MANUFACTURING

TECHNOLOGY (ME 316)

Engr. Dr. Ndudim Ononiwu

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Manufacturing........................................................................................... 3
1.1. Industrial revolutions .................................................................................................. 3
1.1.1. 1st Industrial revolution........................................................................................ 4
1.1.2. 2nd industrial revolution ..................................................................................... 4
1.1.3. 3rd Industrial revolution ...................................................................................... 4
1.1.4. 4th industrial revolution (Industry 4.0) ............................................................... 4
1.2. Manufacturing Summary ............................................................................................ 5
1.2.1. Manufacturing industries and products .............................................................. 5
1.2.2. Manufactured products ....................................................................................... 5
1.2.3. Manufacturing processes ........................................................................................ 5
2. Introduction to Machining and Machine tools................................................................... 7
2.1. Cutting conditions in turning ...................................................................................... 8
2.1.1. Chip formation ................................................................................................... 11
2.1.2. Force relationships ............................................................................................. 15
2.1.3. Forces and Power in Machining ......................................................................... 18
2.2. Solved Examples ........................................................................................................ 19
2.2.1. Example 1 ........................................................................................................... 19
2.2.2. Example 2 ........................................................................................................... 20
2.2.3. Example 3 ........................................................................................................... 21
3. Introduction to Additive Manufacturing .......................................................................... 24
3.1. The 3D printing process ............................................................................................ 24
3.2. Classification of Additive Manufacturing processes ................................................. 24
3.2.1. Material Extrusion.............................................................................................. 25
3.2.2. Vat Photo Polymerization .................................................................................. 26
3.2.3. Sheet Lamination ............................................................................................... 27
3.2.4. Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) ................................................................................... 27
3.2.5. Binder Jetting ..................................................................................................... 28
3.2.6. Directed Energy Deposition (DED) ..................................................................... 29
3.2.7. Material Jetting .................................................................................................. 30
3.3. Common Materials used in 3D printing ..................................................................... 30
3.3.1. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) ................................................................ 30

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3.3.2. Polylactic Acid (PLA) ........................................................................................... 30
3.3.3. Polycarbonate (PC) ............................................................................................. 31
3.3.4. Nylon .................................................................................................................. 31
3.3.5. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) ...................................................................... 31

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 1. Introduction to Manufacturing

Originally, the term manufacturing is coined from the 2 Latin words manus (hand) and factus
(make). Manufacturing simply put is an industrial process that alters the shape of raw
materials to produce products. Technologically, manufacturing is the application of physical
and chemical processes to alter the geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a given
starting material to make parts or products; manufacturing also includes assembly of multiple
parts to make products. The term manufacturing is several centuries old and accurately
describes the means of producing commodities at the time (i.e. before the advents of
automation, mass production and computer aided production processes and AI). The history
of manufacturing can be separated into the subjects. 1. Human discovery and the invention
of materials and processes to make things. 2. The development of the systems of production.
3. The development of the systems of production which simply refer to the methods of
organizing people and equipment to perform the manufacturing process more efficiently.
Systems of manufacturing include division of labour and industrial revolutions.

In the US alone, manufacturing industries accounts for approximately 15% of the nation's
GDP. In the modern global economy, a country must either have an abundant of natural
resources or strong manufacturing foundation and utilization to remain a major player
globally while meeting the needs of her people.

1.1. Industrial revolutions

Figure 1-1. Industrial Revolutions

An industrial revolution basically refers to the transition to new and improved manufacturing
processes intended to improve the general welfare of a group of people. Industrial revolutions
have been characterized by holistic improvements in the processes goods and services are
provided. To date, the manufacturing space have witnessed four main industrial revolutions
(refer to figure 1-1).

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 1.1.1. 1st Industrial revolution
The 1st industrial revolution began at the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the
19th. Before the beginning of this revolution, agriculture was the major economic activity
worldwide. This industrial revolution introduced the mechanization of processes, the steam
power plants, iron making and the invention of machining tools and the mechanization of
cotton spinning to produce textiles. The 1st industrial revolution through the use of steam
engines let to the emergence of rail travels. Factories were also introduced due to the
mechanization of production processes.

1.1.2. 2nd industrial revolution

The 2nd industrial revolution was characterized by the introduction of alternative energy
sources which includes electricity, gas and oil. This alternative energy sources created the
internal combustion engine which is still being used to this day. However, the most
remarkable innovation of this industrial revolution was the assembly line which was
introduced by Henry Ford in 1926. Mass production, a product of the assembly line involves
the production of several identical copies of a product rapidly using assembly line techniques.
The 2nd industrial revolution also saw the invention of the automobile and air planes.

