+ ions in the acid are replaced by Na+ ions from the added alkali, suggests that
hydrogen ions are better electrical conductors than sodium ions.
6. pH is a measure of concentration, so the volume of the solution is significant because it increases with
each addition of NaOH. Keeping the volume approximately constant allows us to focus on the effect of
changing concentration due to the amount of ions.
7. Answers will vary, but it is likely that the experimentally determined graph shows a decrease in
conductivity before the equivalence point, while the graph in figure 11 shows an increase. This is due
to the low electrical conductivity of weak acids.
Similarities between the two graphs include a change in conductivity at the equivalence point, and
subsequent increase in conductivity as excess base is added.
Practice questions (page 561)
13. a. 2
b. 2.00 × 10–5 mol dm–3
Practice questions (page 564)
14. a. 5.45
b. 8.28

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Practice questions (page 565)
15. a. pKa: HCO3–(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CO32–(aq)
pKb: HCO3–(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H2CO3(aq) + OH–(aq)
b. pKa(H2CO3) = 14 – 7.64 = 6.36
pKb(CO32–) = 14 – 10.32 = 3.68
Practice question (page 566)
16. pKb(CH3COO–) = 14 – pKa(CH3COOH) = 14 – 4.76 = 9.24
This pKb value is typical for weak bases listed in table 8. As a base, the ethanoate ion has approximately
the same strength as phenylamine, and it is much weaker than ammonia.
Practice questions (page 567)
17. a. KCN(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ KOH(aq) + HCN(aq)
CN–(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ OH–(aq) + HCN(aq)
[H+] < [OH–], basic solution
b. H2O(l) ⇌ H+(aq) + OH–(aq)
[H+] = [OH–], neutral solution
c. HCOONH3CH3(aq) ⇌ HCOOH(aq) + CH3NH2(aq)
HCOO–(aq) + CH3NH3+(aq) ⇌ HCOOH(aq) + CH3NH2(aq)
[H+] ≈ [OH–], neutral solution
d. CH3NH3Br(aq) ⇌ CH3NH2(aq) + HBr(aq)
CH3NH3+(aq) ⇌ CH3NH2(aq) + H+(aq)
[H+] > [OH–], acidic solution
Activity (page 571)

The pH at equivalence is approximately 7, as the pKa of the acid and pKb of the base have nearly identical
numerical values.
At double-equivalence (at the right-hand side of the second buffer region), pH = pKa(CH3COOH).
At half-equivalence (in the middle of the first buffer region), pOH = pKb(NH3).
Practice questions (page 573)
18. a. methyl orange
b. bromothymol blue
c. phenolphthalein
19. Any of the following: methyl orange, bromophenol blue, bromocresol green, methyl red.

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Practice question (page 575)
20. Any strong base (OH–) added to the buffer is neutralized by the conjugate acid of the buffer system (NH4+):
NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq) ⇌ NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
The strong base is replaced with a weak base (NH3), so the buffer pH does not change significantly.
Any strong acid (H+) added to the buffer is neutralized by the conjugate base of the buffer system (NH3):
NH3(aq) + H+(aq) ⇌ NH4+(aq)
The strong acid is replaced with a weak acid (NH4+), so the buffer pH does not change significantly.
Activity (page 576)
Any three of the following:
 solutions of ammonia and ammonium chloride are mixed together
 solid ammonium chloride is dissolved in an ammonia solution
 excess ammonia solution is mixed with hydrochloric acid
 excess ammonium chloride solution is mixed with a sodium hydroxide solution
Other methods are also possible.
Practice questions (page 576)
21. a. 6.80
b. 8.95
End of topic questions (page 578–579)
1. Answers will depend on the student, but a possible answer might be: Protons are transferred from
Brønsted–Lowry acids (proton donors) to Brønsted–Lowry bases (proton acceptors) in neutralization
reactions. Amphiprotic species, such as water, can act as both Brønsted–Lowry acids and Brønsted–
Lowry bases by donating and accepting protons, respectively. The concentration of protons in aqueous
solutions can vary over a broad range, so it is often expressed using the pH scale, where pH =
−log10[H+]. Any two species differing by a single proton are known as a conjugated acid–base pair.
When both conjugates are weak, they can form a buffer solution that resists change in pH upon the
addition of small amounts of acids or bases.
2. D
3. B
4. A
5. a. HNO3 and Ca(OH)2
b. H2SO4 and Fe(OH)3
c. H2CO3 and NH3 (or NH4OH)
6. a. Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
b. 2Fe(OH)3(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + 6H2O(l)
c. NH3(aq) + H2CO3(aq) → NH4HCO3(aq)
Note that carbonic acid is unstable, so the last equation can also be written as follows:
NH3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) → NH4HCO3(aq)
7. a. The reaction of CaCO3(s) with a strong acid will be more vigorous than that with a weak acid, provided
that the calcium carbonate used in both experiments is in the same form (e.g. powder of the same
dispersity or pieces of the same size).
b. Strong acid:
2HX(aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaX2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2H+(aq) + CaCO3(s) → Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Weak acid:
2HY(aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaY2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2HY(aq) + CaCO3(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Y–(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

