Linear Equations ( a ) No solution

y l1 l2
and Matrices
x
A linear equation is an equation that can be
written in the form
a 1 x 1+ a2 x 2 +. . .+ an x n=b , where: a i, b are
real numbers and x i are indeterminants.
( b ) One solution
Linear system – a collection of one or more
linear equations involving the same set of
variables, like x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n l 1∧l 2
y
a 11 x1 + a12 x 2+ .. .+a 1n x n=b 1
a 21 x1 + a22 x 2+ .. .+ a2 n x n=b 2 x

a m 1 x 1+ am 2 x2 +. . .+am n x n=b m

Solution – A sequence of numbers (

s1 , s , . . ., sn ¿ that makes each equation a ( c ) Infinitely many solution s
true statement whenever the values
s1 , s , . . ., sn are substituted for
Trivial solution – a solution to a
x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n , respectively.
homogeneous system, namely the zero n-
tuple. All values of x’s are zeros, that is,
Solution set – the set of all possible solutions x 1=x 2=, . .. , x n=0
to a linear system.
Non-trivial solution – a solution to a system in
Kinds of Systems:
which not all x’s are zero is called a non-
1. Inconsistent system – a linear
trivial solution.
system with no solution
2. Consistent system – a linear system
Equivalent solutions – 2 systems which have
with one or more than one solution
exactly the same solutions.
[dependent/independent systems]
3. Homogeneous system – a linear
Methods of Elimination – a technique of
system where b i s are zeros.
eliminating some variables by adding a
multiple of one equation to another
a 11 x1 + a12 x 2+ .. .+a 1n x n=0 equation, to come up with a much simpler
a 21 x1 + a22 x 2+ .. .+ a2 n x n=0 system to solve.
a m 1 x 1+ am 2 x2 +. . .+am n x n=0 a. interchanging equations
b. multiply k to an equation then
adding it to another equation
l2 y
l1 Note:
x 1.
if 0 x 1+ 0 x2 +. . .+0 x n=b , b ≠ 0 , thenis inco
 2. when there are as many A. Addition
solutions as unknowns,there is a If A=[ aij ] ∧B= [ bij ]are both m x n
unique solution matrices, then the sum of A and B is obtained
3. when there are fewer equations by adding corresponding entries of the
than unknowns, there are more matrices. The opereation is defined only
than one solution. when the matrices to be added are of the
same order.
Some Definitions
1. Matrix is a rectangular array of numbers Properties
usually in rows and columns of the form ₒ Commutative. Let A and B be any two m
a 11 a 12 a 13 a 14 … a 1n x n matrices. Then A + B = B + A
a 21 a 22 a 23 a 24 … a 2n ₒ Associative . Let A, B, and C be m x n
. matrices. Then (A+B)+C = A+(B+C).
. ₒ Existence of a zero matrix for m A n such
am1 am2 am3 am 4 a mn that m A n + m O n = m O n+ m A n =m A n.
ₒ Existence of a negative of an m x n
* a ij - the entry in the ith row and jth column matrix such that A + B = m O n.
or the (i,j)th entry
B. Scalar Multiple of A
2. Order or dimensions of the matrix refers If A=[ aij ] is an m x n matrix c is a
to the size of the matrix which is usually real number, then the scalar multiple of A by
expressed by the number or rows and c, cA= [ caij ]. That is, every entry in the
the number of columns. matrix is obtained by multiplying each entry
Amxn ∨¿ m A n − a matrix with m rows of A by c.
and n columns
Properties
3. Square matrix is one in which the Let A,B be matrices and r and s scalars, then
number of rows equals the number of a. r ( sA ) =( rs ) A
columns. b. ( r + s ) A=rA+ sA
n An or A n - a square matrix of order n
c. r ( A+ B )=rA+rB
4. Entries in the main diagonal are the d. A( rB )=r ( AB )= ( rA ) B
entries a 11 , a22 ,a 33, ... a n nin a square
C. Multiplication
matrix.
If A is an m x p matrix and B is a p x n
matrix, then the product of A and B is the m x
5. Trace is defined as the sum of all
n matrix C defined by
elements on the main diagonal.
c ij =a i1 b1 j + ai 2 b 2 j +ai 3 b3 j +...+ aip b pj
6. Equal matrices. Two m x n matrices
A=[ aij ]∧B= [ bij ]are equal if they ** Multiplication of matrices is only allowed
whe the number of columns of A is equal to
agree entry by entry, i.e.,
the number of rows B.
a ij = b ij. for i = 1, 2, 3, . . ., m and j = 1, Properties
2, 3, . . ., n Let A be an m x n matrix, B an n x p matrix
and C a p x q matrix. Then