1.1.3. 3rd Industrial revolution

The 3rd industrial revolution introduced nuclear energy as an alternative source of energy.
The 3rd industrial revolution was also characterized by the spread of automation and
digitization through the use of electronics and computers. Also introduced in during the 3rd
industrial revolution were the internet, advancements in telecommunications were realised
during this industrial revolution which was a direct consequence to widespread globalization.

1.1.4. 4th industrial revolution (Industry 4.0)

The current era is marked by digitalization, digital transformations, personal connected
devices, data analytics, AI technologies, automation, and Internet of things (IoT). IT standards
are introduced to industrial automation, devices get smaller and smarter, IT and OT
operations collaborate to drive business-level decisions and further transform business
models.

This is the age when lines between the physical, digital and biological spheres are challenged
and industries all over the world are uprooted. Factories use technology such as Cloud, Big
Data Analytics and IoT to enable advanced and efficient communication between different
players and connected objects in a production line.

This might become the industrial revolution that deviates from non-renewable energy
sources and is embedded instead in smart cities powered by wind, sun and geothermal

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energy. So far, the milestones of the Fourth Industrial Revolution include: large scale
digitalization, the emergence of IoT networks, machine learning, AI, predictive analyses &
maintenance in industrial settings, Big Data and Cloud Computing technologies, and advanced
robotics.

1.2. Manufacturing Summary

1.2.1. Manufacturing industries and products
The type of manufacturing utilized by an industry strictly depends of the kind of items being
produced. Based on this definition, a manufacturing industry can be classified as primary,
secondary and tertiary industries. Primary industries cultivate and exploit natural resources
such as agriculture and mining. secondary industries take the products of the primary
industries and convert them to capital or consumer goods. Tertiary industries constitute the
service sector off the economy.

1.2.2. Manufactured products

Final tangible products made from secondary industries are categorised into capital goods
and consumer goods. Consumer goods are those products purchased directly by customers
while capital goods are purchased to produces good and or services.

1.2.3. Manufacturing processes

Manufacturing processes results in physical and /or chemical changes to a starting work
material with the intention of increasing the value of that material. Manufacturing operations
can be divided into processing operations and assembly operations.

Processing operations basically transforms a work material from one state of completion to a
more advanced state that is closer to the final desired product. It adds value to a product by
changing the geometry, properties or appearance of the starting material. An assembly
operation joins two or more components to create a new entity referred to as an assembly.
Common processing operations include shaping processes, property enhancing processes,
surface processing operations while assembly operations include permanent joining
processes and mechanical fastening. The basic manufacturing processes are depicted in figure
1-2.

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 Shaping
processes

Propety
Processing
enhancing
operations
processes

Surface
processing
Manufacturing
operations
process

Permananet
joining processes
Assembly
operations
Mechanical
fastening

Figure 1-2 Categories of Manufacturing Processes

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 2. Introduction to Machining and Machine tools
Machining is a metal cutting process required to create a part by removing unwanted material
from a workpiece in the form of chips. Of all manufacturing process, machining is the most
important because it is either used as a clean-up process after other initial processing
requirements and secondly due to its ability to produce high precision works involving tight
tolerances and high-quality finishes. For machining operations, their fundamental inputs and
outputs being considered. These inputs and out puts are summarized in table 2-1.

Table 2-1 Inputs and outputs in machining

Input Output
Measurements Derived
Machine tool selection Cutting forces Specific horse power
Workpiece parameter Cutting power Stress and strain rates
Cutting Parameters Material removal rate Flow stress
Cutting tool parameters Cutting temperature Chip ratios
Surface roughness Friction coefficients
Cutting stiffness
Heat in tool

Some operations being carried out in the field of metal removal processes are summarised
below.

 Turning: Turning processes involves the removal of materials from a workpiece by

rotating it while a stationary workpiece produces chips. Turning operations are
principally carried out on the lather.
 Milling: This process takes place by feeding a workpiece into a rotating multi-edged
cutting tool.
 Grinding: This is a material removal process that removes material front the workpiece
by putting it in contact with an abrasive wheel.
 Drilling: In drilling, the multi edge cutting tool is used to make holes in the workpiece
during metal cutting.

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Figure 2-1 Basic Machining process

2.1. Cutting conditions in turning

Figure 2-2 Cutting parameters in machining

The cutting speed (𝑉 ) is the velocity of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece. This is the
primary cutting motion. The feed (𝑓) is the distance the cutting tool moves in one revolution
of the spindle. The depth of cut (𝑑) is the distance the cutting tool is plunged into the
workpiece for every cut.

The cutting speed is given as:

𝜋𝐷 𝑁
𝑉 = 2−1
1000

Where 𝐷 is the initial diameter.

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where D1 is the uncut diameter of the workpiece in meters. Actually, cutting speed varies
along the edge of the tool in direct proportion with distance from the rotational axis. The
average cutting speed is:

𝜋𝑁 (𝐷 + 𝐷 )
𝑉 = 2−2
1000 2

Where 𝐷 is the final diameter.

