How To Be A Einstein.

CHAPTER 1
ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

Atomic Structure
-An atom is the smallest, hard particle of an element that can take part in a
chemical reaction.
-Atoms are the building blocks of all the matter around us.
-Atoms cannot be subdivided in chemical reactions.
Distribution of Electrons in Different Energy Level
- the maximum number of electrons in any energy level or shell is 2n2
Total no: of
Main Shell Sub Shells Electrons
s
K 2 2
s p
L 2 6 8
s p d
M 2 6 10 18
s p d f
N 2 6 10 14 32
Note-/ the electrons first occupy the shell with the lowest energy
Electronic Configuration
-The systematic distribution of electrons in different energy shell is called the electronic
configuration of the atom.
Valence Shell and Valence Electrons

-The outermost orbit of an atom is called as its valence shell.
-The electron present in the outermost shell of an atom are known as the valence
electrons.
-Elements having the same number of valence electrons in their atoms show similar
chemical properties.
-Elements having different number of valence electrons in their atoms show different
chemical properties.
-Elements having 1,2,or 3 valence electrons in their atoms are metals.
-Elements having 4,5,6 or 7 valence electrons in their atoms are non-metals.
Isotopes
-Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different mass
number.
Eg. - Protium 11𝐻 , Deuterium 21𝐻 , Tritium 31𝐻
- Chlorine 35
17𝐶𝑙, Chlorine 17𝐶𝑙
37
Isobars
- Isobars may be defined as those elements which have the same mass number (atomic mass) but
different atomic numbers.
Eg. 40
18𝐴𝑟, 40
20𝐶𝑎
NATURE OF LIGHT ANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Wave Nature of Light
- Light has wave characteristics.
- Light is a form of wave motion.
c = 𝒱λ , c = speed of light (2.998x108ms-1)
𝒱 = frequency (s-1)
λ = wavelength (m)
Quantum Nature of Light
- Light is a form of energy.
- The energy of a photon is directly proportional to the frequency (𝒱) of the light wave.
ℎ𝑐
E = h𝒱 = (de Broglie’s equation)
𝜆
h = universal constant or Planck’s constant (6.626x10-34Js/photon)(kgm2s-1)
or 3.99x10-13kJs mol-1
- Sometime the energy of a photon is also measured in terms of eV known as electron-volt.
1eV = 1.6x10-19J
Ex - 2 , 3
Ex- 2 (a) 𝒱 = ?
E = 3.54 x 10-20 J/photon, h = 6.626x10-34Js/photon Ex-3 𝑬 = ?, λ = 589 nm = 589 x 10-9 m
By Planck’ equation,
E = h𝒱 h = 6.626x10-34Js/photon
𝒱 =
𝐸 3.54 x 10−20 J/photon
=
c = 2.998x108ms-1
ℎ 6.626x10−34Js/photon
= 5.3426x1013 s-1 E = h𝒱
ℎ𝑐
E = 𝜆
(b) λ= ? 6.626x10−34Js/photon × 2.998x108ms−1
E = 589 x 10−9 m
h = 6.626x10-34Js/photon, c = 2.998x108ms-1
E = 166 kJ/mol
= 3.37 x 10-19J/photon
166 𝑘𝐽 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1000 𝐽
E= × × = 2.7575 x 10-19J/photon
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 6.023 x 1023 photon 1 𝑘𝐽
By Planck’ equation,
ℎ𝑐
E = h𝒱 =
λ
ℎ𝑐6.626x10−34Js/photon x 2.998x108ms−1
λ= =
𝐸 2.7575 x 10−19J/photon
= 7.2039 x 10-7 m
= 720.39 nm
Line Spectra of Hydrogen
- An electron is excited from its original energy level (ground state) to a higher excited
state and when it falls back to lower energy level so as to go to its ground state.
- They fall back to lower level or to the ground state, different series of radiation or lines
(emission spectra) are obtained.
(i) Lyman series (Ultraviolet region)

n1 = 1 , n2 = 2
(ii) Balmer series (Visible region)

n1 = 2 , n2 = 3
(iii) Paschen series

n1 = 3 , n2 = 4
E.g.,1.4 (HW)
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE ATOM
Dual Natural of Electrons (Wave Nature and Particles)
- Light is found to have a dual character (waves and particles)
- A waves can be a particle and a particle can be a wave.
- These waves are called matter waves or de Broglie’s waves.
- The wavelength of the matter waves is related to the momentum of the particle.
𝒉 𝒉
- λ= = (p = mv)
𝒎𝒗 𝒑
h = Planck’s constant (6.626x10-34Js or 3.99x10-13kJsmol-1,
λ = wavelength of the particle, m = mass of particle
v = velocity of particle, p = momentum of particle
e.g., 1.7, Ex- 5, 6, 7