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8.
Species Conjugate acid Conjugate base
H2O H3O+ OH–
Cl– HCl does not exist
HF H2F+ F–
NH3 NH4+ NH2–
(CH3)3N (CH3)3NH+ (CH3)2NCH2–
HCO3– H2CO3 CO32–
CO32– HCO3– does not exist
9. First pair: cation (conjugate acid) + zwitterion (conjugate base)
Second pair: zwitterion (conjugate acid) + anion (conjugate base)

10. a.

pH = –log[H+] = –log(5.37 × 10–8) ≈ 7.27

b. Pure water remains neutral at any temperature, as its dissociation produces [H+] and [OH–] in equal
concentrations: H2O(l) ⇌ H+(aq) + OH–(aq)
If [H+] = [OH–], the solution is neutral, regardless of the numerical value of [H+] and thus regardless of
pH.
11. a. 1.82
b. 1.70
c. 12.30
12. Vfinal = 1.000 dm3; c(KOH)final = 0.0020 mol dm–3; pOH = 2.70; pH = 11.3
13. a. 1.82
b. 3.16 × 10–10 mol dm–3
14. a. [H+] = 1.12 × 10–3 mol dm–3; Ka = 6.29 × 10–5; pKa = 4.20
b. [H+] = 2.51 × 10–3 mol dm–3; pH = 2.60
15. a. Kb = 4.57 × 10–4; [OH–] = 2.14 × 10–3 mol dm–3; pOH = 2.67; pH = 11.33
b. Ka = 1.74 × 10–5; [H+] = 1.87 × 10–4 mol dm–3; pH = 3.73
16. a. Ka: H2PO4–(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + HPO42–(aq)
Kb: H2PO4–(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3PO4(aq) + OH–(aq)
b. pKa(H3PO4) = 14 – 11.88 = 2.12
pKb(HPO42–) = 14 – 7.20 = 6.80
17. a. HCOONa(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HCOOH(aq) + NaOH(aq)
HCOO–(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HCOOH(aq) + OH–(aq)
[H+] < [OH–], so the solution will be basic.
b. H2O(l) ⇌ H+(aq) + OH–(aq)
[H+] = [OH–], so the solution will be neutral.
c. NH4CN(aq) ⇌ NH3(aq) + HCN(aq)
NH4+(aq) + CN–(aq) ⇌ NH3(aq) + HCN(aq)
[H+] ≈ [OH–], so the solution will be neutral or almost neutral.
d. (CH3)3NHCl(aq) ⇌ (CH3)3N(aq) + HCl(aq)
(CH3)3NH+(aq) ⇌ (CH3)3N(aq) + H+(aq)

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 [H+] > [OH–], so the solution will be acidic.
18. a. pH = 3.75 + log(0.50/0.25) ≈ 4.05
b. pKa(CH3NH3+) = 14 – pKb(CH3NH2) = 14 – 3.34 = 10.66
pH = 10.66 + log(0.50/0.20) ≈ 11.06
19. In both cases, a strong acid, H+(aq), is neutralized by the weak base of the buffer system, and a strong
base, OH–(aq), is neutralized by the weak acid of the buffer system:
a. HCOO–(aq) + H+(aq) → HCOOH(aq)
HCOOH(aq) + OH–(aq) → HCOO–(aq) + H2O(l)
b. CH3NH2(aq) + H+(aq) → CH3NH3+(aq)
CH3NH3+(aq) + OH–(aq) → CH3NH2(aq) + H2O(l)
20. a. Weak base and strong acid, so at equivalence pH < 7. The most suitable indicator is methyl orange
(pKa < 7).
b. Weak acid and strong base, so at equivalence pH > 7. The most suitable indicator is phenolphthalein
(pKa > 7).

