Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance

Highway and Railroad Engineering

CEHWRE30

MSDS
Definition
• Stopping sight distance – is the actual distance along the road surface,
which a driver from a specified height above the carriageway has
visibility of stationary or moving objects.

Vehicle motion object

Stopping sight distance

MSDS
Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
• The sight distance available depends on
i. Features of the road ahead
• The features of the road that affect the sight distance are the horizontal alignment and
vertical profile of the road, the traffic condition and the position of obstructions
ii. Height of the driver’s eyes above the road surface
• At vertical summit curves the height of driver’s eye and the object above road level are
more important factors affecting visibility
iii. Height of the object above the road surface
• This depends on what might be the source of danger to the moving vehicle

MSDS
Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
• Horizontal control for stopping – according to DGCS sec. 3.6.1.5, the
measure of stopping sight distance is taken from the height of eye of
1.15 m to an object on the road surface of height 0.15 m

h2
h1
Line of sight

MSDS
Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
• Total Reaction Time – time taken from the instant the object is visible to the
driver to the instant the brakes are effectively applied. During this time, the
vehicle travels a certain distance at the original speed or the design speed

- Split in two parts:

1. Perception time
2. Brake reaction time Brake reaction
region

Perception
region

MSDS
Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
1. Perception time
• Time required for a driver to realize that brakes must be applied. It is the time
from the instant the object comes on the line of sight of the driver to the
instant he realizes that the vehicle needs to be stopped

2. Brake reaction time

• Depends on the skill of driver, type of road, etc. Often, the brake reaction
time of the driver is taken together

MSDS
Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
• PIEV Theory
o Perception – the time required for the sensations received by the eyes or ears to be
transmitted to the brain through the nervous system and spinal chord
o Intellection (Identification) – the time required for understanding the situation. It is also the
time required for comparing the different thoughts, regrouping and registering new
sensations
o Emotion – the time elapsed during emotional sensations and disturbance such as fear, anger
or any other emotional feelings such as superstition with reference to the situation
o Volition – the time taken for the final action

• The PIEV time of a driver depends on several factors such as physical and
psychological characteristics of the driver, type of the problem involved,
environmental condition and temporary factors.
• American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
suggests a PIEV time of 2.5 seconds for an average driver
MSDS
Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping sight distance of a vehicle is a sum of lag distance and braking
distance

• Lag distance (d) – travelled by the vehicle during the total reaction time
• Braking distance (L) – travelled by the vehicle from the moment of
application of brakes to rest position

For lag distance, d:

𝒅=𝒗∙𝒕

Where v - design speed (or initial velocity) of vehicle

t - PIEV time
MSDS
Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
For braking distance, L:
𝒗𝟐
𝑳=
𝟐𝒈𝝁

Where v = design speed (or initial velocity) of vehicle

g = acceleration due to gravity
𝜇 = coefficient of friction

MSDS
Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance along
Inclined Roads
Brake reaction
region
Perception
Ascending (positive) grade
region

Perception
region
Brake reaction
region

Descending (negative) grade MSDS

Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
• For inclined surface (gradient),

𝒗𝟐
𝑺𝑺𝑫 = 𝒗 ∙ 𝒕 + 𝒏
𝟐𝒈 𝝁 ±
𝟏𝟎𝟎

Where n - gradient (in per cent)

MSDS
Examples on Analysis of Minimum
Stopping Sight Distance
Highway and Railroad Engineering
CEHWRE30

MSDS
Example
1. Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for design speed of 50
kph for
a.) two-way traffic on a two-lane road
b.) two-way traffic on a single plane road

Assume coefficient of friction as 0.37 and reaction time of driver as 2.5

seconds.

MSDS
Solution
𝑣2
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑆𝑆𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣 ∙ 𝑡 +
2𝑔𝜇
𝑘𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟∙𝑚 2
𝑘𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟∙𝑚 50 ∙
ℎ𝑟 3.6𝑠𝑒𝑐∙𝑘𝑚
= 50 ∙ ∙ 2.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 + 𝑚
ℎ𝑟 3.6 𝑠𝑒𝑐∙𝑘𝑚 2∙9.81 ∙0.37
𝑠𝑒𝑐2
𝑆𝑆𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 61.295 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

a. 𝑺𝑺𝑫𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟐𝟗𝟓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

MSDS
Solution
On roads with restricted width or on single lane roads when two-
way movement of traffic is permitted, the minimum stopping sight
distance should be equal to twice the stopping distance to enable both
vehicles coming from opposite directions to stop.

b. 𝑆𝑆𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 ∗ 61.295 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟗 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

MSDS
Example
2. Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid head-on
collision of two cars approaching from the opposite directions at 90
kph and 60 kph. Assume a reaction time of 2.50 seconds, coefficient of
friction of 0.70 and a brake efficiency of 50 percent, in either case.

