Investing For A Better World

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Public Policy: Investing for a Better World
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CHAPTER 1
THE PURPOSE AND NATURE

OF PUBLIC POLICY
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OVERVIEW
Public policies comprise the rules governments enforce

and the actions they take in society. Public policies are
essential to establish orderly and productive commu-
nities. Systems of government both develop and im-
plement public policies. Complications arise in federal
systems of government because of questions over where
policy-making authority should lie. Throughout this text,
we will treat public policies as investments. Sound invest-
ments can generate ongoing good outcomes for societies.
After establishing the broader context for government
and policy making, this chapter introduces the investment
approach. It also explains common goals of public policy,
including the promotion of civil rights. It then discusses
the work of policy analysts and enumerates policy in-
struments used by governments. The chapter concludes
by reviewing several indicators of well-being that clearly
show how public policy choices influence the quality of
people’s lives.
This chapter introduces you to:

• The meaning of the term “public policy”
• The importance of collective action
• The purpose and nature of institutions in society
• Government structures for policy making
• Public policy formation in a federal system
• The treatment of public policies as investments
• The goals of public policy
• Public policy and the promotion of civil rights Facing page: The United States
• The work of policy analysts Congress is a major forum for
Policy instruments used by governments making public policy.
•
• Indicators of well-being (Joshua Roberts/Alamy Stock Photo)
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WHAT IS PUBLIC POLICY?
Public policy is a form of collective action intended to make the world a better
place. This collective action is coordinated by governments on behalf of their
citizens. Collective action calls for individuals to coordinate their intentions
with others and accept that whatever outcomes emerge may differ from those
they, individually, would have desired. In their interactions in the market and
in other social arenas, individuals face freedoms concerning whether to opt in,
stay, accept, or opt out of collective efforts. In contrast, when governments co-
ordinate collective action, involvement is no longer optional. Once governments
establish rules, all individuals within their jurisdictions must either follow those
rules or confront the police powers of those governments. We will discuss col-
lective action in more depth at the beginning of Chapter 2, which reviews the
policy-making process.
Public policy consists of rules governments enforce and the actions they
take in society. Good public policy facilitates human achievement. Consider the
evidence. Compared with earlier generations, our lives are rich in many ways.
Most of us have enough food to eat, enjoy good health, can read, and can do
things that bring benefits and joy to others. Most importantly, we experience
many freedoms. Actions that governments take create those freedoms. Through
provision of public infrastructure, laws, security systems, public schooling,
health care, and many other things, governments open new opportunities and
choices for everyone. When we abide by rules defining socially appropriate be-
havior, we are free to think and act as we wish. We are free to apply our talents
as we see fit.
This text explores how specific public policy settings can make a better world.
When governments direct collective action effectively, they raise the odds that
all people within their jurisdictions will be better off. Improved social and eco-
nomic conditions encourage people to invent, create, and contribute in ways that
advance human well-being. In this sense, well-designed and well-implemented
public policies are investments. They guide people to act in ways that do not harm
their fellow citizens and—more positively—make the world a better place for
themselves and others.
This investment perspective on public policy guides the discussion in
this chapter and the overall structure of this text. An investment occurs when
an item or asset is bought with the hope that, in the future, it will generate
income or appreciate in value. Investment always involves making a trade-off
between present consumption and hoped-for future consumption. We must
recognize the investment perspective for what it is—a powerful idea. And that
idea is open to contention. Critics might argue the investment perspective is
only marginally relevant to policy making, because politics and power drive
policy choices. Of course politics and power matter, but ideas matter, too. Al-
though this text makes clear the multiple forces shaping public policies, the
4 CHAPTER 1 The Purpose and Nature of Public Policy
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idea that public policies are investments will guide our discussions of contem-
porary areas of public policy in later chapters. This reveals a distinguishing
characteristic of the text: although it continuously acknowledges the power of
institutions, interest groups, and political and ethical pressures, it accentuates
the power of ideas. A discussion of public policy and its impact on the 2014
Ebola crisis (Case Study 1.1) illustrates the approach of treating public policies
as investments.
case study 1.1 Fighting Ebola

Ebola is a deadly viral disease. Containing it Of course, there are good reasons for people
requires effective public policy. Historically, to worry. People infected with Ebola face the
infectious diseases like Ebola, HIV, influenza, threat of dying. Ebola spreads through contact
and tuberculosis have devastated countries. A with the blood or body fluids of people with the
similar concern has emerged with the spread of symptoms or through contact with the bodies
the Zika virus. of victims. So, when an outbreak occurs, vic-
Reported Ebola epidemics have occurred tims’ bodies must be safely handled to avoid
in Africa since the 1970s. Once contracted spreading the disease. Such actions occur most
by humans, the virus can rapidly spread. successfully in societies with good sanitation
In 2014, the worst-ever Ebola epidemic systems, reliable sources of clean water, and
occurred in several countries—the highest hygienic, uncrowded housing.
number of reported cases being in Guinea, Infectious diseases create classic collective
Liberia, and Sierra Leone. This outbreak led action problems. Since infected individuals
to around 25,000 reported cases and 10,000 can transmit disease to others, it is risky to
reported deaths.1 assume that everyone will voluntarily do the
The World Bank estimated the economic
impact of this outbreak and concluded that
funding swift action to contain the disease
would be money well spent.2 The Bank warned
that significant economic harm occurs when
people engage in aversion behavior—where
people avoid work or school, or abandon travel
plans, through fear of a catastrophic event.
In this case, the fear concerned contracting
Ebola. Governments need to manage a disease
and simultaneously engender trust in citizens,
so that people who are not at risk of contract- Doctors and nurses wearing protective clothing treat a
ing the disease remain socially and economi- victim of Ebola.
cally engaged. (Tommy Trenchard/Alamy Stock Photo)
What Is Public Policy? 5
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case study 1.1 continued
right thing. Well-designed public policies in West Africa, provided personal protec-
become critical to stopping the spread of tive equipment and other medical supplies,
disease. Only governments have the author- trained health care workers, operated burial
ity and resources to coordinate actions to teams, identified chains of transmission of the
combat viral diseases. Even so, governments disease, and worked with others to identify
differ in their capabilities, and international travelers who may have had Ebola before they
responses are often necessary. Deadly epi- left the region.
demics highlight how much the good health Subsequently, the U.S. Congress and
of individuals depends on a well-functioning President Obama approved a further $5.4
society, and this comes through enforcement billion to fight Ebola. This involved preparing
of sensible rules, adequate infrastructure, the U.S. health care system for Ebola cases,
administrative systems, high levels of gen- developing Ebola vaccines and treatments,
eral education, and appropriate training of continuing work in West Africa, and improving
health professionals. means of detecting the virus and prevent-
In the United States, the Centers for ing its spread. Also, the CDC and personnel
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is from the Department of Homeland Security
the national public health institute. It operates began in early October 2014 to conduct entry
within the Department of Health and Human screening at five major U.S. airports to detect
Services. The CDC has long known that man- signs of Ebola or potential exposure among
aging an epidemic means containing it at its all passengers arriving directly from countries
source, and therefore has established proce- affected by the epidemic. A group of hospitals
dures to arrest deadly diseases before they across the country made physical alterations
spread within the United States. to be able to effectively isolate large numbers
When the Ebola epidemic began in early of people should the disease spread within
2014, the CDC worked with the United States the United States.
Agency for International Development (USAID) In fighting Ebola in 2014 and beyond, the U.S.
to determine appropriate interventions to government led international collective action
contain the disease in Guinea, Liberia, and and engaged in well-orchestrated domestic
Sierra Leone. With almost one billion dollars precautions. Despite these efforts, in Octo-
of funding made available, the CDC, USAID, ber 2014 a traveler from Liberia died in Texas
and the Department of Defense sent over from Ebola and, in the process, infected two
3,000 aid workers to those countries. The nurses. One nurse later died. These fatalities
U.S. government also worked with the United led “Ebola alarmists”—mostly politicians and
Nations to contain the disease. Because it has media figures—to question the government’s
better resources than the governments of the preparedness for responding to a domestic out-
nations where the epidemic was spreading, break.3 However, the swift and comprehensive
the U.S. government took the lead in several actions the government took greatly reduced
ways. It established 15 Ebola treatment units the risk of an epidemic.
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CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS
1. What aspects of the U.S. government’s response to Ebola would you
expect to be used to address the outbreak of other viral diseases?
2. How does the Ebola case illustrate government coordination of
collective action?
The fight against Ebola illustrates several themes of this text:
1. There are many instances in contemporary society where carefully coordi-

nated, collective action is required. Often, governments are most able to take
the lead, given the resources and powers at their disposal.
2. Citizens can benefit greatly from the public policies that earlier generations
establish. Good public policies function like good investments. They yield
positive gains for society that it can realize over many years.
3. Many rationales can justify specific policy choices. Showing leadership,
showing respect for the dignity of all human life, and exhibiting other laud-
able goals are often consistent with economic reasons for taking specific
actions. The perspective of this text—that public policies are investments—is
compatible with many other policy goals.
4. Making public policy is controversial. Although the U.S. government
took actions to fight Ebola that were supported by expert judgment
and received international respect, some commentators still criticized
the government.
INSTITUTIONS IN SOCIETY
Governments can contribute to economic development and the overall well-being
of citizens. But governments are not responsible for every aspect of social organiza-
tion. People interested in public policy need a way to conceptualize broader social
organization and the role of government within it. An institutional perspective
is helpful. Institutions are sets of rules that structure how we interact in various
social settings. Institutions help groups overcome collective action problems be-
cause they guide our behavior in given situations. Institutions reward actions con-
sistent with desired social outcomes and punish undesirable actions. Institutions
show themselves through organizations and the behavior of individuals and groups
within those organizations. Long-standing examples of institutions include fami-
lies, schools, professions, businesses, and sports.
Institutions in Society 7
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Institutions and the people they guide typically develop efficient ways to
impart relevant rules. Rules come in three distinct forms:
1. Formal statements of acceptable and unacceptable behavior.

