DRUG ABUSE

**1. What is Drug?**

A drug is any substance other than food, especially one prescribed by a physician, used to
prevent, diagnose, treat, or relieve symptoms of a disease or abnormal condition.

Drugs can be classified into various categories based on their uses and effects. Medicinal
drugs, also known as pharmaceutical drugs, are substances that are developed and
manufactured specifically for medical purposes. These drugs are typically prescribed by
healthcare professionals and are used to treat or manage various health conditions. Drugs
can also refer to substances that are used recreationally or for non-medical purposes.
These drugs are often taken to alter one's mental state or to induce feelings of pleasure
or euphoria. Examples of recreational drugs include alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, heroin,
and ecstasy. It's important to note that while some drugs can be beneficial for medical
purposes when used appropriately and under professional supervision, others can be
harmful or have the potential for abuse. Drug abuse raises both personal and public
issues.

**2. What is Drug Abuse?**

DRUG ABUSE is the use of illegal drugs or the use of prescription or over-the-counter
drugs for purposes other than those for which they are meant to be used, or in excessive
amounts.

Drug abuse can have serious health consequences, including organ damage, impaired
cognitive function, mental health disorders, and an increased risk of accidents or
overdose. It can also lead to strained relationships, financial problems, legal issues, and a
decline in overall well-being.

**3. What is Drug Addiction?**

DRUG ADDICTION (or, ‘substance abuse disorder’) is a neuropsychological disorder

characterized by a persistent and intense urge to use a drug, despite substantial harm and
other negative consequences.
Repetitive drug use often alters brain function in ways that perpetuate craving and
weakens (but does not completely negate) self-control. Addictions are typically
characterized by immediate gratification (short-term reward), coupled with delayed
deleterious effects (long-term costs).
**4. What is the difference between Drug Addiction and Drug Abuse?**

While many people use the terms drug abuse and addiction interchangeably, abuse and
addiction have separate and distinct meanings. One can abuse drugs without necessarily
being addicted to drugs.

Drug Abuse:
Drug abuse refers to the misuse or improper use of drugs, whether legal or illegal, beyond
their intended purposes or in a way that is harmful to the individual's health. It involves
the excessive use of drugs, often without regard to prescribed dosages or medical advice.
Drug abuse can be occasional or recreational, and it may involve the use of multiple
substances. The key characteristics of drug abuse include:

1. Misuse or overuse of drugs.

2. Use of drugs without a legitimate medical reason.
3. Taking drugs in ways other than their intended administration.
4. Using drugs despite being aware of the negative consequences.

Drug Addiction:
Drug addiction, also known as substance addiction or substance use disorder, is a chronic,
relapsing condition characterized by compulsive and uncontrollable drug-seeking and
drug use despite negative consequences. It is a more severe form of drug abuse and
involves a physical and psychological dependence on a substance. The key characteristics
of drug addiction include:

1. Compulsive drug-seeking and drug use.

2. Loss of control over drug use.
3. Craving for the drug.
4. Development of tolerance.
5. Experience withdrawal symptoms when attempting to quit or reduce drug use.

**5. What Causes Drug Addiction?**

An action performed once as an experiment in a social situation can soon develop into a
habit. Experimental use of alcohol at a college party can be used as an example.
Substances such as alcohol and nicotine can affect the way one feels. Some people enjoy
the physical and mental stimulations these substances create. In most cases, it is highly
likely for the individual to get obsessed with such feelings. This condition ultimately leads
the person to develop an addiction to that particular substance. However, such a lifestyle
often leads to a series of mental, physical, and social impairments.

**6. What are the symptoms of Drug Addiction?**

1. Compulsive Drug Use: The individual may experience an intense urge or craving for the
drug, leading to frequent and excessive drug use. They may find it difficult to control or
stop their drug use despite negative consequences.

2. Increased Tolerance: Over time, the person may require higher doses of the drug to
achieve the desired effect. This occurs as the body adapts to the drug, and the initial
dosage becomes less effective.

3. Withdrawal Symptoms: When drug use is reduced or stopped abruptly, withdrawal

symptoms may occur. These symptoms can be physical (e.g., nausea, sweating, tremors)
and/or psychological (e.g., anxiety, irritability, depression). Withdrawal symptoms vary
depending on the substance and can be a motivating factor for continued drug use.

4. Neglected Responsibilities: Individuals struggling with addiction often neglect their

responsibilities at work, school, or home. They may experience a decline in performance,
absenteeism, or loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities.

5. Relationship Problems: Drug addiction can strain relationships with family members,
friends, and romantic partners. There may be conflicts, decreased communication, and a
loss of trust due to the individual's drug use and associated behaviors.

6. Financial Difficulties: Sustaining a drug addiction can be expensive. Individuals may

encounter financial problems, such as borrowing money, stealing, or experiencing
financial instability due to prioritizing drug-related expenses.

7. Behavior and physical appearance: The individual may exhibit mood swings, increased
secrecy, irritability, or changes in sleeping and eating patterns. Physical signs may include
weight loss or gain, deteriorating personal hygiene, and bloodshot eyes.