Ex-5 Ex-7
V = (ms-1)?
λ = 1nm = 1x10-9m
m = 9.1x10-31kg
h = 6.626x10-34Kgm2s-1
By de Broglie’s equation,
ℎ
λ = 𝑚𝑣
ℎ 6.626x10−34 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠 −1
v = 𝑚𝜆 = 9.1x10−31 𝑘𝑔 x 1x10−9 𝑚
= 728.13x103ms-1
Ex-6 (HW)
ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS

- A large number electron orbitals are possible in a hydrogen atom.
- Orbitals are precisely distinguished by what are known as quantum numbers (Def).
Quantum Numbers
- An electron within an atom is specified by set of four numbers, called quantum
numbers.
(1) Principal Quantum Number (n)
- gives the size of the shell and relative average distance of the electron, from the nucleus
the energy of electron.
- With the increase in the value of n, the distance from the nucleus increases and its
energy higher and higher.
- Large n means large size.
n = 1, 2, 3, 4,…….
(2) Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)

- gives the shape of the orbital for electron and the energy sub- level.
- also known as subsidiary or orbital quantum number.
L = 0, 1, 2, 3
s, p, d, f
(3) Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
- gives the orientation of the orbit.
- m can have any integral values between -l to +l including 0. (2l + 1)
If l = 0 , ml = 0
If l = 1 , ml = -1, 0, +1
If l = 2 , ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
If l = 3 , ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3
(4) Spin Quantum Number (ms)

- Spin quantum number represents the spin of the electron, i.e.it distinguishes between
the closewise (↑) or anti-caockwise(↓) spin of electron.
ms = + 1Τ2(↑) (clockwise)
ms = - 1Τ2 (↓) (anti-clockwise)
Ex -9, 10, 12
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
- No two electrons in the same atom can have all the four quantum numbers alike.
- The maximum number of electrons in any sub-shell (s, p, d, f) is also given by the
formula: 2(2l+1)
Aufbau Principle
-An electron in its state of lowest energy is said to be in ground state.
-The ground state is most stable state in an atom.
-A new electron enters an empty orbital for which the values of (n+l) is minimum.
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p
Hund’s Rule of Maximum multiplicity

The electron in any sub-shell (s, p, d, f) occupy orbitals singly to start with and have
parallel spins before pairing in any orbital occur with opposite spins. 4th electron in p
orbital, 6th electron in d orbitals, 8th electron in f orbitals will be the first to pair in the
same sub-shell.
Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)Theory
No: of Electron Pairs Electron Pairs Geometry VSEPR Notation Molecular Geometry Shapes
2 Linear AX2 Linear
3 Trigonal planar AX3 Trigonal planar
4 Tetrahedral AX4 Tetrahedral
Trigonal bipyramidal Trigonal bipyramidal

5 AX5
6 Octahedral AX6 Octahedral

VSEPR Notation Molecular Geometry Shapes
AX2E
2E1
AX2E2 angular
2E2
2E3 AX2E3 Linear
3E1 AX3E Trigonal pyramidal
3E2 AX3E2 T-shape
4E1 AX4E Sawhorse
4E2 AX4E2 Square planar
5E1 AX5E Square pyramidal

Molecular Shape and Dipole Moments
-The dipole moment is the product of a charge (𝛿) and distant (d).
μ=𝛿d
μ = dipole moment(D)1D = 3.34x10-34 C.m) 𝛿 = charge(C),
d = distance(m)
𝛿
% ionic character = x 100%
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
(full ionic charge = 1.6x10-19C)
Ex- 23, 25,

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CHAPTER 1

ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

Valence Shell and Valence Electrons

NATURE OF LIGHT ANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

(i) Lyman series (Ultraviolet region)

(ii) Balmer series (Visible region)

(iii) Paschen series

e.g., 1.7, Ex- 5, 6, 7

ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS

(2) Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)

(4) Spin Quantum Number (ms)

Hund’s Rule of Maximum multiplicity

2 Linear AX2 Linear

3 Trigonal planar AX3 Trigonal planar

4 Tetrahedral AX4 Tetrahedral

Trigonal bipyramidal Trigonal bipyramidal

6 Octahedral AX6 Octahedral

2E3 AX2E3 Linear

3E1 AX3E Trigonal pyramidal

3E2 AX3E2 T-shape

4E1 AX4E Sawhorse

4E2 AX4E2 Square planar

5E1 AX5E Square pyramidal

Ex- 23, 25,

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