2. Informal norms of behavior, passed on to new members through actions,
examples, and lessons.
3. Internalized, unspoken, taken-for-granted notions that individuals hold
concerning “how we do things around here.”4
Rules can seem arbitrary. Consider driving. In the United States and Europe,
everyone drives on the right-hand side of the road. In the United Kingdom and
Japan everyone drives on the left-hand side. Once these rules are established we
must follow them to avoid trouble. Other road rules make it explicit how we are
to operate an automobile in a given jurisdiction. After taking exams to get a li-
cense, we are able to internalize the rules of the road. Soon, we are driving along
the highway, doing everything right and hardly thinking about it. Following
the rules keeps us safe, keeps other drivers safe, and allows us to focus on other
things—like our plans upon reaching our destination. Driving rules facilitate
well-coordinated collective action. Ultimately, that is the goal of all institutions.
By structuring actions and reinforcing acceptable behavior, institutions sup-
port human development, freedom of action, and creativity. Institutions also es-
tablish stability. In various social settings, rules typically place certain behaviors off
limits. Yet this inhibition of freedoms opens space for people to get along, work
together, and improve the quality of their lives.
The literature on institutions explains that well-functioning structures of gov-
ernment are required to support and shape other institutions in society.5 Elinor
Ostrom’s influential studies of voluntary efforts to establish institutions high-
lighted the importance of shared interests, monitoring, and credible sanctions in
the management of common resources among small groups.6 However, this work
also made clear that voluntary collective action becomes hard to maintain with
growing numbers of people. Government involvement becomes necessary. With
their powers to control resources and structure individual actions, governments
enable massive scaling up of mutually beneficial, coordinated action.
GOVERNMENTS AS INSTITUTIONS
Governments themselves are institutions that set the terms upon which other in-
stitutions in society operate. They do not usurp other institutions. Rather, they
establish rules about the nature and scope of the decisions that nongovernmental
entities might make. When governments serve in this role, disputes become in-
evitable. For example, when governments make rules about employment condi-
tions, tensions arise between representatives of governments and representatives of
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businesses. We might ask: Why should governments decide who can and cannot
work, how long people can work at a stretch, and what kind of minimum wages
should be paid? Aren’t these private matters?
One thing is clear. Governments are needed to establish common ground
and stability in society. Beyond the commune or small village, it is impossible to
achieve wide-scale collective action without the presence of government. However,
because government actions tend to limit and structure the powers of others, few
actions taken by governments occur without controversy.
The observation was once made that it is better to have a police officer in every-
one’s head than one on every corner. Societies need well-functioning governments to
set and enforce the rules as necessary. With one entity playing this role, it becomes
easier for disagreements and tensions to be peacefully managed. At the same time,
governments cannot act alone. Governments rely greatly on individuals and groups in
society—on other institutions—to contribute to stable and productive social relations.
If governments were required to stand vigilant at all times to enforce all rules
and correct any wrongdoing, soon all social resources would be devoted to those
efforts. There would be no surplus capacity left for creative actions. Indeed, this
“police state” system would rapidly collapse. The only way out of the conundrum
is that individuals and groups in society actively contribute to the development of
social order. That is why adherence to informal norms of behavior and the devel-
opment of self-disciplining habits of mind serve as essential pillars that, along with
the pillar of formal rules, ensure we can all get along together. Governments set
rules and take actions that create new opportunities for human creativity, collective
action, and social and economic development. These rules and actions comprise
the essence of public policy. But all government rules and actions are predicated on
general cooperation from nongovernmental entities.
The institutional perspective makes us mindful of the limits of public policy.
As long as a high degree of goodwill is present between government and society
in a given jurisdiction, there exists a fair chance that government actions will be
met with expected actions from others. Most governments can introduce policy
changes only when those changes have broad public support. This assumption sug-
gests that stable, functional government is dependent on political leadership that is
fully in tune with public sentiments.
GOVERNMENT STRUCTURES
AND POLICY MAKING
When studying governments and policy making, we should begin by consider-
ing the jurisdiction. A jurisdiction can be a nation, state, city, or school district.
Through history, many jurisdictions have established forms of government that
serve to develop, adopt, and enforce public policies. We are most familiar with
democratic forms of government. Here, the basic arrangements are the same across
Government Structures and Policy making 9
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jurisdictions. However, differences in details can produce major differences in how
democracies operate.
Within a jurisdiction, two questions arise. First, who are its citizens? Second,
which citizens have the right to vote? Eligible voters are often called constituents,
or simply, the electorate. Under forms of direct democracy, eligible voters get
to deliberate and vote on each policy issue. Yet direct democracy can typically
work only when the constituency is small. Thus, representative democracy is the
most common form of democracy in mass societies and the form most commonly
practiced in the United States. Citizens vote periodically for candidates who will
represent them in deliberative bodies—such as committees, boards, councils,
or legislatures.
POLITICAL PARTIES
Under representative democracy, roles emerge for political parties. Political party
loyalties influence legislators’ positions on particular policy proposals, just as they
shape candidates’ positions during election campaigns. Political parties have his-
torically served the function of summarizing and signaling basic information about
a candidate for office. If a candidate is a member of the Democratic Party rather
than the Republican Party, this membership is assumed to convey the candidate’s
positions with respect to, among other things, the role of government in society,
the level of taxation that is reasonable, and tolerance of income inequality. The role
of political pressure on public policy making will be discussed in greater depth in
both Chapter 2 and the Applications chapters.
THE LEGISLATURE
Public policy is generally formulated, debated, and approved in the legislative arm
of government. Relevant legislatures are given names like the US Congress, the
Wisconsin State Assembly, the California State Legislature, and the UK Parlia-
ment. Proposals for policy change are presented to the legislative body for con-
sideration. If the jurisdiction is large, it is likely to have a legislature with a large
number of representatives. It is impossible for all members of large legislatures to
be fully briefed on all policy issues. Therefore, many legislatures have elaborate
committee systems. These allow committee members with specific knowledge to
efficiently consider policy proposals. They can then recommend to the main legis-
lative body proposals they deem appropriate.
THE JUDICIARY
The judiciary is the branch of government that interprets legislation and tests its
correspondence with the broader body of established law within a jurisdiction.
Often, these responsibilities entail testing new laws against the provisions of the
relevant constitution, to determine their fidelity to constitutional intent. The
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judiciary has been viewed as a policy-making body in its own right. Certainly, state
supreme courts in the United States and the U.S. Supreme Court are powerful and
influential bodies. However, judges do not write law. They can confirm laws, they
can develop commentaries on interpretations of laws, and they can strike down
laws—or parts of them—that they deem unconstitutional. Since the courts are the
last resort for legislative interpretation, all judicial systems have elaborate appeals
processes built into them. The presence of the judiciary places a powerful brake
on the “adventurism” of legislatures when they are devising new public policies. If
they are to make laws having any permanence, they must draft them in consultation
with legal experts, so that they are likely to survive judicial scrutiny once they have
been adopted by the executive.
THE EXECUTIVE
The executive of any government tends to comprise the leading political figure in
the jurisdiction and his or her cabinet colleagues. In the United States, the execu-
tive is the president, supported by the vice president and various appointed cabinet
secretaries. The cabinet secretaries preside over specific U.S. government depart-
ments. At the state level in the United States, the executive is the governor. At the
city level, the executive is the mayor.
Across all democratic jurisdictions, the executive guides and controls the
bureaucracy—the major “doing” part of government. Proposals for new public
policies or for policy change often come from the executive. Policy proposals the
executive sends to the legislature tend to be backed by evidence gathered, analyzed,
and presented from units within the bureaucracy. Given its size and importance
to making public policy happen, the bureaucracy is often portrayed as a separate
branch of government, reporting to the executive.
INTEREST GROUPS, LOBBYISTS,

AND THINK TANKS
Within representative systems, lobbying of representatives is commonplace. This
involves different interest groups and lobbyists offering advice to representatives.
Interest groups embody organized efforts of Ppeople who share common goals.
Examples include groups representing banks, manufacturers, farmers, teachers, and
medical specialists. Given the nature of mass politics, interest groups frequently
lobby during policy making and also make financial contributions to electoral can-
didates. Although there should be a degree of independence between campaign
funding by interest groups and their lobbying efforts, representatives often form
policy views that are closely aligned with the interests of powerful allies.
Lobbyists comprise any people seeking to influence the policy preferences of
law makers. However, the most powerful lobbyists are either those who represent
Government Structures and Policy making 11
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significant interest groups, or lobbying professionals who act on behalf of paying
clients. For example, when businesses or interest groups do not have the capacity
or desire to employ full-time lobbyists, they may periodically use the services of
lobbying firms.
Think tanks tend to be nonprofit organizations that gather evidence and
make arguments with the intention of influencing the policy-making process. Like
interest groups and lobbyists, think tanks have become increasingly important in
shaping political discussions and debates as societies have grown in size and the
issues that governments must wrestle with have become more complex.
PUBLIC POLICY FORMATION