The depth of cut 𝑑 is given as

𝐷 −𝐷
𝑑= 2−3
2

The feed 𝑓,
60
𝑓=𝑉 2−4
𝑁

Machining time is the time required to cut the entire length of the part. This is designated as
𝑇 .
𝐿
𝑇 = 2−5
𝑓×𝑁

Where 𝐿 is the machined length.

Material removal rate (MRR) simply put is the amount of material removed from the
workpiece per unit time

Mathematically, MRR is given as

𝑀𝑅𝑅 ≈ 𝑉 𝑓𝑑 2−5

However, for most machining operations, the MRR can be obtained using the expression
𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡
𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 2−6
𝑇

In turning operations, there are two major machining processes based on the position of the
edge cutting tool relative the workpiece.

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  Orthogonal cutting: This is also regarded a 2-dimensional metal cutting. Here the
cutting tool is normal to the workpiece. In this type of metal cutting process, no
force exists in the direction perpendicular to the relative motion between the
workpiece and cutting tool.
 Oblique cutting: In this type of metal cutting, the cutting edge is set an angle. The
cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at an angle to the direction of the tool feed.

Figure 2-3 Types of cutting

Figure 2-4 3D representation of the types of cutting

Other differences between these two machining operations are tabulated below

Table 2-2 Differences between orthogonal and oblique cutting

S.No Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

1 The cutting angle of tool make right angle to The cutting angle of tool does not make right
the direction of motion angle to the direction of motion

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 2 The flow of chip is perpendicular to cutting The flow of chip is not perpendicular to cutting
edge. edge.
3 The tool has lesser cutting life. The tool has higher cutting life.
4 The shear force per unit area is high which The shear force per unit area is low which
increases the heat per unit area. decrease heat per unit area.
5 In this cutting, chip flow over the tool. In this cutting, chip flow along the sideways.
6 In orthogonal cutting, surface finish is poor.
In oblique cutting surface finish is good.
7 Cutting edge is longer than edge of cut. Cutting may or may not be longer than edge of
cut.
8 Two mutually perpendicular forces act on the Three mutually perpendicular forces are involved
workpiece

2.1.1. Chip formation

Regarding the difference between orthogonal and actual machining processes as it involves
the formation of chip during cutting, chip formation during cutting which represents the shear
deformation process as occurring along a plane, the deformation during cutting occurs within
a zone referred to as shear zone. During cutting, there are predominately two categories of
shear, primary shear which occurs along the shear zone. Secondary shearing results from
friction between the chip and the tool as the chip slides along the rake face of the tool. The
formation of chips is dependent on the type of material being machined and the cutting
conditions of the selected operations.

Figure 2-5 Orthogonal cutting (a) as a 3D process and (b) how it reduces to 2D in side view

During cutting, the cutting edge of the single point is positioned at a certain distance below
the original work surface. This position corresponds to the initial chip thickness before chip
formation designated as 𝑡 . As the chip formation along the shear plane commences, the chip
thickness increases to 𝑡 . The ratio of 𝑡 to 𝑡 is called the chip thickness ratio or simply
the chip ratio (𝑟).

𝑡
𝑟= 2−7
𝑡

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N/B: Since the chip thickness after cutting is greater than the corresponding thickness before
cutting, the chip ratio will always be less than 1.0.

The chip thickness ratio is important in evaluating the degree of deformation during a cutting
process. It is also a measure of the efficiency of chip formation. Lower chip thickness leads to
lower shear strain thereby reducing power consumption. The geometry of the orthogonal
cutting model allows for the establishment of a relationship between the rake angle α, shear
plane angle φ, and chip thickness ratio 𝑟. Using the length of the shear plane designated as
𝑙 , substituting 𝑙 sin 𝜙 for 𝑡 and 𝑙 cos(𝜙 − 𝛼) for 𝑡 , equation 2-8 becomes,

𝑙 sin 𝜙 sin 𝜙
𝑟= = 2−8
𝑙 cos(𝜙 − 𝛼) cos(𝜙 − 𝛼)

Equation 2-8 can be rearranged as

𝑟 cos 𝛼
tan 𝜙 = 2−9
1 − 𝑟 sin 𝛼

Equation 2-9 is used to determine the shear plane angle.

During machining, as the cutting tool compression a layer of material, it gets sheared off in
form of chips. The strain produced as a result of the induced stress during the chip formation
is referred to as shear strain. The shear strain can be mathematically defined using equation
2-10.

𝛾 = tan(𝜙 − 𝛼) + cot 𝜙 2 − 10

2.1.1.1. Categories of chips

The category/type of chip formation present while machining a workpiece depends on certain
factors such as;

1. Properties of the workpiece.

2. Selected cutting parameters
3. Cutting tool geometry.
4. Machining environment such as cutting temperature and lubrication.