Reactivity 3.2 – Electron transfer reactions

Practice questions (page 585)

1. a. reactants: 0, –1; products: –1, 0
b. iodine is oxidized, chlorine is reduced
c. Cl2 is oxidizing agent, KI is reducing agent
2. a. OA = PbO, RA = H2
b. OA = CuO, RA = C
c. OA = Cl2, RA = Mg
d. OA = Br2, RA = KI
Practice questions (page 588)
3. a. Zn(s) + SO42–(aq) + 4H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
b. 2MnO4–(aq) + Br–(aq) + 2H+(aq) → 2MnO2(s) + BrO3–(aq) + H2O(l)
c. I2(s) + 5OCl–(aq) + H2O(l) → 2IO3–(aq) + 5Cl–(aq) + 2H+(aq)
d. Cr2O72–(aq) + 3C2O42–(aq) + 14H+(aq) → 2Cr3+(aq) + 6CO2(g) + 7H2O(l)
Approaches to learning questions (page 592)
Answers will vary. For example:
- Copper is less reactive than hydrogen and therefore does not displace hydrogen from the acid. Hence no
reaction observed in 1. Zinc is more reactive than hydrogen and therefore displaces it from the sulfuric
acid.
- Once there is contact between copper and zinc in 2, a potential difference is established, causing a flow of
electrons between the two metals.
- Metals are electrical conductors due to the mobility of delocalised electrons, so electrons travelling from
the zinc through the copper wire in 2 and 3 reduce some of the hydrogen ions in solution releasing
hydrogen gas.
Possible linking questions:
Why are acid-metal reactions redox reactions, whereas acid-base reactions are not? (Link to Reactivity 3.1)
How is electricity conducted through different materials? (Link to Structure 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3)

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Skills questions (page 592–593)
1. Oxidation: Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–
Reduction: MnO4– + 8H+ + 5e– → Mn2+ + 4H2O
2. 5Fe2+ + MnO4– + 8H+ → 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O
3. Answers depend on experimental data. Guidance:
- Determine the amount, in moles, of potassium manganate(VII) that reacted.
- Determine the amount, in moles, of iron in a 25 cm3 sample of iron tablet solution.
- Determine the amount, in moles, of iron in the 250 cm3 iron tablet solution.
- Determine the mass of iron in the 250 cm3 iron tablet solution.
- Determine the mass of iron in a single tablet.
- Calculate the percentage by mass of iron in one tablet.
4. Answers depend on the measurement uncertainties. Follow the guidance in Tool 3 to propagate the
uncertainties.
5. Answers depend on experimental values and those stated on the label.
6. Answers will vary depending on the results.
7. Answers will vary. For example:
- Difficulty determining the endpoint as the colour change is not always clear. Minimize by: placing a white
sheet of paper behind the flask and establishing a time during which the solution must remain pale pink.
- Not all the iron in the tablet dissolves in the solution. Minimize by leaving the solution in step three for a
longer period of time.
- Age of the tablets. Older tablets may contain a different amount of iron than stated on the label. Minimise
by using new tablets.
8. This allows a relatively large amount of iron to be obtained, lowering the relative and percentage
uncertainty.
9. This allows the iron to fully dissolve in the acid solution.
10. Redox reactions such as this are accompanied by a colour change. Therefore, indicators do not need to be
added to this titration. By contrast, an acid-base titration typically involves clear and colourless reactants
and products, so an acid-base indicator must be added to identify the endpoint.
Practice questions (page 601)
4. a. Cd(s) + 2NiO(OH)(s) + 2H2O(l) → Cd(OH)2(s) + 2Ni(OH)2(s)
b. Cd(s) | Cd(OH)2(s) || Ni(OH)2(s) | NiO(OH)(s)
Notice that many variations of this cell diagram are possible, depending on the battery construction. In
particular, the cathode can be made of nickel metal (or nickel-plated steel) instead of the pressed
powder of NiO(OH)(s), and hydroxide ions can be shown in one or both half-cells, for example:
Cd(s) | Cd(OH)2(s), OH–(aq) || Ni(OH)2(s), NiO(OH)(s), OH–(aq) | Ni(s)
c. anode: Cd(OH)2(s) + 2e− → Cd(s) + 2OH−(aq)
cathode: Ni(OH)2(s) + OH−(aq) → NiO(OH)(s) + H2O(l) + e−
Practice question (page 602)
5. The PEM separates the anode and cathode half-cells. It allows H+ ions to pass through but prevents the
diffusion of other ions, molecules and electrons.
Practice question (page 604)
6. cathode: Pb2+ + 2e– → Pb(l)
anode: 2Br– → Br2(g) + 2e–
overall equation: Pb2+ + 2Br– → Pb(l) + Br2(g)
Notice that the states of ions in the molten electrolyte are not shown, as Pb2+(l) and Br–(l) cannot exist as
individual phases. The melting point of PbBr2 is high (371 °C), so lead and bromine are produced in
liquid and gaseous states, respectively.