IN A FEDERAL SYSTEM
Federalism is a system of government in which multiple governments hold
power over specific jurisdictions. Federalism exists in many countries around
the world, especially those that are geographically large, with dispersed and
diverse populations. In the United States, federalism refers to the coexistence
of the U.S. government as the national government, along with the 50 state
governments. Each state establishes laws that are solely enforceable in their
own territories. Since all states in the United States contain multiple forms of
local government, there are many levels of government and a lot of jurisdic-
tional overlap. Effective management of intergovernmental relationships is vital
within such complex structures.
The ideals of federalism historically have been tied to the ideals of democracy
and freedom. In the United States, the War of Independence with Great Britain
(1775–1783) was fought over issues of representation and taxation. Revolution-
aries in the 13 colonies claimed Britain had no basis for imposing the rule of law—
the notion that individuals should submit to rules made by a specific government.
The Revolutionaries rejected imposition of taxes on people with no voting rights,
and the colonies declared themselves independent states. Subsequently, at the
Second Continental Congress, state delegates adopted the Articles of Confeder-
ation (1777), an early constitution that established the United States of America
and that stayed in place until the drafting of the U.S. Constitution (1787) and its
subsequent ratification (1788).
During the Revolutionary period, the national war effort and aspects of
diplomacy were fully funded by contributions from the member states. This
arrangement made the national government a creature of the member states,
fully reliant upon them for authority and revenues. With limited resources, the
confederation sometimes found it difficult to finance the war effort. This major
weakness threatened the viability of the whole independence movement. When
the U.S. Constitution was drafted, the Founding Fathers ensured that the new
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national government would have powers to independently establish its own rev-
enue base by imposing taxes. To this day, federalism in the context of the United
States sees the fifty states and the national government as independent entities,
each with independent taxing authority and powers to govern. Within each
state, local governments tend to be creations of the state governments. However,
high levels of local delegation are commonplace, and it is usual for local govern-
ments to have their own tax bases (usually in the form of property taxes, levies,
and fees).
The overlay of the U.S. government on the one hand, and the presence of fifty
independent state governments and myriad local governments on the other, has
created rich conditions for policy divergence and the diffusion of policy innova-
tions. The system opens possibilities for local citizens to shape how they live to-
gether and solve problems of collective action. As we shall see in the Application
chapters that follow, the price of such autonomy is that policy making at the state
level frequently becomes fraught, with people differing sharply over what kinds
of public policies are in the collective interest. Recognition of difference, and the
need to respect it, also accounts for the seeming intractability of many policy dis-
putes at the national level.
TREATING PUBLIC POLICIES

AS INVESTMENTS
The central theme of this text is that public policies should be treated as invest-
ments. Here and in Chapter 2 we discuss key features of the approach. Then, in
Chapter 3 we consider the investment approach in more detail. This introductory
coverage sets the scene for discussing specific policies as investments throughout all
of the Applications chapters.
The stance that public policies are investments implies that public policies
should yield benefits that continue through time and that outweigh their costs.
Public policies that do not perform in this fashion typically amount to poor, even
inappropriate, uses of collective resources. Their purpose is hard to justify, and
good grounds exist for abandoning them.
In itself, the investment stance is not an argument for limited government.
However, it raises the threshold for what constitutes good public policy. If requir-
ing that public policies be treated as investments were to inhibit wasteful public
spending, then the investment perspective would be consistent with an argument
for limited government. The differences matter, though, between the call for lim-
ited government and the call for public policies to be treated as investments. In
the drive for limited government, sight has too often been lost of how we might
do more with less, and how we might continuously improve the quality of govern-
ment services while improving efficiency.
Treating Public Policies as Investments 13
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If we start from the position that public policies are investments, then shabby
public service provision cannot play a part. The crux of the investment approach
is to promote public value. Government revenues are to be used to make the
world a better place. Available resources are allocated in a manner that yields the
highest possible benefits. When public policies affecting various human activities
are all treated as investments and they deliver on those investments, significant
leverage is attained. Dollars spent to ensure good roads, schools, and health care
systems contribute to economic growth. These investments can then enhance
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the years ahead. Under such conditions (and
assuming other factors are not promoting greater government activity), the size
of government would be expected to decrease over time as a proportion of GDP.
When governments maintain their commitment to funding sound public poli-
cies that operate as investments, the size of government relative to GDP should
incrementally shrink from year to year. The result is an entirely reasonable form
of limited government.
Treating public policies as investments can indeed lead to longer-term reduc-
tions in the relative size of government in the economy. For example:
• When individuals receive good schooling, the odds are raised that they will
go on to be productively employed, taxpaying citizens who make limited de-
mands on government services.
• Health care policies that encourage preventive care are known to reduce the
risks that individuals’ health will decline and require expensive, publicly sub-
sidized medical interventions later in life.
• Effective systems of criminal justice can reduce the risk that juvenile deviants
will fall into lives of crime punctuated by prison time. Keeping people out of
prison can save a lot of taxpayer money.
These are just three examples of how treating public policies as investments can
reduce subsequent demands on government spending. This focus on investing
today to make savings tomorrow represents only the most direct claim for why
an investment perspective matters. More importantly, people who benefit from
a good education, who experience good health, and who live within the law have
high-quality lives. Their education, good health, and good citizenship allow
them freedoms and opportunities they would otherwise miss. The experience of
living a good life is impossible to quantify in any simple fashion. Still, everyone
benefits when as many people as possible are enabled to live well. Good public
policy can produce that result, as the discussion of the value of higher education
in Case Study 1.2 illustrates.
The discussion in Case Study 1.2 shows how we can use the investment per-
spective to assess specific public policies. The example exhibits the five major
steps to treating public policies as investments, which we will discuss in detail in
Chapter 3.
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Applying the Investment
case study 1.2
Perspective: The Value of Higher Education
The world’s wealthiest countries have For individuals considering higher educa-
long-established systems of higher education. tion, or currently enrolled in a degree program,
Students attending colleges and universities it makes sense to ask: What will be the payoff
there generally benefit from government sub- from all this study? Evidence from the Organi-
sidies that support their studies. The United sation for Economic Co-operation and Develop-
States makes subsidized and nonsubsidized ment (OECD), a Paris-based think tank, shows
student loans available to students, and the fed- individuals who have pursued higher education
eral government guarantees their repayment. benefit greatly through higher lifetime wages
This guarantee has recently sparked contentious compared to those who with no education
debate, because delinquent federally underwrit- beyond high school.9 In the United States, many
ten loans create major long-term government studies confirm there is a large payoff for ob-
debt. Additional financial support for students taining a university or college degree, even when
from low-income families is provided through accounting for the costs of study and foregone
the U.S. government’s Pell Grants. The federal income. Anthony P. Carnevale and colleagues
and state governments also provide direct finan- estimated that returns increase even further
cial support to universities. All these programs as people acquire traditional master’s, doc-
reduce barriers to higher education. toral, and professional degrees such as MBAs
Government support for individual students, (see Table 1.1).
and for universities as a whole, is based on the The evidence in Table 1.1 suggests that, over
assumption that higher education produces their lifetimes, holders of bachelor’s degrees
public benefits. Policy makers have anticipated can expect to earn around 1.7 times the income
that whenever a student attends a university or of non–degree holders. Other studies indicate
college and earns a degree, both the individual these wage differentials tend to increase as
graduate and the whole of society are made people spend more years in the labor force.
better off. Also, people with degrees are less susceptible to
A public policy question arises: What value job losses during economic downturns. These
does society derive from citizens holding university gains by individual degree holders confirm the
and college degrees? Analyses of global produc- estimates of overall societal benefits of higher
tion processes reveal that the highest rewards education.
for producers now go to those firms whose Most importantly, people with higher educa-
primary contribution is knowledge.7 Awareness tion generate more social value through their
of the gains from such activities as industrial work than those without, one of the reasons
research and development, product and service why employers are prepared to pay them higher
design, market analysis, process management, wages. Further, people earning higher wages
and effective maintenance of customer relations tend to pay more per year in taxes than those
has fueled calls for improving society’s overall earning lower wages. Those taxes contribute in
level of education.8 many ways to improved social outcomes for all.
Treating Public Policies as Investments 15
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case study 1.2 continued
TABLE 1.1 Estimates of Lifetime Earnings by Education Level Attained
EDUCATION LEVEL ATTAINED MEDIAN LIFETIME EARNINGS
(U.S. DOLLARS, 2016)
High School Diploma $1,439,855
Bachelor’s Degree $2,414,624
Master’s Degree $2,847,855
Professional Degree $3,673,966
Doctoral Degree $2,809,629
Source: The methodology underlying the figures presented here is reported by Anthony P. Carnevale, Stephen J. Rose, and Ban Cheah,
The College Payoff: Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Center on Education and the
Workforce, 2011), p. 3, Figure 1.20
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

Comp: Change
endnote to number 10
1. Why do people with degrees tend to earn more than people
without them?
2. Do the findings on the benefits of higher education suggest that all
young people should strive to earn degrees? When might this not be a
good investment?
1. We focused on existing policies and programs.