The categories of chip formed are continuous, discontinuous, continuous with built-up-edges, and
serrated chips.

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Continuous chips: Continuous chips are predominately formed during the cutting of ductile
materials at high speeds and low feeds and depths of cuts. As the name suggests, the chip
formed as a result of the cutting process are long and continuous. Continuous chips are also
formed as a results of a sharp cutting tools edge and decreased friction between the tool and
the chip. Another condition that favours the formation of continuous chips is increased rake
angle. In ductile materials, continuous chips produce parts with excellent surface finish.
Continuous chips can be problematic regarding the disposal of the chips and potential
tangling of the chips about the tool. This issue is usually fixed with the introduction of chick
breaker mechanisms on the tool.

Figure 2-6 Continuous chips

Discontinuous chips: The formation of discontinuous chips occurs when brittle materials are
machined at relatively low cutting speeds. Discontinuous chips are often segmented or separated.
These chips are also formed as a result of machining these brittle materials at large feeds and high
depth of cut. Also associated with the formation of these types of chips are decreased tool
wear, decreased power consumption and low surface finish.

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 Figure 2-7 Discontinuous chips

Continuous chips with built up edges: Cutting ductile materials at lower cutting speed
increase heat and friction at the tool-chip interface that tend to cause portions of the
workpiece to stick to the rake face of the tool close to the cutting edge. The increased heat
and friction are brought about by the low dissipation of heat at the cutting edge. This
formation is referred to as built-up edge (BUE). In certain situations, excessive BUE
development at the rake face of the tool can result in the development of crater wear which
deteriorates the tool life. The increased tool-tip temperature can also result in portions of the
BUE not removed can be imbedded into the newly created work surface resulting in increased
surface roughness. In addition, BUE formation is responsible for higher power consumption
during machining, increased vibrations that could eventually lead to dimensional inaccuracies
and catastrophic tool failure.

Figure 2-8 Continuous chips with built up edge

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Serrated chips: This category of chips is categorised by saw-toothed appearance that is
produced by nonuniform shear strain during metal cutting. The saw-tooth appearance is a
result of zones of high and low shear strain. This type of chips is associated with materials
that are difficult to machine such as composites, titanium and nickel alloys among others. It
is also present in materials whose mechanical strength decreases with increasing cutting
temperature.

Figure 2-9 Serrated chips

2.1.2. Force relationships

In orthogonal cutting, the forces applied against the chip produced can be separated into 2
mutually perpendicular components: Friction force (F) and normal force (N) (Refer to figure
2-10). The frictional force in this case resists the flow of the chip along the rake face of the
tool, while the normal force to friction is perpendicular to the friction force. Based on these
components, the coefficient of friction between the tool and chip is defined in the equation.
The coefficient of friction is an important parameter that is used to determine the heat
generation at the tool-chip interface. The lower the CoF, the easier to machine the material
will be.
𝐹
𝜇= 2 − 11
𝑁

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Figure 2-10 Forces in metal cutting (a) Forces on the chip in orthogonal cutting (b) Forces acting on the toll that can be
measured

The friction force and its normal force can be added vectorially to form a resultant force ‘R’,
which is oriented to an angle β, called the friction angel. The relationship between the friction
angle and coefficient of friction is shown in the equation 2-12 below

𝜇 = tan 𝛽 2 − 12

In addition to the 2 mutually perpendicular forces acting against the chips, 2 additional
components applied by the workpiece on the chips are shear force and normal force to shear.
The shear force designated as 𝐹 is the force that causes shear deformation to occur in the
shear plane while the normal force to shear 𝐹 is perpendicular to the shear force. Based on
the shear force, the shear stress acting along the shear plane between the workpiece and the
chip is;
𝐹
𝜏= 2 − 13
𝐴

Where 𝐴 is the area of the shear plane which can be calculated as

𝑡 𝑤
𝐴 = 2 − 14
sin ∅

The shear stress represents the level of stress required to perform the machining operation.
Therefore, this stress (𝜏) is equal to the shear strength (S) of the work material under the
conditions at which cutting occurs.