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Practice questions (page 609)
7. a.

b.

Practice question (page 610)

8. lithium, calcium, aluminium, tin
Practice questions (page 614)
9. a. Yes, because ∆G⦵ is negative.

b.
According to section 19 of the data booklet, E⦵cell = +0.34 V – (–0.45 V) = 0.79 V. This value is very
close to the previous result.
Skills questions (page 615)
1. E⦵ = E⦵red – E⦵ox = 0.34 – (–0.76) = +1.10 V
2. Answers will vary depending on experimental value.
3. Answers may include: non-standard temperature, change in the ion concentration over time, variations in
the resistance of the components of the circuit, etc.
4. ∆G = –nFE⦵
= –2 × (9.65 × 104 C mol–1) × (1.10 V) = –212080 J mol–1 ≈ –212 kJ mol–1 (3 sf)
5. Answers will vary.
Practice question (page 618)
10. cathode: 2H+(aq) + 2e– → H2(g)
anode: 2H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e–
overall equation: 2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Practice questions (page 619)
11. a. i. cathode: Ag+(aq) + e– → Ag(s)
ii. anode: Ag(s) → Ag+(aq) + e–
b. The concentration of silver(I) nitrate will not change because the amount of silver(I) ions reduced at the
cathode will be equal to the amount of silver metal atoms oxidized at the anode. In other words, each
Ag+(aq) ion that leaves the solution and deposits as Ag(s) at the cathode will be replaced with another
Ag+(aq) ion that is produced from Ag(s) at the anode.
c. The mass of the cathode will increase because Ag(s) will deposit at the nickel surface. The mass of the
anode will decrease because Ag(s) will be oxidized into Ag+(aq), so the anode will gradually dissolve.

End of topic questions (pages 620–621)

1. See page 580.
2. D
3. A
4. B
5. D
6. A
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7. C
8. D
9. C
10. B
11. A
12. D
13. a. +3
b. 8H+(aq) + MnO4–(aq) + 5e– → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
c. 16H+(aq) + 2MnO4–(aq) + 5C2O42–(aq) → 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 10CO2(g)
14. a. ionic bonding; electrostatic attraction between cations and anions / oppositely charged ions
b. when solid: ions are unable to move (when a potential difference is applied) AND when liquid/molten:
ions are able to move (when a potential difference is applied)
c. i. cathode: Na+ + e– → Na(l) ii. anode: 2Cl– → Cl2(g) + 2e–
d. 4OH–(aq) → O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e–
e. Any two:
the solution/electrolyte turns pink at the cathode/negative electrode
bubbles of a colourless gas are produced at cathode/negative electrode
bubbles of a greenish-yellow gas are produced at the anode/positive electrode
damp litmus paper bleached if held near the anode
15. a. gain of electrons = reduction and occurs at the cathode; charging reaction;
b. LiCoO2(s) → Li+ + e– + CoO2(s)
c. lithium is highly reactive and battery could explode if exposed to air or moisture
16. a. C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O
b. i. +4
ii. –2
iii. oxidized AND oxidation state increases (from –2 to +4)
c. i. ethanal and ethanoic acid;

ii. ethanal/aldehyde: distillation AND ethanoic acid/carboxylic acid: reflux

17. a. Z, X, Y
b. Any two:
Z did not react with dilute acid AND copper does not react with dilute acids
Z is a red-brown solid AND copper is a red-brown solid
Aqueous Z(NO3)2 is blue AND copper(II) nitrate is a blue water-soluble solid
c. i. 1 mark for every two correct labels:

ii. Ni(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Cu(s) + Ni2+(aq)

d. 0.60 V

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 Reactivity 3.3 – Electron sharing reactions

End of topic questions (page 627)

1. A species that possesses an unpaired electron is called a radical. It is formed by the homolytic fission
of a pair of bonding electrons involved in a covalent bond between two atoms. Radicals are highly
reactive and are normally considered to be intermediates as their existence is brief and they quickly
react with other radicals to form new covalently bonded compounds.
2. B
3. A
4. D
5. a. In homolytic fission, two electrons of a covalent bond are split evenly between two atoms resulting in
two radicals that each have a single electron. The reaction mixture must be exposed to ultraviolet (UV)
light, or heated.
b.