2. Because those policies and programs have existed for a long time, we were
able to gather relevant policy evidence.
3. We sought to measure the desired effect—looking for evidence that higher
education provides benefits for individuals holding university or college de-
grees and for society as a whole.
4. We assessed the costs and benefits of pursuing a particular action and, from
there, determined the return on investment.
5. Our final step in the investment perspective is to offer robust advice—that is,
we need to explain how the analysis was performed and note the benefits and
limitations of that analysis.
These five steps form the core of the Policy Investment Checklist, a unique tool for
policy analysis introduced in Chapter 3 and consistently applied throughout the
Applications chapters.
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GOALS OF PUBLIC POLICY
Governments bring order and stability to society. These give people the oppor-
tunities to create and achieve, and thus contribute to a better world. As societies
develop and become more complex, governments also assume greater responsibil-
ities. The actions that governments take to promote good outcomes become more
varied. Here, we review seven goals of governments and the public policies they es-
tablish and implement: (1) defending people and property and maintaining public
order, (2) promoting human flourishing, (3) supporting effective nongovernmen-
tal institutions, (4) promoting efficiency, (5) promoting sustainability, (6) promot-
ing social equity, and (7) advancing human rights. This list is not exhaustive. Nor
are these policy goals mutually exclusive. Together, however, the goals help explain 11
why governments do what they do.10
DEFENDING PEOPLE AND PROPERTY AND

MAINTAINING PUBLIC ORDER
Assurance of our survival is fundamental to our pursuit of any other activities.
In peaceful, orderly societies, it is easy to take for granted this essential point.
However, threat of violence against us—initiated by fellow citizens, outsid-
ers engaging in acts of terrorism, or other nations at war with our own—can
rapidly curtail many aspects of “normal life.” Feeding ourselves, raising chil-
dren, and performing paid work all become more difficult when the risk of
harm increases.
From a public policy perspective, the goal of defending people and prop-
erty and maintaining public order is expensive. All governments must provide
national defense and homeland security, activities we will discuss in detail in
Chapter 5. We can broadly define this goal as keeping the peace in all forms, so
citizens can confidently engage in social and economic activities that enrich their
lives and the lives of others, without being threatened by other people or adverse
natural events.
Defending a nation requires the establishment of military power sufficient to
protect it from outsiders engaging in acts of war. The doctrine of the balance of
power suggests that nations must be adequately armed to deter acts of aggression;
that is, they must have the capabilities both to maintain the integrity of national
borders and to take credible retaliatory action if a threat is imminent.
The United States has long spent more money on national defense than any
other country in the world. However, the amount it has spent at any given time
has fluctuated greatly. U.S. military spending generally peaks at times of war or
heightened external threat. For a time during World War II, the United States de-
voted more than 40 percent of its GDP to military spending; recently that total
12
has hovered around 4 percent.11 This proportion remains high by world standards,
although it has been eclipsed by proportions spent on the military in nations
Goals of Public Policy 17
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experiencing conflict and significant threats, like Israel, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iraq,
and Syria. As forms of warfare have shifted, and terrorism has become a greater risk
in the United States and elsewhere, spending on homeland security has risen.
The expenditures noted here do not take into account another form of spend-
ing relating to defense and security. Most nations spend large amounts of money on
diplomacy and other “soft power” efforts intended to build good external relations
with other nations. Such efforts reduce the likelihood that hostilities will arise. For
example, peace treaties and formation of military alliances all help to reduce inter-
national tensions.
PROMOTING HUMAN FLOURISHING

Humans appear to have an inherent desire to advance themselves. In families, that desire
for advancement is manifest in how adults nurture children and young people. Humans
often defer present gratification so they can invest in their own development or in that
of others around them. This same desire for advancement occurs in the realm of busi-
ness. The drive to achieve monetary success serves as a powerful motivator for business
leaders to deliver products and services that customers like. The monetary motives of
business leaders contribute to broader social outcomes. Once again, we can equate striv-
ing to advance ourselves and others with the desire to promote human flourishing.
Efforts to promote human flourishing are not solely geared toward individu-
als. Governments also take many actions intended to promote a sense of commu-
nity. These can range from adopting local planning rules, supporting education,
creating social welfare systems, and advancing democracy.
SUPPORTING EFFECTIVE
NONGOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS
Through the rules and structures they develop and maintain, governments do a
lot to support nongovernmental institutions in society, such as the family and the
marketplace. Given the powerful role that governments can play in supporting
institutions, it is often government that people turn to when they seek to promote
institutional change. Indeed, many public policies are governmental efforts to
reform and improve the workings of the broader set of societal institutions. For
example, governments frequently use regulations to promote desirable actions by
businesses and individuals—a topic we return to later in this chapter.
PROMOTING EFFICIENCY
Most people agree that we live in a world of scarce resources. However, because
of human discovery and innovation, over time we have been able to improve the
use we make of the resources we have. For example, advances in medical knowl-
edge have extended life expectancies—allowing people both to enjoy more years
of good health and contribute more to the lives of those around them. Discoveries
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that have allowed the development of metals, plastics, and semiconductors have
contributed greatly to the quality of human life. Historically, efforts to transform
public property into private property—such as grazing space for cattle and land for
planting crops—likewise resulted in more efficient use of resources.
Governments can do a lot to promote economic advance and, hence, the over-
all advance of human society. On this score, governmental efforts to support the
development and expansion of markets have been vital. As market-based systems of
commercial activity evolve, governments are often called upon to develop policies
that promote more efficient outcomes. For example, when the costs of a transac-
tion are not fully covered by those who pay for a product, there is a tendency for
people to consume more of it than they would if they were responsible for all the
costs. A case in point involves coal-fired electricity plants producing pollution, the
costs of which have not always been reflected in electricity prices that consumers
pay. Situations like these are often remedied by policy actions, which serve to pro-
mote economic efficiency.
PROMOTING SUSTAINABILITY
The environmental movement, manifest in the actions of various interest groups
across many countries, has changed how people think about human activity and its
broader impacts. Increased knowledge of how atmospheric emissions contribute to
global warming and of how consumer and industrial waste pose ongoing hazards
has prompted governments to encourage sustainable development. Sustainability,
or the ability to endure indefinitely, has become a significant consideration across a
range of commercial, environmental, governmental, and household activities. Gov-
ernments have tended to spearhead actions on the part of others by introducing
new regulations, taxes, fees, subsidies, and other incentive schemes. In promoting
sustainability, governments commit to related goals, including encouraging envi-
ronmental protection and the use of renewable energy sources.
PROMOTING SOCIAL EQUITY

Everyone wants to be treated fairly. Most people also like to see others treated
fairly. In addition, we might say that, just as we judge people by how they treat
others who are weaker than they are, so we judge whole societies by how well they
treat their weakest members.
A starting point for our thinking about social equity is the realization that
we come into the world with different endowments of physical and intellectual
capability. These affect our life chances. Further, the environments we are born into
also influence how well we will be able to grow, develop, and ultimately take care of
ourselves. Stark differences in our starting positions in life can have major implica-
tions for the distribution of resources in society.
A commitment to respecting the human dignity of all people and the sanctity
of life must include efforts to help those with limited abilities to help themselves.
Goals of Public Policy 19
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When we show respect for the human dignity of others, we affirm our own human-
ity and our own sense of self-respect. Beyond such appeals to our humanity, two
instrumental reasons exist for respecting the human dignity of all people and the
sanctity of life.
The first is clear from the many stories about incredibly gifted and talented
individuals who started life in difficult circumstances but who benefited from the
benevolence of others. As a society, we gain immeasurably from the fully developed
actions, creativity, discoveries, and tenacity of other human beings.
The second is a concern for maintaining the legitimacy of the social order. If
people develop a broadly shared view that the governing structures are unfair, they
can express high levels of social unrest. This in turn can hamper prospects for social
harmony and for economic and social advance. Therefore, in the interests of pre-
serving current institutional structures, it is expedient to ensure a degree of social
redistribution that reduces wealth disparities. This legitimacy argument can also
support government provision of benefits that extend to many groups in society,
even when an income test would suggest that many recipients need no such benefits.
ADVANCING HUMAN RIGHTS

Efforts to protect and advance human rights represent a significant way that gov-
ernments can promote human flourishing. Since it was adopted in 1791, the Bill of
Rights that comprises the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution has been
a vitally important document for advancing and protecting human rights in the
United States. Successive U.S. governments have sought to act in ways that are con-
sistent with the spirit and letter of the Bill of Rights. It has been instrumental in
protecting the freedom of citizens to worship as they see fit, to exercise freedom of
speech, to be treated respectfully by government agents, to be fairly tried in courts
of law, and to be protected from cruel and unusual punishments.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations
General Assembly in 1948, has promoted human rights around the world. Its
30 articles enumerate the rights that individuals should enjoy throughout their
lives. The document recognizes the inherent dignity of all people and their equal
and inalienable rights. It argues that no distinctions should be made among people
on the basis of race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, na-
tional or social origin, property, birth, or other status. The Universal Declaration
urges education to be made available freely to all and to be compulsory, at least at
the elementary level. In addition, all people are to have the right to work, to free
choice of employment, to just and favorable conditions of work, and to protection
against unemployment.
As globalization has accelerated, flows of immigrants and refugees across
borders have greatly increased. Now, more than ever, it is common to find many
people living and working in countries that are far different from their countries
of birth. Into these new contexts people bring their prior cultural assumptions,
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customs, and beliefs. Although many adapt to their new cultures, others seek to
protect and pass on their cultural heritage. The multiculturalism that emerges from
these processes introduces many opportunities to advance human flourishing, and
for individuals to be exposed to different and exciting approaches to living a good
life. Yet multiculturalism can also generate clashing views about appropriate social
practices and how we should engage with one another. As part of their efforts to
advance human rights, governments everywhere must find effective ways to medi-
ate among the competing claims that different groups make for the recognition of
the cultures and practices that are integral to them. The treatment of immigrants
will be discussed further in Chapter 8, “Poverty Alleviation.”
PUBLIC POLICY AND THE