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 Figure 2-11 Force diagram showing geometric relationships between F, N, Fs, Fn, Fc and Ft

Referring to figure 2-11, the components of forces F, N, Fs and Fn cannot be directly measured
in any cutting operation because the directions in which they are applied vary with different
tool geometries and cutting conditions. Equations can be derived to relate the four
components of that cannot be measured using the Fc and Ft which can be measured using a
force dynamometer. Using the force diagram, these trigonometric relations can be obtained

𝐹 = 𝐹 sin 𝛼 + 𝐹 cos 𝛼 2 − 15

𝑁 = 𝐹 cos 𝛼 + 𝐹 sin 𝛼 2 − 16

𝐹 = 𝐹 cos ∅ + 𝐹 sin ∅ 2 − 17

𝐹 = 𝐹 sin ∅ + 𝐹 cos ∅ 2 − 18

Since the cutting force and thrust force are related to the shear strength of a given work
material. The relationships can be established in a more direct way. Since the shear strength
of a material is equal to the shear stress during machining, the force diagram of Figure 2-10
can be used to derive the following equations for cutting force and thrust force designated as
𝐹 and 𝐹 respectively as:

𝐹 cos(𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐹 = 2 − 19
cos( ∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛼)

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 𝐹 sin(𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐹 = 2 − 20
cos( ∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛼)

A relationship in machining is the Merchant equation that defines the general relationship
between the rake angle, friction angle and shear plane angle. This relationship is given by the
expression:
𝛼 𝛽
∅ = 45 + − 2 − 21
2 2

2.1.3. Forces and Power in Machining

 The cutting force (𝐹 ) acts in the direction of the cutting speed.

 Radial force (𝐹 ) acts perpendicular to the cutting force.
 Feed force (𝐹 ) acts in the direction of the tool feed.

Figure 2-12 Components of force acting during oblique cutting

Mathematically, the primary cutting force can be obtained using the expression,
𝐻𝑃 × 𝑀𝑅𝑅 × 735.50
𝐹 = 2 − 22
𝑉
The Power (P) given in N-m/s or W required for cutting operations is given in equation 2-23.

𝑃 =𝐹𝑣 2 − 23

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Another important expression in metal cutting is the horsepower (hp) at the spindle is shown
in equation 2-24.
𝑃
ℎ𝑝 = 2 − 24
745.70
The specific horsepower (𝐻𝑃 )defined as the power consumed in removing a unit volume of
work material is given in the equation below. The unit of specific horsepower is hp/mm/min.
ℎ𝑝
𝐻𝑃 = 2 − 25
𝑀𝑅𝑅

2.2. Solved Examples

2.2.1. Example 1
In an orthogonal cutting operation, the tool has a rake angle of 15°. The chip thickness before
the cut is 0.30 mm and the cut yields a deformed chip thickness of 0.65 mm. Calculate (a) the
shear plane angle and (b) the shear strain for the operation.

Solution

α=15°
𝑡 = 0.3 mm
𝑡 = 0.65 mm
Chip thickness ratio: 𝑟 =
0.3
= 0.462
0.65

a. Shear plane angle is given by:

𝑟 cos 𝛼
tan 𝜙 =
1 − 𝑟 sin 𝛼

0.462 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15
1 − (0.462 × sin 15)

tan 𝜙 = 0.507

𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 0.507

𝜙 = 26.89°

b. Shear strain is given by:

𝛾 = tan(𝜙 − 𝛼) + cot 𝜙
𝛾 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (26.89 − 15) + cot 26.89
𝛾 = 1.951

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 2.2.2. Example 2
A low carbon steel workpiece having a tensile strength of 300 MPa and a shear strength of
220 MPa is cut in a turning operation with a cutting speed of 3.0 m/s. The feed is 0.20 mm/rev
and the depth of cut is 3.0 mm. The rake angle of the tool is 5° in the direction of chip flow.
The resulting chip ratio is 0.45. Using the orthogonal model as an approximation of turning,
determine (a) the shear plane angle, (b) shear force, (c) cutting force and feed force.

S = 220MPa
V = 3.0m/s
F = 0.2 mm/rev
d = 3.0 mm
α = 5°
r = 0.45

a. Shear plane angle is given by:

𝑟 cos 𝛼
tan 𝜙 =
1 − 𝑟 sin 𝛼

0.45 × cos 5
tan ∅ =
1 − (0.45 × sin 5)
∅ = 24.99°

b. Shear Force is given by:

𝐹
𝜏=
𝐴
𝐹 = 𝜏𝐴
𝑡 𝑤
𝐴 =
sin ∅
Since the shear stress required to machine a workpiece is equal to shear strength of
the materials, 𝜏 = S. Therefore,
220 × 3 × 0.2
𝐹 =
sin 25

𝐹 = 312.06𝑁

c. (I). Cutting force (𝐹 ) is given as:

𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐹 =
cos( ∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛼)

Using the Merchant equation to obtain the value of 𝛽,

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 𝛼 𝛽
∅ = 45 + −
2 2
𝛽 = 90 + 𝛼 − 2∅

𝛽 = 90 + 5 − 2(24.99)
𝛽 = 45.02°

Therefore, the cutting force become

312.06 × cos(45.02 − 5)
𝐹 =
cos(24.99 + 45.02 − 5)
𝐹 = 566.31 𝑁

(ii) For the feed force, given by the expression

𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐹 =
cos( ∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛼)

312.06 × sin(45.02 − 5)
𝐹 =
cos(24.99 + 45.02 − 5)

𝐹 = 474 𝑁

2.2.3. Example 3
In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal cutting, the cutting tool has a rake
angle = 10°. The chip thickness before the cut 𝑡 = 0.50 mm and the chip thickness after the
cut 𝑡 = 1.125 mm. Calculate the shear plane angle and the shear strain in the operation.