MSDS
Solution
𝑘𝑚 1000 ℎ𝑟∙𝑚 𝑚
𝑉1 = 90 ∙ = 25
ℎ𝑟 3600 𝑘𝑚∙𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑘𝑚 1000 ℎ𝑟∙𝑚 𝑚
𝑉2 = 60 ∙ = 16.667
ℎ𝑟 3600 𝑘𝑚∙𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐

As the brake efficiency is 50%,

𝜇 = 50% ∙ 0.7 = 0.35

MSDS
Solution
Stopping Sight Distance of the first car, SSDmin1

𝑚 25 𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑆𝑆𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛1 = 25 ∙ 2.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 + 𝑚 = 153.515 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2∙9.81 ∙0.35
𝑠𝑒𝑐2

Stopping Sight Distance of the second car, SSDmin2

𝑚 16.667 𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑆𝑆𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛2 = 16.667 ∙ 2.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 + 𝑚 = 82.120 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2∙9.81 ∙0.35
𝑠𝑒𝑐2
Thus, total SSD to avoid head-on collision

Total 𝑆𝑆𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆𝑆𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛1 + 𝑆𝑆𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛2 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓. 𝟔𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

MSDS
Example
3. Calculate the stopping sight distance on a highway at a descending
gradient of 2% for a design speed of 80 kph. Assume other data as per
AASHTO recommendations.

MSDS
Solution
AASHTO specifications:
• PIEV = 2.50 seconds
• Specified design friction coefficient, μ varies from 0.35 to 0.40

So,
𝑘𝑚 1000 ℎ𝑟∙𝑚 𝑚
V = 80 ∙ = 22.222
ℎ𝑟 3600 𝑘𝑚∙𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐

MSDS
Solution
𝑣2
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑆𝑆𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣 ∙ 𝑡 + 𝑛
2𝑔 𝜇−100

Say μ=0.35,
𝑚 22.222 𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
= 22.222 ∙ 2.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 + 𝑚 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2∙9.81 ∙ 0.35−100
𝑠𝑒𝑐2
= 𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟖𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

MSDS
Analysis of Passing Sight Distance
Highway and Railroad Engineering
CEHWRE30

MSDS
Passing Sight Distance

MSDS
Passing Sight Distance
• Is the minimum sight distance required on a two-lane, two-way
highway that will permit driver to complete a passing maneuver
without colliding with an opposing vehicle and without cutting off the
passed vehicle
• Also allow the driver to successfully abort the passing maneuver (i.e.,
return to the right lane behind the vehicles being passed) if he/she
desires

MSDS
Passing Sight Distance
In order to determine the minimum passing sight distance, certain
assumptions have to be made regarding the movement of the passing
vehicle during a passing maneuver:

1. The vehicle being passed (impeder) is travelling at a uniform speed.

2. The speed of the passing vehicle is reduced and is behind the
impeder as the passing section is entered.

MSDS
Passing Sight Distance
3. On arrival at a passing section, some time elapses during which the
driver decides whether to undertake the passing maneuver.
4. If the decision is made to pass, the passing vehicle is about 10 mph
(16 kph) more than the impeder vehicle.

MSDS
Passing Sight Distance
5. A suitable clearance exists between the passing vehicle and any
opposing vehicle when the passing vehicle reenters the right lane.

MSDS
Passing Sight Distance
The minimum passing sight distance is the total of four components as shown below:

Where d1 - distance traversed during perception-reaction time and during initial acceleration to the point where
the passing vehicle just enters the left lane
d2 - distance travelled during the time the passing vehicle is travelling in the left lane
d3 - distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle at the end of the passing maneuver
d4 - distance moved by the opposing vehicle during two-thirds of the time the passing vehicle is in the left
MSDS
lane
Passing Sight Distance
The distance 𝑑1 is obtained from the expression

𝑎𝑡1
𝑑1 = 𝑡1 𝑢−𝑚+
2

Where 𝑡1 - time for initial maneuver

𝑎 - average acceleration rate
𝑢 - average speed of passing vehicle
𝑚 - difference in speeds of passing and impeder
vehicles
MSDS
Passing Sight Distance
The distance 𝑑2 is obtained from

𝑑2 = 𝑢𝑡2

Where 𝑢 - average speed of overtaking vehicle

𝑡2 - time passing vehicle is travelling in left lane

MSDS
Passing Sight Distance
The clearance distance 𝑑3 between passing vehicle and the opposing
vehicle at the completion of the maneuver has been found to vary
between 100 ft (30 m) and 300 ft (90 m)

MSDS
Passing Sight Distance
The distance 𝑑4 is usually taken as two-thirds of the distance travelled
during the time the passing vehicle travelling in the left lane

2
𝑑4 = 𝑑2
3

MSDS
Overtaking Zones
• It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that the length of
road visible ahead at every point is sufficient for safe overtaking
• This is seldom practicable and there may be stretches where the safe
overtaking distance cannot be provided. In such zones, signs should
be installed indicating “No Passing” or “Overtaking Prohibited.”