PROMOTION OF CIVIL RIGHTS
In the history of the United States, many political movements have worked to im-
prove the civil rights of specific groups in society. Clear historical examples include
efforts to eliminate slavery, obtain voting rights for women, and eliminate barriers to
African Americans’ full and equal participation in American society. Many struggles
continue today, not only for African Americans and women, but also for a range of
groups in society, such as people with disabilities and of diverse sexual orientations.
If we consider a variety of indicators of well-being and equality, it is clear
that even today, on average, African Americans face many structural challenges
in American society that make it difficult for them to enjoy the same social and
economic privileges enjoyed by many white people. Likewise, despite having made
major advances in their overall education levels, women in American society, espe-
cially those in the workforce, often feel they are held back from promotion or from
some of the best work due to invisible “glass ceilings.”
As other historically disadvantaged groups in society have observed various
struggles for civil rights, they too have sought to remove barriers to their full par-
ticipation as equals in society and the economy. The Americans with Disabilities
Act of 1990 was a landmark effort to reduce a class of discrimination. Efforts
to secure rights for the LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer)
community—such as legalization of same-sex marriage and workplace equality—
are ongoing. In many respects, the public policy goals in the United States of pro-
moting social equity and advancing human rights have been subsumed within the
promotion of civil rights.
Public policies can do many things to improve people’s sense of security,
their inclusion into society, and their capacity to be economically independent.
The perspective that public policies are investments is fully consistent with the
promotion of civil rights. To the extent that a society unjustly excludes or limits
people from enjoying life as others do, it reduces its own potential to realize
greater outcomes. Therefore, the current set of policy choices does not produce
Public Policy and the Promotion of Civil Rights 21
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the return on investment that could be achieved through policy reform. The
disproportionate incarceration rates of African American men in U.S. state and
federal prisons serves as one kind of indicator that current policy settings are
faulty. We discuss this matter further in Chapter 9, “Criminal Justice.” The biases
experienced by other groups when they seek promotions at work or nominations
for political office suggest that more work is needed to make all groups in society
feel welcomed for what they have to offer, and not judged or excluded because of
specific differences.
Public policy, construed as investing for a better world, is never static. The
struggles and gains of the past continuously open opportunities for us to explore
how we can do things better. The promotion of civil rights, the making of “a more
perfect union,” should never cease. This objective does not negate the incredible
improvements in civil rights that the United States has achieved in the past. It just
reminds us that those who worked so hard before us to make the world a better
place would expect nothing less of us than to follow their example. Yes, we should
celebrate historic achievements. But we must also remember: the effort never ends.
The world will indeed become a better place because people believe this—and then
get to work.
In each of the Application chapters of this text, we return to the theme of pur-
suing civil rights. In this way, the text makes an explicit effort to show how treating
public policies as investments is consistent with the advancement of civil rights.
THE WORK OF POLICY ANALYSTS

Policy analysts work in many organizations both inside and outside govern-
ment. Government decision makers such as presidents, governors, prime min-
isters, cabinet members, and legislators have for centuries required advisors
to assist them in considering the consequences of specific actions. As advisors
began to rely on the careful analysis and interpretation of statistics, financial
accounts, and other forms of evidence, the analysts producing this work often
13 came from specialized backgrounds in economics, applied mathematics, and
operations research.12
In the United States, the presidential administrations of John Kennedy
(1961–1963) and Lyndon Johnson (1963–1969) employed a cadre of “whiz
kids”—exemplified by Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara—to develop highly
detailed analytical work to support policy recommendations. The effect on Wash-
ington, DC, was galvanizing. Soon, members of Congress called for improvements
in their own analytical resources. These included the establishment of the Congres-
sional Budget Office (CBO) in 1975. Those outside government also saw the need
to boost their analytical firepower, and soon many interest groups, lobbyists, and
14 think tanks around the nation’s capital were employing policy analysts to improve
the quality of their advisory and lobbying efforts.13
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This analytical arms race was replicated in state capitals across the United
States during the 1970s and 1980s. A similar phenomenon occurred in national
and regional capitals around the world. In an era when government systems had
become large and complex, it was widely understood that people with sharp
intellectual and communication skills were sorely needed to ensure that policy
making was well informed. Since those early years marking the rise of policy
analysis as a feature of modern government, the employment of analysts has
15
continued to expand.14
Policy analysts make many contributions to policy making. As advisors, their
most important work involves appropriately defining policy problems, identifying
possible policy options to address those problems, and then weighing the positives
and negatives of each option. Inevitably, this work involves identifying tradeoffs
across different policy options. Good policy analysts do not simply look at a given
problem and propose a satisfactory response. Concerned that solving one prob-
lem might cause another, they assess what the long-term effects of a policy change
might be. To assist them in their work, policy analysts make use of various ana-
lytical frameworks. These include cost-benefit analysis and comparative institu-
tional analysis, approaches we will define and apply throughout this text. Policy
analysts also need to consider how policies can affect diverse groups differently. In
so doing, they often draw upon other analytical approaches, such as gender and
race analyses.
Last, policy analysts need to exhibit political astuteness.15 Knowledge of the 16
politics of an issue can help them determine what policy goals to emphasize in
their analysis. Likewise, knowledge of the government’s current fiscal situation—
whether it is flush with cash or in serious debt—can help them develop the best
financial advice for decision makers. We will discuss the work of policy analysts
further as we proceed through the following chapters.
POLICY INSTRUMENTS
THAT GOVERNMENTS USE
Over centuries, governments have developed increasingly sophisticated means of
structuring interactions in society and promoting continuous social and economic
advancement. Here, we review contemporary policy instruments falling into seven
categories: (1) market making, (2) taxes, (3) subsidies, (4) regulation, (5) direct
service supply, (6) funding and contracting, and (7) information provision and 17
social marketing.16 Governments often devise policy responses to specific problems
that combine two or more of these instruments. This approach makes sense since
all policy instruments have strengths and weaknesses. Given any specific context,
combining complementary instruments can generate better overall outcomes than
relying on a single instrument would.
Policy Instruments that Governments Use 23
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MARKET MAKING
Markets operate through individuals and organizations pursuing actions they con-
sider to be in their own interests. Prices in markets provide signals to producers and
consumers. Producers generate more goods and services when they can do so while
generating a profit. Consumers buy goods and services when they consider that they
are getting a good deal. Because markets do not require central coordination and
authority figures telling people what to do, they operate in a distinctive way from
systems of government, where control and direction are central modes of activity.
However, governments can create policy settings that enhance market performance.
It is this facet of government that we refer to as market making. It has three aspects.
1. Establishing Property Rights To operate efficiently, markets depend

on clearly specified property rights and a system of rules and procedures that allow
for their effective enforcement. These create a need for a legal system and a police
force to uphold the rule of law. Markets also need a monetary system so that people
can use cash as a medium of exchange. Stability of this monetary system is crucial.
Inflationary pressures must be limited so that people can make accurate predictions
about the future value of goods and services. This necessity calls for creation of
government infrastructure, in the form of a central bank. It also requires systems
of banking regulation that ensure people have peace of mind when engaging in
transactions or planning for future ones.
2. Improving Market Performance The second way that governments

make markets concerns efforts to facilitate or improve the functioning of specific
markets. Often, they achieve these by removing impediments to market activity.
For example, if some parties to transactions routinely have more information than
others and tend to use this information to their advantage, it is possible that the
market will collapse. The market for used cars offers a classic case. It is helpful to
know the history of a car—how many owners it has had, where it has been used,
and if it has been involved in major accidents. Incentives often exist for associa-
tions of sellers or buyers or even nontrading third parties to provide information or
establish other market conditions that allow the market to function. But if those
remedial private-party actions do not transpire, government action may be called
for. This could take the form of requirements for traders to reveal information or
the creation of rules concerning fair trade practices.
3. Creating Market-Like Systems or Quasi-markets A third sense

in which governments act as market makers has become more common in the past
few decades. As knowledge of market processes has deepened, governments have
sought ways to create market-like systems or quasi-markets to allocate goods, ser-
vices, and rights that otherwise would have been allocated by centralized govern-
ment action. For example, governments now offer many services on a fee-for-service
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or user-pays basis. Toll roads provide an obvious case. Indeed, governments have in-
creasingly considered ways to balance traffic flow on toll roads by charging more to
use them when demand is highest. Governments also use vouchers as a method of
subsidizing citizens’ use of services while creating competitive dynamics in service
supply. When citizens receive a voucher from the government, they are enabled to
purchase specified services from suppliers of their choice. For example, families
may be granted the right to purchase government-subsidized childcare services.
Given that right, they can then shop around to find a childcare service that is most
appropriate for their needs. Instances of voucher use have created new markets in
education, training, and health care.
TAXES
All governments impose taxes; nobody enjoys paying them. By doing so, we give
up spending and consumption options. Governments know that imposing taxes
will make them unpopular. They also know that citizens will look for ways to avoid
paying taxes. Thus, governments must take great care when imposing taxes, so that
they attain their anticipated goals without creating other distortions in society.
There are two main reasons why governments impose taxes: raising revenues
and influencing behavior.
1. Raising Revenues Governments use taxes to raise revenues that fund all
their other activities. Taxes make it possible for governments to develop policies
and manage their organizational structures. Taxes come in many forms, including
taxes on income, businesses, sales, and property, and fees for services. The most im-
portant aspect of revenue-raising taxes is that they need to have limited impact on
the behavior of citizens. If income taxes were to reduce work incentives, or to lead
people to hide their true amount of income, it would be difficult for governments
to achieve stable, predictable revenues. The general insight that emerges here is
that governments should try to avoid imposing taxes at levels that most citizens
perceive as unfair or onerous.
2. Influencing Behavior Governments also impose taxes—often called