α = 10°

𝑡 = 0.50 mm

𝑡 = 1.125 mm

Chip thickness ratio is given as:

𝑡
𝑟=
𝑡

0.50
𝑟= = 0.444
1.125

Shear plane angle is given as:

𝑟 cos 𝛼
tan 𝜙 =
1 − 𝑟 sin 𝛼

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 0.444 cos 10
tan 𝜙 = = 0.4738
1 − 𝑟 sin 10

𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 0.4738 = 25.4°

The shear strain is obtained using the expression:

𝛾 = tan(𝜙 − 𝛼) + cot 𝜙

Therefore

𝛾 = tan(25.4 − 10) + cot 25.4 = 2.386

b. The cutting force and thrust force are measured during the ortogonal cutting operation as
1559 N and 1271 N respectively. The width of the orthogonal curtting operation is w=3.0 mm,
determine the shear strenght of the work material.

Using the equation below to obtain the shear force,

𝐹 = 𝐹 cos ∅ + 𝐹 cos ∅

𝐹 = 1559 cos 25.4 + 1271 sin 25.4 = 863 𝑁

The share plane area is given as:

𝑡 𝑤
𝐴 =
sin ∅

0.5 × 3
𝐴 = 3.497 𝑚𝑚
sin 25.4
Thus, the shear stress which is also equal to the shear strength of the workpiece is given by:
𝐹
𝜏=
𝐴

863
𝜏= = 247 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
3.497

c. Using the data and results from the previous qustions, determine (a) the friction angle and
b) the coefficient of friction.

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(a) From the Merchant’s equation,
𝛼 𝛽
∅ = 45 + −
2 2
Rearranging the Merchant’s equation to make the friction force (𝛽) subject, the equation
becomes:

𝛽 = 90 + 𝛼 − 2∅

𝛽 = 90 + 10 − 2(25.4) = 49.2°

(b) The coefficient of friction is given as:

𝜇 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽

Therefore:

𝜇 = tan 49.2 = 1.16

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 3. Introduction to Additive Manufacturing
Additive manufacturing is a collection of manufacturing process required to produce parts
and geometries layer by layer. These processes require the creation of three-dimensional
products directly for CAD designs. Additive manufacturing was formerly referred to as rapid
prototyping due to its ability to make engineering prototypes based on a computer-aided
design of the required item.

3.1. The 3D printing process

The 3D printing process begins with the design of a CAD model. The 3D CAD model is in turn
saved in the stereolithography file (STL) format. A post processing tool referred to as a slicer
is used convert the 3D CAD model into instruction that are compatible with the 3D printer.
These instructions are eventually executed as the layer by layer fabrication of the required
item. The 3D printing process is shown in figure 3-1.

Layer by layer
3D CAD design of Post processing of
production of the
the part the 3D CAD design
required part

Figure 3-1 Additive manufacturing process.

As opposed to subtractive manufacturing technologies more commonly called traditional

machining, 3D printing offers several advantages including mass customization, flexibility,
rapid prototyping, producing of lightweight parts and components, automation lower energy
and cost demands, waste minimization, environmental cost savings. In spite of these merits,
there are drawbacks such as limited starting materials, post-processing requirements, issues
relating to mass production and design inaccuracies. Industrial applications of additive
manufacturing include aerospace, automotive industry, food industry, healthcare,
construction, electrical and electronic components.

3.2. Classification of Additive Manufacturing processes

The different classes of 3D printing differ in terms of acceptable materials and the materials
deposition technique required to build the part layer by layer. The 7 major classification of
various 3D printing processes is shown in figure 3-2.

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 Material Extrusion

Vat Photo
Polymerization

Additive Manufacturing
Sheet Lamination

Powder Bed
Fusion

Binder Jetting

Material Jetting

Directed Energy
Depostion
Figure 3-2 Classification of 3D printing processes based on production principles

The materials utilized in the classification of 3D printing processes are shown in table 3-1.
Table 3-1 Materials utilized in the additive manufacturing process

Additive manufacturing process Materials

Material Extrusion Polymers such as ABS, Poly(Lactic) acid, Poly carbonate
Vat Photo Polymerization Standard resins, structural resins, tough and durable resins,
elastic and flexible resins, ceramic and castable resins, and
biocompatible resins
Sheet Lamination Paper, polymers and metals
Powder Bed Fusion Polymers such as nylon and metal such as stainless steel
and aluminium
Binder Jetting Metals, composites and ceramics.
Material Jetting Polymers and waxes such as ABS, polypropylene and poly
carbonate.
Directed Energy Deposition Metals such as titanium, aluminium, stainless steel and
copper.