MSDS
Example
a. Compute the passing sight distance for the following data:

▪ Speed of the passing car = 96 kph

▪ Speed of the overtaken vehicle = 88 kph
▪ Time of initial maneuver = 4.3 seconds
▪ Average acceleration = 2.37 kph/second
▪ Time passing vehicle occupies the left lane = 10.4 seconds
▪ Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing vehicle = 76
m

b. Draw a sketch of the overtaking zone.

c. If the length of the road is 520 meters, draw a sketch of the overtaking zone.
MSDS
Solution
Difference in speeds, 𝑚 = 96 𝑘𝑝ℎ − 88 𝑘𝑝ℎ
𝑚 = 8 𝑘𝑝ℎ

𝑎𝑡1
𝑑1 = 𝑡1 𝑢 − 𝑚 +
2
𝑘𝑝ℎ
𝑘𝑚 𝑘𝑚 2.37 𝑠 ∙4.3 𝑠 1
= 4.3 𝑠 96 − 8 + ×
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟 2 3.6
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟗𝟕 𝒎

MSDS
Solution
𝑑2 = 𝑢𝑡2
𝑘𝑚 1
= 96 10.4 𝑠 ×
ℎ𝑟 3.6
𝒅𝟐 = 𝟐𝟕𝟕. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒎

2
𝑑4 = 𝑑2
3
2
= 277.333
3
𝒅𝟒 = 𝟏𝟖𝟒. 𝟖𝟖𝟗 𝐦

MSDS
Solution
𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑃𝑆𝐷 = σ 𝑑𝑖
= 111.197 + 277.333 + 76 + 184.889

𝑷𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑷𝑺𝑫 = 𝟔𝟒𝟗. 𝟒𝟏𝟗 𝒎 𝒔𝒂𝒚 𝟔𝟓𝟎 𝒎

MSDS
Solution
Road sign for overtaking
zone
b) Detail of the overtaking zone

650 m

MSDS
Solution
“No Overtaking Zone”

c) Detail of the overtaking zone

520 m

MSDS
Other Stopping Sight Distance
Considerations
Highway and Railroad Engineering
CEHWRE30

MSDS
Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
Lc S
Lc
S

M
M

Obstruction
Obstruction R
Line of
sight
Line of
R sight

Case 1: S < Lc Case 2: Lc < S MSDS

Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
When S < Lc,
𝑺𝟐
𝑹=
𝟖𝑴
When Lc < S,

𝑳 𝟐𝑺 − 𝑳
𝑹=
𝟖𝑴

Where S - sight distance, m

Lc - length of curve, m
M - clear distance from center of roadway to the obstruction
MSDS
Sight Distance on Vertical Summit Curves

h2
h1
Line of sight

MSDS
Sight Distance on Vertical Summit Curves
When S < L,
𝑨𝑺𝟐
𝑳= 𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝒉𝟏 + 𝟐𝒉𝟐
When L < S,
𝟐
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑨

Where A - change in grade (in percent) = |g1 – g2|

L - length of vertical curve, m
h1 - vehicle driver’s eye level, m
h2 - object level, m
MSDS
Sight Distance on Sag Vertical Curves
L

S g2

Headlight
beam
H β
A = g 1 - g2
g1

MSDS
Sight Distance on Sag Vertical Curves
When S < L,
𝑨𝑺𝟐
𝑳=
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷 + 𝑯
When L < S,
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑯 + 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑨

Where L - length of curve, m

S - sight distance, m
A - change in grade = |g1 – g2|
MSDS
Sight Distance on Vertical Sag Curve with
Obstructing Overpass

h1 z h2
C H
g1 g2

MSDS
Sight Distance on Vertical Sag Curve with
Obstructing Overpass
When S>L,
𝟐𝑺 𝒈𝟐 − 𝒈𝟏 − 𝟖𝑯
𝑳=
𝒈 𝟐 − 𝒈𝟏

Where 𝐻 =𝐶−𝑧
ℎ1 +ℎ2
𝑧=
2

MSDS
Sight Distance on Vertical Sag Curve with
Obstructing Overpass
When S<L,
𝑺𝟐 𝒈𝟐 − 𝒈𝟏
𝑳=
𝟖𝑯

Where 𝐻 =𝐶−𝑧
ℎ1 +ℎ2
𝑧=
2

MSDS
Sight Distance on Vertical Curves
For passenger comfort,

𝑨𝑽𝟐
𝑳=
𝟑𝟗𝟓

Where L = length of curve

A = |g1 – g2|
V = velocity (kph)

MSDS
Problems
1. The clearance to an obstruction is 9m and the desirable sight
distance when rounding a horizontal curve is 180m. Determine the
minimum radius of the horizontal curve. Angle of Intersection of the
curve is 32º.