excise taxes—to influence behavior. Classic examples include taxes on cigarettes
and alcohol and fines for traffic infringements or other illegal behavior. These taxes
are not intended primarily to raise revenues, although sometimes governments do
generate a lot of income from sources such as traffic fines.
SUBSIDIES
Governments provide subsidies, or cash transfers, to citizens, nonprofit organiza-
tions, and businesses. A subsidy occurs whenever an individual or entity receives
cash from the government that is not a payment for service. Subsidies can also
come in the form of service provision. For example, people may receive a service at
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zero or greatly reduced cost. In such cases, no cash payments go from the govern-
ment to the recipients, but the recipients do experience a benefit equivalent to a
deposit of cash into their bank accounts.
As with a tax, the intentions behind any given subsidy greatly influence how
it is designed and administered. Because subsidies are funded from taxes, it is
common for taxpayers who do not expect to gain from a subsidy to resist it. For
example, elderly property owners on fixed incomes often resist local government
efforts to raise property taxes for the funding of local public schools. Arguments
about how to limit specific subsidies are motivated primarily by the desire to limit
taxes and perceptions of too much government control of people’s lives. Discussion
and debate concerning the Affordable Care Act of 2010 provide a classic example
in which people have argued against a subsidy—in this case, of health insurance—
because they have wanted to limit taxes and the reach of government in society.
(See Chapter 7 for a detailed discussion of the act.) Governments typically use
subsidies for two reasons: helping those in need or influencing behaviors.
1. Helping Those in Need Some subsidies are designed as social cushions,

to help people or organizations during difficult or transitional times. In the first
instance, they are not intended to change behavior. For example, people who have
been in full-time employment but who lose their jobs and are required to search
for new employment might reasonably be expected to live on any savings they
have while looking for a new job. However, they might be entitled to a govern-
ment benefit. In some countries, such as the United States, this is referred to as
unemployment insurance; in others, it is called the unemployment benefit. In
both cases, it is a subsidy in the form of a cash payment.
Most importantly, this unemployment subsidy is designed to help a person
cover the costs of living with dignity during temporary unemployment—not to
change behavior. It would be a policy failure, for example, if those deemed eligible
for the subsidy were to claim it and promptly abandon their job search in favor of
taking a holiday at taxpayer expense. To guard against such abuses, most subsidies
of this kind come with caveats—typically a period of time between when a person
leaves a job and when he or she becomes eligible for a benefit. There are usually
also limits on how long a benefit will be paid, as well as requirements of proof that
the person is actively seeking work or is enrolled in some kind of training. (Such
matters are discussed further in Chapter 8.)
2. Influencing Behavior Many subsidies are designed to encourage behav-

ioral changes on the part of individuals and organizations. These payment “car-
rots” operate as mirror images of excise tax “sticks.” Vast arrays of examples exist
of government use of subsidies as incentives to promote desired behaviors. Many
subsidies are almost invisible to most people. For example, they might come in the
form of copayments from the government to general medical practitioners so that
patients rarely need to cover the full cost of seeing doctors when they are ill. The
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reasoning behind subsidies of this sort is that it is better to have patients establish
contact with the healthcare system shortly after the onset of illness, than to put off
seeking help until the illness requires the more costly options of emergency treat-
ment or hospitalization.
REGULATION
Governments can improve the well-being of all members of society by guiding the
behaviors of individuals, families, nonprofit organizations, and firms. They often
impose sets of rules, referred to as regulations, defining what is considered appro-
priate behavior. Government regulation comes in three main forms.
1. Technical Regulations Governments use procedural and technical reg-

ulations to achieve greater safety and higher standards of professional practice in
society. In all cases, the purpose of such regulations is to reduce the possibility of
negative social consequences or harm arising from specific activities. Licensing
represents a classic form of regulation. Individuals associated with the building
industry, such as plumbers, electricians, and engineers, must all have up-to-date
operating licenses and are usually required to hold specific forms of insurance to
cover catastrophic events that might arise out of malpractice. For instance, to oper-
ate a crane on a construction site, people must obtain a license. Obviously, if crane
operators were not held to specific standards of practice and knowledge, they could
easily be a danger to themselves and others around them.
2. Economic Regulations Governments use economic regulations to guide

and constrain the activities of businesses in sectors where, for technical reasons, it is
most feasible for just one or a small number of suppliers to operate. During phases
of their development, large infrastructural industries such as electricity, railroads,
and airlines have been subjected to significant regulation with regard to pricing
arrangements and other aspects of their relations with consumers. Often, as indus-
tries mature and more knowledge emerges of how they operate, fewer government
regulations are necessary.
Deregulation, which involves reducing the amount of regulation currently
in place, demands careful handling, however. By significantly altering the gen-
eral operating contexts for industries, deregulation typically ushers in periods of
structural reforms. These can have unintended consequences, such as the jeopar-
dizing of continuous service, even when the longer-term results of a deregulatory
move might be highly positive for consumers. Airline deregulation, introduced
in the United States in the 1970s, created more opportunities for competition
on airline routes. While the results have been generally positive, heightened cost
pressures placed on airlines have sometimes led commentators to speculate that
deregulation has raised safety issues by leading some carriers to cut corners on 18
aircraft maintenance.17
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3. Social Regulations Social regulations cover yet another broad field of
human endeavor. They can include rules concerning appropriate disposal and recy-
cling of household waste, the amount of noise people can make in their neighbor-
hoods, censorship of films and literature, the eligibility of two people for marriage,
and appropriate ways to discipline children, among many other things.
A significant concern that arises whenever governments impose regulations
is that they might reduce the potential for innovation to occur within the regu-
lated area of activity—sometimes referred to as technical lock-in. Critics of heavy-
handed or “command and control” regulation have proposed the use of alternative
mechanisms to promote behaviors that will yield desired social and economic out-
comes. For example, recent efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have tended
to make use of both regulation and tax-based incentive programs.
DIRECT SERVICE SUPPLY

Governments often take responsibility for providing services for public use. This
direct service supply is most appropriate where the existence of adequate, consis-
tent service provision would be unlikely if left to nongovernment entities. Most of
the responsibilities for service provision that fall to governments do so because they
have ended up in society’s “too hard” basket. Examples of direct service supply in-
clude most local government services, such as water supply, sewage systems, roads,
and parks. They also include national defense, the legal system, and police services.
It is useful for us to think of government involvement in direct service supply
as consisting of two broad functions: funding and service provision.
1. Funding Services Governments raise taxes to fund services such as public

schools, roads, and sewage systems. In some instances, some part of the costs associ-
ated with service supply might have to be paid for by service recipients. For example,
the basic infrastructure of water supply is usually funded by government. How-
ever, individual households usually pay for water supply based on how much they
use. Sometimes this funding function of government is also referred to as “service
provision”—that is, governments, through funding, make service provision possible.
2. Delivering Services The second broad function of government in direct

service supply is service delivery, in which governments employ the service pro-
viders and coordinate the creation and maintenance of the facilities that allow for
service delivery. In the water supply example, governments often manage the reser-
voirs, pumps, and pipelines that supply water to households. They also employ the
workers who maintain these systems and interact with consumers.
In all cases of direct government supply, governments take responsibility for
both service funding and service delivery. However, considering these to be sepa-
rate functions has led to a range of cases where governments have moved toward
using other parties to engage in service delivery. In the case of public schooling,
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it remains commonplace around the world for governments both to fund and to
supply schooling. Most teachers are paid as government employees, and school
buildings and grounds are treated as government property. However, examples
also exist in which funding and supply are separate. School voucher programs in-
troduce the possibility of public funding of schools with private supply. As noted,
when citizens receive a voucher from the government, they are enabled to purchase
specified services from suppliers of their choice. In the case of schooling, compa-
nies or nonprofit organizations establish schools and employ the teachers. The on-
going viability of the schools depends on their ability to attract revenue, which is
directly related to their ability to attract and keep students.
FUNDING AND CONTRACTING