3.2.1. Material Extrusion

This is a group of 3D printing technologies that require a contiouns thermoplastic filament or

in some cases a composite material to manufacture an item. The feedstock used in this
category of 3D printing is in the form of a filament usually stored in spools. The filament is
usually fed through an extruder and inturn through a heated nozzle where the plastic polymer
is then deposited on the print bed layer by layer until the required item is produced.

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Advantages of Material Extrusion

 Wide selection of polymer print material

 Easily understandable printing technique
 User-friendly method of print material change
 Low initial and running costs
 Faster print time for small and thin parts
 No supervision required
 Small equipment size
 Relatively low-temperature process

Disadvantages of Material Extrusion

 Visible layer lines

 Supports may be required
 Increased print time with finer resolution and wider areas
 Susceptible to warping and other temperature fluctuation issues
 Toxic print materials
 Dimensional inconsistencies

3.2.2. Vat Photo Polymerization

In this class of 3D printing technologies, parts are produced by the selective curing of a
photopolymer liquid resin using UV activated polymerization. The feedstock which is a
photopolymer liquid resin is a polymer that its exposure to light results in a change of its
properties. The change in the properties is a resut of the exposure of the photopolymeric
resin to UV light that results in the solidification/curing of the resin the form the required
part. Most processes under this classification have the liquid photpolymers stored in a vat
with the platform partially submerged in the lidquid surface. The three most common types
of this technology include Stereolithography, Digital Light Processing (DLP), and Continuous
Digital Light Processing (CDLP). Photopolymers bases for feedstock materials include polyvinyl
alcohol, acrylics, polyamides, and epoxies.

Advantages of Vat Photo Polymerization

 High level of accuracy and good finish

 Relatively quick process
 Large build areas

Disadvantages of Vat Photo Polymerization

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  Relatively expensive
 Lengthily post-processing time and removal from resin
 Limited to photo-resins materials
 Can still be affected by UV light after print
 May require support structures and post-curing for parts to be strong enough for
structural use

3.2.3. Sheet Lamination

As the name suggests, this cateogory of additive manufacturing produces 3D parts by stacking
and laminating thin sheets of material through bonding processes. The thin sheets are usually
supplied through a system of rollers unto a platform where the single piece is formed. The
completely bonded collection of thin sheets are then cut to produce the required 3D part.
The most common category of sheet lamination technology is laminated-object
manufacturing.

Advantages of sheet lamination

 Relatively low cost

 Larger working area
 Full-colour prints
 Ease of material handling
 Ability to layer multiple materials
 No support structures needed

Disadvantages of sheet lamination

 Finishes can vary depending on the material and could require post-processing.
 Limited material options available.
 Removal of excess material after the laminating phase can be difficult and time-
consuming.
 Can generate more waste in comparison to other AM methods.
 Hollow parts are challenging to produce in some types of sheet lamination.
 Bonding strength is dependent on the laminating technique used.

3.2.4. Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)

Typically, powder bed fusion is an additive manufacturing category th at fuses powdered

feedstock using an energy source. The energy source is usually an electron beam or a laser.

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The energy source melts either plastic or metal powder particles, which solidifies and fuses
together in a pattern to make the object. The powder bed fusion process uses two chambers,
the build chamber and powder chamber, and a coating roller. To create the objects, the
coating roller moves and spreads the powder material across the build chamber to deposit a
thin layer of powder. Some PDF processes will use a scrapper, blade, or leveling roller after
the coating roller to ensure the thickness of the material top layer is uniform. Next, the energy
source melts the deposited top layer of the metal powder base. When that layer has been
scanned and fused, the build platform is incrementally lowered down, simultaneously the
powder chamber is raised by the same, and the process repeats until the object completed.
Types of powder bed fusion include selective laser sintering, laser powder bed fusion and
electron beam melting.

Advantages of PBF

 Low cost of machines

 No or minimum support structures needed for the build
 Variety of material selection
 Multiple materials can be used
 Capable of recycling powder

Disadvantages of PBF

 Slow print time

 Additional post-processing time
 Variations of surface texture quality
 Support build plate may be needed to avoid warping
 Thermal distortion, mainly for polymer parts
 Machines use a lot of energy to create parts

3.2.5. Binder Jetting

Unique in AM in that it does not use heat during the materials fusing process. A binding liquid
or binder is selectively deposited, which joins the powder material together to form the 3D
part. Depending on the type of powder, the system being used, or customer application
requirements determines the selection of the kind of binder. The process starts with the
powder material being spread over the build platform using a roller and the print head
deposits the binder on top of the powder where specified. The build platform lowers to allow
for the next layer, and the process repeats until the item is complete. Any unbound powder
gets removed.