6. a. reaction type: substitution; mechanism name: radical substitution (SR)

b. Two propagation steps:
C2H6 + •Cl → •C2H5 + HCl
•C2H5 + Cl2 → C2H5Cl + •Cl
One termination step:
•C2H5 + C2H5• → C4H10
OR
•C2H5 + •Cl → C2H5Cl
OR
•Cl + •Cl → Cl2
7. a.

b. UV light provides the energy required to break chemical bonds in the homolytic fission of certain
molecules, e.g. chlorine.
c. Cl2 → 2Cl•
d. Propagation:
C6H5CH3 + Cl• → C6H5CH2• + HCl
C6H5CH2• + Cl2 → C6H5CH2Cl + Cl•
Termination:
2Cl• → Cl2
OR
2C6H5CH2• → C6H5CH2CH2C6H5
OR
C6H5CH2• + Cl• → C6H5CH2Cl
e.

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 Reactivity 3.4 – Electron-pair sharing reactions

Practice questions (page 629)

1. B
2. D
Practice questions (page 630)
3. a. (CH3)3CBr + KOH → (CH3)3COH + KBr
The hydroxide ion, OH–, is the nucleophile and the bromide ion, Br–, is the leaving group.
b. C5H11Br + CN– → C5H11CN + Br–
The cyanide ion, CN–, is the nucleophile and the bromide ion, Br–, is the leaving group.
Practice questions (page 633)
4. a.

b. When iodine reacts with an unsaturated alkene, there will be a colour change from yellow/brown/purple
to colourless as the iodine reacts and leaves the solution.
Practice questions (page 634)
5. a. CH3C(CH3)CHCH3 + HF → CH3CF(CH3)CH2CH3
b. CH3CHCHCH2CH3 + I2 → CH3CHICHICH2CH3
c. CH2CH2 + H2O → CH3CH2OH
d. C6H10 + HCl → C6H11Cl
e. CH3C(CH3)CH2 + H2 → CH3CH(CH3)CH3
Activity (page 635)

Species BF3 H2O Cu2+ CH3COOH OH– NH3 HF

Brønsted–Lowry acid No Yes No Yes No No Yes
Brønsted–Lowry base No Yes No No Yes Yes No
Lewis acid Yes No Yes No No No No
Lewis base No Yes No No Yes Yes No
Practice question (page 635)
6. A
Practice questions (page 637)
7. D
8. A
Practice questions (page 639)
9. a. chromium(III) ion, Cr3+
b. nickel(II) ion, Ni2+
c. platinum(IV) ion, Pt4+
d. iron(III) ion, Fe3+
e. palladium(II) ion, Pd2+

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10. a. 3+
b. 2–
c. 0
d. 2+
e. 2–
Practice questions (page 640)
11. a. C4H9Cl + KOH → C4H9OH + KCl
b.

Practice questions (page 641)

12. a. C5H11I + NaOH → C5H11OH + NaI
b.

Practice question (page 642)

13. (highest) 2-iodopropane, 2-bromopropane, 2-chloropropane (lowest)
Data-based questions (page 643)
1. pentan-1-ol: primary
pentan-2-ol: secondary
pentan-3-ol: secondary
2-methylbutan-2-ol: tertiary

2. Independent variable: Alcohol reactant

Dependent variable: Percentage of each halogenoalkane product formed.
3. Answers will vary.
4. Answers will vary.
5. Answers will vary and may include bar charts, pie charts, etc. For example:

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6. Answers may include:
- In all cases, a higher percentage of the products were bromoalkanes than chloroalkanes.
- The difference in the percentage of the products was more pronounced for the primary alcohol,
pentan-1-ol.
- Secondary alcohols, pentan-2-ol and pentan-3-ol, led to the production of a mixture of products.
- The chloroalkane and bromoalkane products were present close to a 50 : 50 ratio in the case of the
tertiary alcohol, 2-methylbutan-2-ol.
7. The reactions were carried out in aqueous solution. In all cases, the bromoalkane product was present in a
higher percentage than the corresponding chloroalkane product.
8. a. Primary alcohols such as pentan-1-ol react predominantly via an SN2 mechanism.
b. Tertiary alcohols such as 2-methylbutan-2-ol react predominantly via an SN1 mechanism.
9. The results for pentan-2-ol and pentan-3-ol suggest a rearrangement has taken place because the halide
ion was not exclusively added to the hydroxyl carbon.
10. Answers will vary depending on the answers to 3 and 4.
11. Answers will vary. Make sure you follow the guidance in the inquiry cycle chapter.
Practice question (page 646)
14. C
Practice questions (page 649)
15. a. benzene: electrophilic substitution/SE
AND cyclohexene: electrophilic addition/AE
b.