The conceptual distinction between funding for service provision and actual service
delivery introduces a significant question: When should governments do things for
themselves and when should they purchase services from others? We can also think
of this quandary as the “make or buy” decision. Many examples exist where gov-
ernments act as the funders of services but contract service supply to third parties.
Those third parties, which can be either corporations or nonprofit organization,
serve as intermediaries between the government and the service recipients.
Funding and contracting have been attractive to many governments—both
national and local—because they are a useful way to reduce the costs of service
supply. For example, a local government might fund garbage collection but con-
tract private companies to do the actual work of regularly collecting and disposing
of domestic waste. Those contract agreements might last for a period of several
years before a new call is made for private companies to bid for the contract for
the next time period. The likelihood that there will be competition for the service
contract increases the pressure placed on each company bidding for the contract to
offer the best cost and package of proposed services.
INFORMATION PROVISION
AND SOCIAL MARKETING
The quality of human decision making is influenced both by the information that
people have to base their decisions on, and by their abilities to effectively process
that information. To a significant degree, efforts to carefully present information
to people compensate for lack of understanding. Therefore, the quality of infor-
mation and the effectiveness of its presentation are vital keys to promoting good
social outcomes. Governments engage in a variety of efforts to support improved
decision-making on the part of citizens.
It is common for producers to have more information about their products
than average consumers. This informational difference need not be a problem
unless the producers are tempted to use it to their advantage. Producers often
recognize the value in sharing product information with consumers. But to help
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consumers make well-informed purchases, governments frequently apply regula-
tions requiring producers to reveal specific product details. For example, packaging
for most food products now includes a table or list setting out the main ingredi-
ents, energy content, and any ingredients that could harm people’s health.
Governments can use other instruments to improve citizen decision making. For
example, the increased uses of organizational report cards help citizens compare service
provision on a variety of attributes. Many government websites provide detailed com-
parative information on the quality of schools, health care services, and other public ser-
vices. Of course, nongovernment entities also produce report cards. College guides are
a classic example, as are guides to the differing qualities and attributes of automobiles.
Thus, in many cases it is possible to access appropriate information with-
out government efforts. But sometimes, because governments tend to amass
high-quality information as part of routine monitoring and their efforts to ensure
spending accountability, they may be better able than nongovernment actors to
collate and present this information.
At a minimum, organizational report cards present comparative information
and leave it to consumer-citizens to draw their own conclusions. However, we can also
find report cards that contain advice-giving narratives. For example, many govern-
ments either fund or actually produce websites and supporting literature and activi-
ties designed to give advice on how to establish and run businesses and how to address
common business problems or concerns. Government-supported websites offering
advice on how to stay healthy are also prevalent, as are those that offer guidance to
parents on child-rearing or raising happy, energetic, community-minded teenagers.
A further variation on the advice-giving efforts of government involves the use
of public information campaigns, sometimes called social marketing. Here, govern-
ments make use of various media formats with the explicit goal of shaping citizen
attitudes in the hopes that these will promote positive behavioral changes. An exam-
ple is a marketing campaign to promote safe driving. At any given time, the package
of activities for such a campaign might include graphic television advertisements,
pamphlet drops in schools and workplaces, and use of billboards along highways.
Other examples of social marketing include efforts to change people’s consumption
of alcohol and to encourage people to quit smoking. Often these marketing efforts
reinforce the goals of other policy instruments, such as fines for driving infringe-
ments, taxes on alcohol and tobacco, restrictions on who can buy certain goods,
and regulations prohibiting consumption of particular products in specific places.
INDICATORS OF WELL-BEING
The public policy choices that governments make can significantly affect the
well-being of their citizens. When people feel safe, are protected from ill health,
are well educated, and have good access to transport systems, they are better able to
contribute to social activities and make economic contributions through paid work.
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One way to assess well-being is through measuring annual economic output
per person. Countries whose governments have established public policy settings
that promote economic development have tended to perform comparatively well
on measures of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita. Some of those coun-
tries have effectively parlayed their relatively high per-capita GDP into even better
rankings on social progress.
Economic growth typically drives improvements in human well-being. Since
appropriate public policy settings can greatly facilitate economic growth, the
annual measure of GDP per capita has long been treated as a useful indicator of
how well governments have performed in contributing to the well-being of their
citizens. Table 1.2 reports the GDP per capita in twenty-five selected countries, as
of 2015. The differences among them are stark. For example, an average citizen in
Norway had 20 times the purchasing power of an average citizen in Kenya. How-
ever, although improvements over time in GDP per capita tell us about how things
might be for average citizens of a given country, they tell us nothing about the
distribution of income within it. A country might be extremely wealthy, relative
to other countries, and yet have very uneven distribution of wealth, leaving some
people well off and others relatively poor. That observation has led various organi-
zations to explore other ways of measuring and comparing the overall well-being of
people living in different countries.
A number of alternatives to GDP per capita are now used to measure how well
people live across the world. For example, the Human Development Index (HDI)
is calculated and reported by the United Nations. Developed during the 1980s, it
combines the measure of GDP per capita with measures of access to education and
life expectancy. Table 1.2 also reports the HDI scores and world rankings for 25
selected countries. By comparing the rankings of these countries on the HDI with
their rankings on GDP per capita, it is clear that the two are highly correlated.
The United States performs very well on both GDP per capita and the HDI.
Indeed, because the United States ensures that all children have access to e ducation,
and life expectancies in the United States are relatively high by world standards, it
ranks higher on the HDI than it does on the ranking by GDP per capita. A sim-
ilar pattern exists for Australia, Germany, Japan, and New Zealand. In contrast,
Iraq is ranked around the middle of all countries in the world for GDP per capita.
But Iraq’s ranking falls much lower on the HDI, given that the country operated
under a dictatorship for many years and continues to be plagued by conflict. Egypt,
India, Pakistan, and Sudan likewise drop further down in world ranking when we
compare their relatively low GDP per capita against their HDI rankings. These
countries have patchy records on access to education and do not perform well on
life expectancies. We can conclude that the HDI offers more insight into the well-
being of citizens in countries than does GDP per capita.
The Social Progress Index (SPI) first appeared in 2014. The SPI is calculated
and reported by the Social Progress Imperative, a U.S.-based nonprofit organization
dedicated to promoting broader discussion of factors shaping the quality of life for
Indicators of Well-Being 31
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citizens. According to the Social Progress Imperative, “economic growth without
social progress results in lack of inclusion, discontent, and social unrest.”18 19
Measures captured in the SPI include, among other things, access to basic
medical care, quality of water supply, personal safety, health and well-being, access
to information and communications, access to basic and advanced knowledge, per-
sonal rights, and tolerance and inclusion. Table 1.2 also presents SPI scores and
world rankings for 25 selected countries, alongside the values, scores, and world
rankings on GDP per capita and HDI. As with the HDI, it is immediately appar-
ent that a high correlation exists between the SPI and GDP per capita. However,
some deviations are noteworthy.
The evidence in Table 1.2 shows some countries have effectively leveraged
their relatively high ranking by GDP per capita into even better rankings on social
progress. Canada, ranked 20th on GDP per capita, comes out 2nd on the Social
Progress Index. A similar pattern exists for Australia, Denmark, New Zealand,
Sweden, and several other countries. In contrast, the United States goes from a
ranking of 10th for GDP per capita to 19th on the Social Progress Index. That
pattern is unusual, and authors of the SPI interpret this gap as being driven by
wide income disparities in the United States. These leave substantial sections of
the population in fear for their personal safety and lacking adequate access to good
nutrition, shelter, and medical care.19 The United States ranks strongly, however, 20
on measures that capture the opportunities it gives its citizens for success through
attainment of basic and higher education.
The relationship between public policy and the development of advanced so-
cieties and economies is complicated. Good governments, through public policy
settings, create conditions that allow for peaceful social relations, orderly trade,
and economic growth. Yet changing social and economic conditions tend to gen-
erate new collective action problems, and these frequently call for development of
new public policies. For example, historically, as national frontiers expanded and
commerce developed, demand also expanded for governments to establish and en-
force property rights, regulate trade, and provide suitable infrastructure to support
economic activity in frontier communities.
Today, new frontiers are continually emerging. The provision of excel-
lent transportation systems in the form of highways, airports, and shipping
container ports can open new trading frontiers, easing the ability of domestic
businesses to participate in international trade. New frontiers have also opened
through advances in information technology and the Internet. This process has
led to calls for governments to establish appropriate means of protecting in-
tellectual property rights, ensuring the security of data shared on the Internet,
and so on.
A further example of new frontiers is developments in biomedical research. As
we learn more about the human body and ways of improving human health care,
a variety of ethical, privacy, and funding issues have arisen, and many of these have
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TABLE 1.2 Three Indicators of Well-Being for 25 Selected Countries
COUNTRY INDICATOR
GDP PER CAPITA, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL PROGRESS INDEX,
2015 (PPPa ADJUSTED) INDEX, 2015 2016
WORLD WORLD WORLD
VALUE RANKINGb SCOREc RANKING SCOREc RANKING
Australia $46,270 19 0.935 2 89.13 4
Brazil $15,390 77 0.755 75 71.70 46
Canada $44,197 20 0.913 9 89.49 2
China $14,450 80 0.727 90 62.10 84
Denmark $48,009 16 0.923 4 89.39 3
Egypt $10,913 99 0.690 108 60.74 89
France $41,016 25 0.888 22 84.79 18
Germany $48,041 14 0.916 6 86.42 15
India $6,100 123 0.609 130 53.92 98
Indonesia $11,057 96 0.684 110 62.27 82
Iraq $15,394 76 0.654 121 52.28 104
Israel $36,575 30 0.894 18 75.32 37
Japan $40,763 27 0.891 20 86.54 14
Kenya $3,088 149 0.548 145 53.72 99
Malaysia $26,950 43 0.779 62 70.08 50
Mexico $16,988 68 0.776 74 70.02 51
New Zealand $37,575 28 0.913 9 88.45 10
Norway $62,083 8 0.944 1 88.70 7
Pakistan $5,010 134 0.538 147 49.13 113
Russia $24,451 49 0.798 50 64.19 75
Sudan $4,387 135 0.479 167 38.45 128
Sweden $47,855 15 0.907 14 88.80 6
Switzerland $62,557 9 0.930 3 88.87 5
United Kingdom $41,755 22 0.907 14 88.58 9
United States $56,115 10 0.915 8 84.62 19
Sources: GDP per capita: The World Bank Data, 2015, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD; Human Development
Index, 2015: United Nations Development Programs, Human Development Report, 2015; Social Progress Index, 2016: Social Progress Index
Report, 2016.
Note: The GDP values reported in the table have been adjusted to take account of differences in living costs across countries.
a
PPP = purchasing power parity. bCalculated by the author. cMax = 1.000.
Indicators of Well-Being 33
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fallen to governments to address. These examples of expanding frontiers suggest
that—even in well-structured, wealthy, and high-functioning jurisdictions—the
relationships among governments, economic activities, and social processes are
subject to continuous adjustment.
Knowledge of what public policies work well elsewhere is a vital starting point
for local discussion concerning approaches to policy design. Still, as we will see
in the chapters to come, many barriers can stand in the way of countries trying
to adjust established policy settings, even when powerful evidence suggests policy
changes could lead to overall better outcomes.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter has introduced the purpose and nature of public policy. Public pol-
icies are defined as the rules governments enforce and the actions they take in so-
ciety. They are forms of collective action that establish an orderly and productive
society. The separation of powers among the legislature, the judiciary, and the
executive often makes it difficult for policy makers to introduce policy changes.
Long-standing ways of doing things and particular political conditions also serve
to inhibit policy change. Further complications to policy development arise in fed-
eral systems of government because of questions over where authority should lie in
making public policy.
Although governments can do a lot to improve the well-being of their citizens,
they must work effectively with other institutions in society. Families, businesses,
and community organizations all play vital roles in the good society. When govern-
ments do not adequately align actions among these different institutions, they may
not realize their policy goals.
This chapter has also introduced the key theme of this book—that public pol-
icies are investments. Well-designed public policies contribute to the good func-
tioning of society and the economy. They establish the foundations upon which
individuals and whole societies can flourish. In contrast, poorly designed and im-
plemented policies can create a drag on society, holding everyone back.
After establishing the broader context for government and policy making, the
chapter reviewed common goals of public policy, including the promotion of civil
rights. Discussion included the work of policy analysts, and the policy instruments
that governments use. As people interested in public policy, it is crucial that we
understand why governments do what they do, and recognize the tools they use to
change institutional arrangements and human behavior.
The chapter ended with a review of several indicators of well-being. The
public policy choices that governments make affect their citizens’ quality of life.
The massive variation in indicators of well-being across countries suggests there is
great potential for governments to productively apply existing knowledge of what
works in the development of sound public policies in the future.
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CONNECTIONS TO OTHER
CHAPTERS
This opening chapter has presented the basic argument of the text—that is, public
policies are investments intended to make the world a better place. Those public
policies are the product of collective action. When effective public policies are es-
tablished in a jurisdiction, the odds are raised that all people living there will be
made better off.
In the following chapters, we initially consider frameworks for making
sense of public policy settings. The first framework, presented in Chapter 2,
is a characterization of the policy-making process. Chapter 2 also discusses
program evaluation, a vital activity for improving our knowledge of how well
implemented policies perform. The second framework, discussed in Chapter
3, treats public policies as investments, and explains how consistent use of ev-
idence and application of cost-benefit analyses can do this. The eight chapters
that follow apply knowledge of collective action, policy goals, policy instru-
ments, the policy-making process, and the investment perspective to the as-
sessment of specific areas of public policy: public infrastructure, defense and
homeland security, public schooling, health care, poverty alleviation, criminal
justice, science funding, and environmental protection. In the final chapter, we
consider key lessons drawn from this survey and how they might shape future
public policy.
KEY TERMS
Aversion behavior Federalism
Centers for Disease Control and Rule of law
Prevention (CDC) Sustainability
Public policy Market making
Investment perspective Excise taxes
Collective action Subsidy
Institutions Unemployment insurance
Jurisdiction Unemployment benefit
Direct democracy Regulation
Representative democracy Deregulation
Legislature Structural reform
Judiciary Technical lock-in
Executive Direct service supply
Bureaucracy Service delivery
Interest groups Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Lobbyists Human Development Index (HDI)
Think tanks Social Progress Index (SPI)
Connections to Other Chapters 35
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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
Balla, Steven J., Martin Lodge, and Edward C. Page. The Oxford Handbook of Clas-
sics in Public Policy and Administration. New York: Oxford University Press,
2015. This book reflects on the ongoing influence of a large number of classic
contributions to the study of both public policy and public administration.
Kernell, Samuel, and Steven S. Smith. Principles and Practice of American Politics:
Classic and Contemporary Readings, 5th ed. Washington, DC: CQ Press,
2012. This volume brings together classic writings on many topics in American
politics. The selected readings on collective action, institutional design, the
branches of government, federalism, and civil rights are relevant to those inter-
ested in public policy.
Mintrom, Michael. Contemporary Policy Analysis. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2012. This book offers an easily accessible, comprehensive introduction
to concepts and analytical strategies used by policy analysts.
Moran, Michael, Martin Rein, and Robert E. Goodin, eds. The Oxford Handbook
of Public Policy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. This book offers a
set of literature reviews covering all major aspects of public policy. It is espe-
cially strong in discussions of institutional settings, policy-making processes,
and policy instruments.
Theodoulou, Stella Z., and Matthew A. Cahn, eds. Public Policy: The Essential
Readings. Boston: Pearson, 2013. This volume brings together many original
articles and book chapters that have contributed to the development of the
study of public policy.
WEBSITES
• The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development is a
Paris-based think tank, funded by 35 countries committed to democracy and
the market economy. The organization collects a vast array of statistical and
substantive policy information from its members, and offers useful informa-
tion on many policy issues. http://www.oecd.org
• The World Bank was established by the United Nations as a source of finan-
cial and technical assistance to developing countries. Its primary goal is to
reduce poverty through development. The Bank collects statistics and pro-
duces reports of high relevance to people with public policy interests. http://
www.worldbank.org
• The Congressional Budget Office produces independent analyses of budget-
ary and economic issues to support the U.S. congressional budget process.
This nonpartisan agency produces dozens of reports and hundreds of cost
estimates for proposed legislation each year. https://www.cbo.gov/
• The California Legislative Analyst’s Office is an independent source of
policy advice to the California Legislature. It is known for its fiscal and
min75976_ch01_002-037.indd 36 10/09/17 09:38 PM

