Essential Elements of GIS

Definition of GIS:
“In the strictest sense, a GIS is a computer system capable of assembling, storing,
manipulating, and displaying geographically referenced information, i.e. data identified
according to their locations. Practitioners also regard the total GIS as including operating
personnel and the data that go into the system.” -------USGS

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing
things that exist and events that happen on earth. GIS technology integrates common
database operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization and
geographic analysis benefits offered by maps.” -------ESRI

“GIS is an integrated system of computer hardware, software, and trained personnel linking
topographic, demographic, utility, facility, image and other resource data that is
geographically referenced. -------NASA

"The generic issues that surround the use of GIS technology, impede its successful
implementation, or emerge from an understanding of its potential capabilities."
-------(Goodchild, 1992)

“Organized activity by which people measure and represent geographic phenomena, and
then transform these representations into other forms while interacting with social
structures.” -------(Nick Chrisman,1999)

“A geographic information system is a special case of information systems where the

database consists of observations on spatially distributed features, activities or events, which
are definable in space as points, lines, or areas. A geographic information system
manipulates data about these points, lines, and areas to retrieve data for ad hoc queries and
analyses” -------(Kenneth Dueker, Portland State University, 1979)

Functional Definition:
The most commonly offered ‘definition’ of a GIS is based on the functions that the
technology supports -- a collection of hardware and software used for the input, storage,
analysis, and display of geographic features and information. This definition might be
applied to digital information, in general, if it were not for the mention of geographic features
and information. The common information technology functions of input, storage, analysis
and display are being applied to geographic features and related information.

Elemental Definition:
Another way to define geographic information systems is based on the things that make them
up. In this course, we’ll address the commonly accepted components or elements of a GIS,
 Essential Elements of GIS

including: hardware, software, data, applications, and people. While elements such as
hardware and software are obvious, data and the applications that professionals use to analyze
are, sometimes, overlooked. In fact, the costs of data development and analysis constitute
major costs in most GIS projects.

Taxonomic Definition:
There are several types of software applications that utilize geographic data for display of
spatial information. These range from simple computer mapping applications to integrated
geographic analysis systems. GIS is one of a range of applications that work with spatial
information. The various types of applications can be distinguished based on the classes of
functions that they support. In the table below are listed several related spatial technology
applications. Listed across the top of the table are classes of processing functions, such as
‘map digitizing’ or ‘image processing’. AM/FM stands for automated mapping/facilities
management and represents a group of applications that were initially built by liking
computer aided drafting (CAD) applications with relational databases. Note that ‘map
analysis’ is the group of functions that differentiates GIS from AM/FM.

Developmental Definition:
Many professions regularly utilize maps for the display of geographic information. The origins of
geographic information systems, as we now think of them, can be traced those professions that
utilized maps for display and analysis, such as landscape architecture, geography, and geology.
By the 1960’s these professions were overlaying maps of a given area, at the same scale, on light
tables to conduct overlay analyses. One of the pioneers in these techniques was landscape
architect Ian McHarg, who developed the formal process of land suitability and capability
analysis. This refined cartographic technique still forms the basis of many combinatorial
operations in digital geographic information systems.
 Essential Elements of GIS

Essential Elements of a GIS:

Geographic information systems are designed to handle information regarding spatial
locations. In this chapter, we will introduce the essential components and
functional/procedural elements of a GIS.

Components of a GIS

GIS Functional/Procedural Elements

 Components of a GIS:
 Hardware: The computer on which a GIS operates. A wide range of hardware types,
from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone or networked
configurations.

 Software: GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and
display geographic information. Key software components are--

 tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information

 a database management system (DBMS)

 tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization.

 a graphical user interface(GUI) for easy access to tools.

 Major GIS softwares: Arc/Info by ESRI, Intergraph by Intergraph, MapInfo by

MapInfo, etc.

 Data: Possibly the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and
related tabular data can be collected in house or purchased from a commercial data provider.
A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used by
most organizations to organize and maintain their data, to manage spatial data.