2. The clearance to an obstruction is 40m and the desirable sight

distance when rounding a horizontal curve is 600m. Determine the
minimum radius of horizontal curve if the length of the curve is
550m long.

MSDS
Solution
1. Say S < Lc:
Lc 𝑆2
𝑅=
8𝑀
S=180m
1802
= = 450.0 𝑚
8 9

M=9m
Length of Curve, Lc:
20×𝐼
𝐿𝑐 =
𝐷
Obstruction 20×32º
=
1145.916Τ450.0
Line of 𝐿𝑐 = 251.33 𝑚 (> 𝑆 ∴ 𝑜𝑘!)
R sight
\ Rmin = 450.0 m MSDS
Solution
Say S > Lc:
Lc
𝐿 2𝑆−𝐿
S=180m
𝑅=
8𝑀

251.33 2 180 −251.33

=
8 9
M=9m
𝑅 = 379.33𝑚

Obstruction Length of Curve, Lc:

20×𝐼
𝐿𝑐 =
Line of 𝐷
R 20×32º
sight =
1145.916Τ379.33
𝐿𝑐 = 211.86 𝑚 (< 𝑆 ∴ 𝑁. 𝐺. !) MSDS
Solution
2. S > Lc:
𝐿 2𝑆−𝐿
𝑅 =
8𝑀
550 2 600 −550
=
8 40
𝑅 = 1117.19𝑚

∴ 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟓. 𝟎 𝒎

MSDS
Problem
3. A 5% grade intersects a -3.4% grade at Sta 1+990 at elevation 42.30m. Design a
vertical parabolic curve connecting the two tangent grades to conform with the
following safe stopping sight distance specifications:
Design velocity = 60 kph
Height of driver’s eye level from the pavement = 1.37m
Height of an object over the pavement ahead = 100mm
Coefficient of friction bet. pavement & tires = 0.15
Perception-reaction time = 0.75 s
Safe stopping distance = 83.289m

a. Determine the length of the curve considering safe stopping distance

b. Determine the elevation of the highest point on the curve
MSDS
Solution S=?

h2=0.1m
h1=1.37m
Line of sight

Solving for stopping sight distance, SSD

𝑣2
𝑆𝑆𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣𝑡 +
2𝑔 𝑓+𝐺
60 60Τ3.6 2
= +
3.6 2∙9.81 0.15+5%
𝑆𝑆𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 83.289 𝑚
MSDS
Solution
Assume S < L, Assume S > L,

𝐴𝑆 2 2
𝐿= 200 ℎ1 + ℎ2
100 2ℎ1 + 2ℎ2
2 𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝐴
2
5− −3.4 ∙83.2892 200 1.37+ 0.10
= 2 = 2 83.289 −
100 2∙1.37+ 2∙0.10 5− −3.4
𝑳 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟖𝟏𝟗 𝒎 (> 83.289 ∴ 𝑜𝑘!) 𝐿 = 113.953 𝑚(> 83.289 ∴ 𝑁. 𝐺. !)

MSDS
 Solution
Sta. V 1+990
Elev.=42.30 m
By R&P,
𝑆 131.819−𝑆
=
5% 3.4%
L=131.819m 𝑆 = 78.464 𝑚

131.819
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝐻𝑃 = 42.30 − 5% +
5% 2
0.5 78.464 5%
-3.4% ∴ 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗 𝑯𝑷 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟔 𝒎
S

MSDS
Problem
The design speed of a vertical sag curve is 100 kph. The tangent grades
of the curve are -2.2% and +2.8%, respectively.

a. Compute the length of curve considering passenger comfort

b. If the perception time of the driver is 0.75 second and the
coefficient of friction between the tires and the pavement is 0.16,
compute for the headlamp sight distance assuming that headlamp
is 0.70m above the road surface
c. Compute the angle that the headlamp light above the longitudinal
axis of the car

MSDS
Solution
Length of the curve

𝐴𝑉 2
𝐿=
395
2.8−2.2 (100)2
=
395
∴ 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟖 𝒎

MSDS
Solution
Safe sight distance, S

𝑉2
𝑆 = 𝑉𝑡 +
2𝑔𝑓
100 2
100 3.6
= ∙ 0.75 + 2.2
3.6 2∙9.81 0.16−100

∴ 𝑺 = 𝟑𝟎𝟓. 𝟖𝟏𝟓 𝒎

MSDS
Solution
Headlight angle, Φ

L < S;
200 𝐻+𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝐴
200 0.70+ 305.815 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
126.58 = 2 305.815 −
2.8− −2.2
∴ 𝜷 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟒°

MSDS