Advantages of Binder Jetting

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  Ability to make parts with a range of different colours
 Uses a range of materials: metal, polymers, and ceramics
 Faster AM process
 No warping or shrinking of parts
 Less waste by reusing any unused powder
 Features a two-material method that allows different binder-powder combinations

Disadvantages of Binder Jetting

 Parts require post-processing which adds significant time to the overall process
 Low part strength, not always suitable for structural parts
 Less accurate than Material Jetting

3.2.6. Directed Energy Deposition (DED)

DED creates 3D objects by melting and depositing either powder-based or wire-based

materials from a focused thermal energy source, including laser, electron beam, or plasma
arc. While the process can make metal, ceramic, and polymer parts, it is mainly used for metal
parts and in more hybrid manufacturing where the substrate bed is moveable to create
complex shapes. DED is also referred to as laser metal deposition (LMD), 3D laser cladding, or
direct light fabrication because of the different energy sources uses and final use. Lastly,
based on how the process works, it’s mainly used for repairing or reconditing existing parts
by adding material where needed.

Advantages of DED

 Strong and dense parts

 Fast build rates
 Reduction in material waste
 Range of material selection: metal, ceramic, and polymer
 Materials are easily changed out
 Ability to make parts with custom alloys
 Parts built to near net shape
 Capability to build larger parts

Disadvantages of DED

 Capital cost for systems is high

 Parts have lower resolution resulting in poorer surface finish, requiring secondary
processing
 Support structures are not usable during the build process

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 3.2.7. Material Jetting

A process where droplets of wax-like materials are selectively deposited on a build platform.
The material cools and solidifies, allowing layers of materials to be placed on top of each
other. After the build, support structures are either mechanically removed or melted away. A
typical type of material jetting photopolymer jetting (polyjet technology). Other types are
nanoparticle jetting and on demand jetting.

Advantages of Material Jetting

 Material jetting can achieve outstanding accuracy and surface finishes

 Parts are good for use in patterns for casting

Disadvantages of Material Jetting

 Limited number of wax-like materials available

 Parts are fragile because of wax-like materials
 Slow build process

3.3. Common Materials used in 3D printing

Currently, 3D printing technologies focuses on polymers as the feedstock for the manufacture
of parts. This is mostly due the ease of producing and handling these materials. The most
common polymeric materials used in the manufacture of parts from CAD model using 3D
printing include.

3.3.1. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)

ABS is a tough nontoxic polymer utilized in the manufacture of various parts using 3D printing
technology. This thermoplastic polymer is preferred due its high strength, high water and
chemical resistance and low melting point. Limitations of this polymer include unpleasant
fumes producing during heating, increased brittleness and loss of colour when exposed to UV
rays. Applications include toys, computer keyboards, conceptual and functional models.

3.3.2. Polylactic Acid (PLA)

PLA is an environmentally friendly plastic polymer made from biodegradable such as corn-
starch, sugar cane, maize and cassava. This thermoplastic utilizes 65% less energy and
generates 68% fewer greenhouse gases during its production compared to regular polymers.
In addition to its eco-friendly properties, PLA is relatively a cheaper option compared to ABS
and as such it is the preferred option for low-cost 3D printers. In spite of these highlighted
advantages, PLA is not as heat resistant as ABS and as such it begins to deform at

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temperatures greater than or equal to 60 °C. It is applied in the medical industry for drug
delivery and for the production of prosthetics and food industry as food containers.

3.3.3. Polycarbonate (PC)

Thus is a thermoplastic favoured by the 3D printing industry because of its lightweight, heat
resistance, high tensile and impact strength. The PC filament is able to withstand
temperatures ranging from -150 °C to 140 °C making it viable for a wide range of applications
including high temperature applications. The limitations posed by the use of PC as filaments
includes its hygroscopic nature which allows for high moisture absorption in moist/humid
environments. This property is responsible for the production of defective parts.

3.3.4. Nylon
Nylon is a thermoplastic from the group polyamides. Known for its versatility, nylon has been
used in several industries such as fashion, electronics, manufacturing, automotive and the
food. Nylon is being used to manufacture parts using 3D printing primary due to its strength,
toughness, flexibility and abrasive wear resistance. Like polycarbonates, nylon is a
hygroscopic material and as such, improper storage might lead to the product of defective
parts and other related print issues.

3.3.5. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

PET is a durable, recyclable and tough material that is used in the food packaging and
cosmetics. A modified variant of PET is PETG. The (G) glycol modification is applied to PET to
reduce its brittleness and improve its overall utilization while manufacturing a part. In
addition to its strength, PET and its variant has been successfully applied in the electronics
industry due to its thermal and electrical resistance.

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