 People: GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system
and develop plans for applying it to real world problems. GIS users range from technical
specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their
everyday work.

 Methods: A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business

rules, which are the models and operating practice unique to each organization.
 Essential Elements of GIS

 GIS Functional/Procedural Elements:

There are five essential functional elements that a GIS must contain. These are—

 Data acquisition
 Preprocessing; It includes--
 Format conversion,
 Data reduction and generalization,
 Error detection and editing,
 Merging of points into lines and lines into polygons,
 Edge matching and tiling,
 Rectification Registration,
 Interpolation, and
 Interpretation.
 Data management
 Manipulation
 Analysis and Product generation.

 Data Acquisition: The process of identifying and gathering the data required for your
application.

gathering new data by preparing large-scale maps of field observations, or by

contracting for aerial photography.

locating and acquiring existing data, such as maps, aerial and ground photography,
surveys of many kinds, and documents, from archives and repositories.

Data acquisition is the process of identifying and gathering the data required for your
application. This typically involves a number of procedures. One procedure might 'be to
gather new data by preparing large-scale maps of natural vegetation from field observations,
or by contracting for aerial photography. Other kinds of surveys may be required to
determine, for example, consumer satisfaction and preferences in different parts of a city to
help locate new business offices. Other procedures for data acquisition may include locating
and acquiring existing data, such as maps, aerial and ground photography, surveys of many
kinds, and documents, from archives and repositories.

One must never underestimate the costs (in time as well as money) of the data-acquisition
phase. A GIS is of no use to anyone until the relevant data have been identified and located.
Furthermore, the accuracy (of the decisions reached through spatial analysis is limited by the
accuracy and precision of the underlying datasets. We often know too little about the
underlying quality of many kinds of spatial data. At times, however, we may be forced to use
maps and other datasets whose underlying quality is unknown. And without spending some
effort ensuring that various datasets are not only relevant but also reliable, we run the risk of
fooling ourselves.
 Essential Elements of GIS

Data Acquisition Method:

Data Source Method Equipments Cost

Analogue Manual Digitizing Digitizer Cheap
Map
Semi-automatic Scanning Scanner High
Aerial Analytical Photogrametry 3 view (Analogue Stereoplotter)
rd
High
Photograph

Digital Photogrametry Digital Photo Work Station Very High

Satellite Visual Image Man or Image Zoom Scope Cheap
Image Interpretation
Digital Image Processing Image Processing System High
Ground Field Measurement GPS Very High
Survey
Total Station Very High
Previous Keyboard Entry Pc, Keyboard Cheap
Report

 Preprocessing: Manipulating the data in several ways so that it may be entered it into
the GIS.

data format conversion: extracting information from maps, photographs, and

printed records and then recording this information in a computer database.

identifying the locations of objects in the original data.

Preprocessing involves manipulating the data in several ways so that it may be entered it into
the GIS. Two of the principal tasks of preprocessing include data format conversion and
identifying the locations of objects in the original data in a systematic way. Converting the
format of the original data often involves extracting information from maps, photographs, and
printed records (such as demographic reports) and then recording this information in a
computer database. This process is a time-consuming and costly efforts for many
organizations. This is particularly (and sometimes painfully) true when one calculates the
costs of converting large volumes of data based on paper maps and transparent overlays, to
an automated GIS based on computerized datasets.

A second key task of the preprocessing phase is to establish a consistent system for recording
and specifying the locations of objects in the datasets. When this task is completed, it is
possible to determine the characteristics of any specified location in terms of the contents of
any data layer in the system. During these processes, it is very important to establish specific
quality control criteria for monitoring the operations during the preprocessing phase so that
the databases can be of maximum value to the user.
 Essential Elements of GIS

 Data Management: The creation of and access to the database itself.