programmatic expertise and nonpartisan analyses. It produces reports on
a variety of policy issues. Most other states in America have similar offices.
http://www.lao.ca.gov
• The Brookings Institution is a privately funded, centrist think tank located in
Washington, DC. Its website offers information relating to many contempo-
rary policy issues. www.brookings.edu
• The Economist is a weekly news magazine headquartered in London. Its con-
sistent position is that of classical and economic liberalism. It supports free
trade, globalization, and the general expansion of markets and is opposed to
intrusive government regulation of individual lives and individual choices.
The magazine and its archive are a rich source of information for people with
public policy interests. http://www.economist.com
• The New York Times is a high-profile American daily newspaper, considered
by many to be the country’s leading newspaper of record. The newspaper
reports on leading public policy topics at the national and state level in the
United States. Its archives can be helpful in building knowledge on specific
public policy issues. http://www.nytimes.com
FOR DISCUSSION
1. The separation of powers among the U.S. Congress, the president, and the
judiciary was a deliberate design choice of the Founding Fathers, which they
embodied in the U.S. Constitution. Yet this separation greatly complicates
the making of public policies. How does the separation of powers serve to
promote discussion of policy ideas?
2. Specific policy problems often can be addressed by using one of several
policy instruments. For example, smoking cigarettes has been discouraged
for many years through a combination of taxes, regulations, and information
provision. Discuss how each of these policy instruments has reduced the
prevalence of smoking. Then list other examples where governments have
combined policy instruments to pursue specific public policy goals.
3. People sharply disagree on the role of government in society. The Affordable
Care Act (ACA) of 2010 prompted ongoing discussions about the role of
government in American society. Why do people disagree on the merits of
government-supported health insurance coverage?
Connections to Other Chapters 37
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THE PURPOSE AND NATURE

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Public policies comprise the rules governments enforce

This chapter introduces you to:

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4 CHAPTER 1 The Purpose and Nature of Public Policy

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case study 1.1 Fighting Ebola

cally engaged. (Tommy Trenchard/Alamy Stock Photo)

What Is Public Policy? 5

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6 CHAPTER 1 The Purpose and Nature of Public Policy

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The fight against Ebola illustrates several themes of this text:

1. There are many instances in contemporary society where carefully coordi-

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1. Formal statements of acceptable and unacceptable behavior.

8 CHAPTER 1 The Purpose and Nature of Public Policy

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Government Structures and Policy making 9

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10 CHAPTER 1 The Purpose and Nature of Public Policy

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INTEREST GROUPS, LOBBYISTS,

Government Structures and Policy making 11

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PUBLIC POLICY FORMATION

12 CHAPTER 1 The Purpose and Nature of Public Policy

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TREATING PUBLIC POLICIES

Treating Public Policies as Investments 13

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14 CHAPTER 1 The Purpose and Nature of Public Policy

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Treating Public Policies as Investments 15

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High School Diploma $1,439,855

Bachelor’s Degree $2,414,624

Master’s Degree $2,847,855

Professional Degree $3,673,966

Doctoral Degree $2,809,629

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

1. We focused on existing policies and programs.

16 CHAPTER 1 The Purpose and Nature of Public Policy

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DEFENDING PEOPLE AND PROPERTY AND

Goals of Public Policy 17

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PROMOTING HUMAN FLOURISHING

18 CHAPTER 1 The Purpose and Nature of Public Policy

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PROMOTING SOCIAL EQUITY

Goals of Public Policy 19

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