Matrix Operations a. Multiplication is associative. A(BC) =

(AB)C

and their Properties b. Multiplication is distributive. (A+B)C

= AC + BC and C(A+B) = CA + CB
 c. Existence of identity matrix In. In A = b. A − A T is skew symmetric
A In 2. A & B symmetric⇒A + B symmetric
AB symmetric iff AB = BA
D. Transpose of a matrix
If A=[ aij ] is an m x n matrix, then 9. Non-singular Matrices (invertible). A
the transpose A ¿ [ a ij ] . This can be done by
T matrix is called non-singular if its inverse
interchanging the rows and colums. exists. That is, AB=BA=I nand B is
called the inverse of A. Otherwise, its is
Properties of the Transpose called singular (non-invertible).
T
a. ( AT ) =A
Properties:
b. ( A+ B )T = AT + BT a. The inverse of a matrix, if it
∀ saclar r ( rA ) =r ( A T )
T
c. exists, is unique.
d. ( AB )T =BT + A T b. If A is non-singular, then A-1 is
non-singular and (A-1)-1 = A
c. If A and B are nonsingular
Special Type of Matrices matrices, then AB is nonsingular
and (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1
1. Diagonal matrix. This refers to a square d. If A is nonsingular, then (AT)-1 = (A-
matrix for which every entry not on the 1 T
)
main diagonal is zero. That is, a ij=0for
i≠ j. Solutions of Equations Through Matrices

2. Upper triangular matrix. An n x n matrix 1. In a system of equations represented by

A=[ aij ] such that a ij=0 for i> j . an m x n matrix denoted by AX = B, A is
called the coefficient matrix, X is the
3. Lower triangular. An n x n matrix variable matrix and B is the constant
matrix. As a whole, the matrix is called
A=[ aij ] ∋ aij =0 for i< j .
an augmented matrix.
3x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 1
4. Scalar matrix. This is a diagonal matrix 2x1 - x2 = 4
for which all terms in the main diagonal x1 + 3x2 - x3 = 2
are equal.
2. Echelon Form of a Matrix. An m x n
5. Identity matrix . This is a scalar matrix matrix is said to be in echelon form if it
for which all terms equals one. meets the following conditions:

6. Zero matrix. An m x n matrix is a zero a. All rows consisting entirely of

matrix if all its entries are zero. zeros, if any, are at the bottom
of the matrix.
7. Symmetric Matrix. A matrix for which b. Leading entries (1st nonzero
A=A T . entry in each row) is 1.
c. Every entry below a leading
8. Skew Symmetric. Matrix for which entry is zero.
T
A =− A and whose main diagonals are
zeros. 3. A matrix is in reduced echelon form if it
is in echelon form and meets the
Properties: following conditions:
1. A symmetric⇒ AA T ∧ AT A are a. All leading entries are 1.
symmetric b. All entries that are not leading
a. A+ A T is symmetric entries are zeros.
4. Pivotal Column – this refers to the first
column not all of whose entries are zero.
The first non-zero entry in the pivotal Elementary
column is called the pivot.
Matrices and
5. Elementary row (column) operations.
Any one of the following operations:
Inverses
Type I - Interchange rows (columns) i An elementary matrix is one which is
and j of A. obtained from an identity matrix by
Type II – Multiply row (column) i of A performing an elementary row (column)
by c ≠ 0. operation.
Type III – Add c times row (column) i of
A to row (column) j of A, i ≠ j. Facts and Theories about
6. Row (column) Equivalent - A matrix B is
Elementary Matrices
ₒ An elementary matrix E is nonsingular.
row (column) equivalent to A if B is
ₒ A is nonsingular iff A is a product of
obtained from A by applying a finite
elementary matrices.
sequence of elementary row (column)
ₒ A is nonsingular iff A is row equivalent to
operations to A.
In.
ₒ A homogenous system has a non-trivial
Facts and Theorems governing solution iff A is singular.
Echelon Forms ₒ A matrix is singular iff A is row
ₒ Every nonzero matrix A is row (column) equivalent to a matrix B that has a row
equivalent to a matrix in row (column) of zeros.
echelon form and reduced row (column) ₒ If A and B are n x n matrices such that AB
echelon form. = In, implies BA = In, then A-1 = B.
ₒ If two augmented matrices of two ₒ An n x n matrix is nonsingular iff A is
different linear systems are row equivalent to In.
equivalent, then the linear systems are ₒ A and B are equivalent ii B = PAQ, P and
equivalent, and therefore have exactly Q are non-singular matrices.
the same solutions.
ₒ If A and B are row equivalent matrices,
the homogenous system AX = 0 and BX =
How to get the inverse of a
0 are equivalent Matrix
ₒ If [C:D] is in row echelon form (REF), the ₒ Augment the identity matrix to the
method of elimination is called Gaussian original matrix.
elimination. If it is in reduced row ₒ Using row operations, transform the
echelon form (RREF), the method of original matrix into In.
elimination is Gauss-Jordan reduction. ₒ The resulting augmented matrix is the
ₒ A homogenous system of m equations in inverse.
n unknowns always has a non-trivial
solution if m < n.
ₒ If AX = 0 has only a trivial solution, then
m ≥ n.
ₒ If An is in RREF not equal to In, the A has a
row consisting of zeros.
ₒ Every definition or a statement applied
to a row is equivalently stated for
column.