Data-management functions govern the creation of, and accession, the database itself. These
functions provide consistent methods for data entry, update, deletion, and retrieval. Modern
database management systems isolate the users from the details of data storage, such as the
particular data organization on a mass storage medium. When the operations of data
management are executed well, the users usually do not notice. When they are done poorly,
everyone notices: the system is slow, cumbersome tease, and easy to disrupt. Under these
latter circumstances, the smallest human and machine errors create large problems for both
the users and the system operators. Data-management concerns include issues of security.
Procedures must be in place to provide different users with different kinds of access to the
system and its database. For example, database update may be permitted only after a control
authority has verified that the change is both appropriate and correct.

 Manipulation and Analysis : Focus of attention for a user of the system. The
analytic operators that work with the database contents to derive new information.

Manipulation and analysis are often the focus of attention for user of the system. Many
users believe, incorrectly, that this module is all this constitutes a geographic information
system. In this portion of the system are the analytic operators that work with the database
contents to derive new information. For example, we might specify a region of interest and
request that the average slope of the area be calculated, based on the contours of elevation
that have already been stored in the GIS database. Since no single system can encompass the
complete range of analytic capabilities a user can imagine, we must have specific facilities to
be able to move data and information between systems. For example, we may need to move
data from our GIS to an external system where a particular numerical model is available,
and then transport the derived results back into the spatial database inside the GIS. This kind
of modularity, where other data processing and analysis systems can be linked to a GIS, is
very valuable in many circumstances, and permits the system to be easily extended over time
by pairing it with other analytic tools. When one speaks of geoprocessing, one is often
focused on the manipulation and analysis components of a GIS.
 Essential Elements of GIS

 Product Generation: Final outputs from the GIS like statistical reports, maps, and
graphics of various kinds.

Product generation is the phase where final outputs from the GIS are created. These output
products might include statistical reports (such as a table listing the average population
densities for each county in California, or a report indicating landowners who are delinquent
in their property taxes), maps (for example, a presentation of the property boundaries of plots
within a township that are owned by public agencies, or a map of a subdivision indicating
where construction workers must be careful when digging due to the presence of
underground pipes and cables), and graphics of various kinds (such as a set of bar charts that
compare the acreage of different crop types in an area). Some of these products are soft copy
images: these are transient images on television-like computer displays. Others, which are
durable since they are printed on paper and film, are called hard copy. Increasingly, output
products include computer-compatible materials: tapes and disks in standard formats for
storage in an archive or for transmission to another system. The capability of taking the
output of an analytic process, and placing it back into the geographic database for future
analysis, is extremely important.

These essential components of a geographic information system are the same as those of any
other information system. Let us compare this sequence of functional elements to a more
conventional information system problem. Consider the steps that are taken in an automated
system to manage employee records for a business. Information about the individuals must be
gathered together, perhaps via a questionnaire and interview when the individual is hired.
This is clearly the data acquisition phase. Then, because some of the information is inevitably
expressed by different people in different ways (for example, some people will list their
education as "through grade 12", while others will say "through high school"), the data must
be put into a consistent vocabulary and format. Only after this preprocessing phase can the
 Essential Elements of GIS

data be entered into the computer in a consistent form. Validation of the data entered into the
system is a fundamental part of the preprocessing phase, to insure the accuracy of the
resulting database.

Once the data have been converted into a consistent form and put in the computer database,
we have accomplished a large fraction of the end-to-end task and often expended a large
fraction of the end-to-end costs. Data management functions permit as to update the
information when necessary (for example, when an employee completes an advanced
degree), and to retrieve only the relevant information when required (as in a summary report
of salaries for a particular division of the company). Various kinds of analytical operations
can be run--perhaps using employee addresses to find out which employees live close to one
another in an effort to encourage car pooling. Finally, we need to be able to develop statistical
reports, graphics of many kinds, and other output products, such as documentation for
management reviews of salary levels. These steps exactly parallel the five GIS components
we will discuss in detail.

REFERENCES
http://jun.hansung.ac.kr/IIP/GIS/GIS-node2.html (last visited on 19/11/2013 at 2.30 am)

http://kc.njnu.edu.cn/dlxx/jiaoan/English/Chapter%203.htm (last visited on 19/11/2013 at

2.30 am)