The marks in this question are typically awarded for the following features of the mechanism:
- curly arrow going from benzene ring to N of +NO2
- carbocation with correct formula and positive charge on partially broken ring (shown as dashed
curve)
- curly arrow going from C–H bond to partially broken ring of cation
- formation of organic product and H+/H3O+

End of topic questions (pages 650–651)

1. Answers will depend on the student, but a possible answer might be: The homolytic fission of a pair of
bonding electrons involved in a covalent bond between two atoms creates two fragments. One fragment
receives both bonding electrons. The species formed is called a nucleophile. The nucleophile is an electron-
rich species that attacks an electron-poor species, known as an electrophile. The new bond that is formed
between these two species is called a covalent coordination bond. A nucleophile is also described as a Lewis
base as it can donate a pair of electrons. When a transition metal ion is bonded to several Lewis base
molecules or ions, the result is the formation of a complex ion. When a Lewis base is a part of a complex ion, it
is known as a ligand. Ligands are electron-rich species that can be neutral or charged anions. The metal ion
acts as an electrophile accepting the electron pair from the nucleophile / Lewis base.
2. A (because it has no lone electron pairs)
3. D
4. C
5. D
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6. D
7. C
8. a.

b.

c. 2-bromo-2-methylbutane involves formation of more stable tertiary carbocation/intermediate

OR
2-bromo-3-methylbutane involves formation of less stable secondary carbocation/intermediate
intermediate is more stable due to increased positive inductive/electron-releasing effect of extra methyl
group
9. a. radical substitution
b. chloroethane, as the C–Cl bond is weaker (324 kJ mol–1) than the C–H bond (414 kJ mol-1) and thus
breaks more easily
c. This reaction is SN2 nucleophilic substitution.

The marks in this question are typically awarded for any three of the following features of the
mechanism:
- curly arrow going from lone pair/negative charge on −OH to carbon atom in CH2
- curly arrow showing Cl– leaving. Curly arrow must start at the bond between the carbon and
chlorine atom and finish on the chlorine atom.
- representation of transition state showing negative charge, square brackets and partial bonds
- correct structure of the final product and leaving group (chloride ion).
10. a. i. electrophilic addition
ii. 2-chloropropane
iii. secondary carbocation/carbonium ion is more stable
OR carbocation/carbonium ion is stabilized by two/more alkyl groups
iv. CH3CHClCH3(l) + OH−(aq) → CH3CH(OH)CH3(aq) + Cl−(aq)
OR CH3CHClCH3(l) + NaOH(aq) → CH3CH(OH)CH3(aq) + NaCl(aq)
b. i. first order
ii. The reaction is monomolecular, as otherwise its rate would depend on the [OH–] concentration.
Therefore, the rate-limiting (slow) step involves only halogenoalkane, so the mechanism is SN1.

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 iii.

The marks in this question are typically awarded for the following features of the mechanism:
curly arrow showing Cl– leaving
representation of secondary carbocation
curly arrow going from lone pair or negative charge on O in OH– to C+.

11. a. HNO3 + H2SO4 ⇌ H2NO3+ + HSO4–

H2NO3+ ⇌ NO2+ + H2O
b.

The marks in this question are typically awarded for the following features of the mechanism:
- curly arrow going from benzene ring to N of +NO2
- carbocation with correct formula and positive charge on partially broken ring (shown as dashed
curve)
- curly arrow going from C–H bond to partially broken ring of cation
- formation of organic product nitrobenzene and H+
12. a. 1-iodobutane and 2-iodobutane
b. 2-iodobutane is formed via the more stable secondary carbocation, so this is the major product
c.

The marks in this question are typically awarded for the following features of the mechanism:
- curly arrow going from C=C to H of HI and curly arrow showing I– leaving
- representation of carbocation
- curly arrow going from lone pair/negative charge on I– to C+
- 2-iodobutane formed
d. SN2; rate depends on both OH– and 2-iodobutane

Depending on the reaction conditions, the SN1 mechanism is also possible.

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