8. Social Isolation: Addiction can lead to social withdrawal and a loss of interest in
activities or relationships that were once important to the person. They may spend
increasing amounts of time alone or with others who share their drug use.
9. Continued Use Despite Negative Consequences: Despite experiencing adverse effects
on physical health, mental well-being, relationships, and other areas of life, individuals
with addiction continue to use drugs, often unable to quit or reduce their drug use.

**7. Why do people take drugs?**

In general, people take drugs for a few reasons:

• To feel good: Drugs can produce intense feelings of pleasure.
• To feel better: Some people who suffer from social anxiety, stress, and
depression start using drugs to try to feel less anxious.
• To do better: Some people feel pressure to improve their focus in
school or at work or their abilities in sports.
• Curiosity and peer pressure: Adolescence (10-19 years of age) is a
developmental period during which the presence of risk factors, such
as peers who use drugs, may lead to drug addiction.

EUTHANASIA

**1. What is Euthanasia?**

Euthanasia is the act or practice of ending the life of a person either by lethal injection or
suspension of medical treatment. The term ‘Euthanasia’ which comes from the Greek
words, Eu (good) and Thanatosis (death), means “Good Death”, and “Gentle and Easy
Death”. This word is often used to mean “mercy killing”.

**2. What are the types of Euthanasia?**

Active Euthanasia: Active Euthanasia occurs when a patient’s life is ended by committing
a deliberate act such as the use of drugs either by himself or by a physician, to relieve him
of pain and suffering.

Passive Euthanasia: Passive Euthanasia occurs when a physician lets a patient die in order
to relieve him of pain and suffering by a deliberate omission such as by withdrawing or
withholding treatment.
• Withdrawing treatment: For example, switching off a machine that keeps the person
alive.
• Withholding treatment: For example, not using a machine, or not carrying out surgery,
that will extend the life of the patient for a short time.
**3. Is there any moral difference between killing and letting die?**

The moral difference between killing and letting die is a topic of ethical debate and varies
depending on different moral perspectives. Various ethical theories and frameworks offer
different perspectives on this issue. Here are two commonly discussed ethical viewpoints:

1. Consequentialism: Consequentialist theories, such as utilitarianism, focus on the

consequences of actions to determine their moral value. From a consequentialist
standpoint, the moral difference between killing and letting die may depend on the
outcomes or consequences. If the consequences of killing are overall more harmful or
result in more suffering than letting die, then killing may be considered morally worse.
Conversely, if the consequences of letting die are more harmful or lead to more suffering
than killing, then letting die may be considered morally worse.

2. Deontological Ethics: Deontological ethics, such as Kantian ethics, emphasize the

inherent moral principles and duties associated with actions, regardless of their
consequences. From a deontological perspective, the moral difference between killing
and letting die may be based on the intentions and inherent nature of the actions
themselves. Some argue that intentionally causing harm through killing is inherently
morally worse than allowing harm to occur through letting die, even if the consequences
are similar.

• Voluntary Euthanasia is committed when the patient’s life is terminated with his/her
conscious willing or autonomous cooperation. This means that the subject is free from
direct or indirect pressure from others.
• Non-voluntary Euthanasia occurs when the patient’s life is terminated without his/her
choice between living and dying because the patient is unconscious or too young (a baby),
or unable, for some reason or other, to make a meaningful choice between living and
dying, and an appropriate person takes that decision for him/her. This is sometimes called
murder, but it is possible to imagine cases where killing would count as a favor for the
patient.
• Involuntary Euthanasia: occurs when the patient’s life is terminated against his/her
informed consent which he/she would be able to provide, but does not, either because
he/she does not want to die, or because they were not asked.

**4. What are the arguments for or against the PAS?**

• Arguments For Physician Assisted Suicide (PAS) or Euthanasia

• (1) The Compassion Argument holds that we need euthanasia because allowing people
to ‘die with dignity’ is kinder than forcing them to continue their lives with suffering.
• (2) The Autonomy Argument holds that we want euthanasia because every patient has
a right to choose when to die.
• (3) The Public Policy Argument holds that we can control euthanasia. That is, physician-
assisted suicide can be safely regulated by government legislation.

• Arguments Against Physician Assisted Suicide & Euthanasia

• (1) Alternative treatments are available. Alternative treatments are available, such as
palliative care and hospices. We do not have to kill the patient to kill the symptoms. Nearly
all pain can be relieved.
• (2) There is no ‘right’ to be killed and the slippery slope of assisted suicide is real. The
most powerful objection to the legalization of euthanasia is that "once we begin to allow
some people to kill others, we will find ourselves sliding down a slippery slope that leads
to killings of a kind that no one wants."
• (3) We could never truly control it. Reports from the Netherlands, where euthanasia
and physician-assisted suicide are legal, reveal that doctors do not always report it.

ABORTION

**1. What is Abortion?**

Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy resulting in the death of the embryo or fetus.
Abortion is a highly controversial and sensitive topic that raises ethical, moral, religious,
and legal considerations. Views on abortion vary widely among individuals, societies, and
cultures. Debates surrounding abortion often revolve around a range of complex and
interconnected issues, including the rights of the woman, the status of the embryo/fetus,
bodily autonomy, women's reproductive rights, the potential for fetal viability, and the
moral and legal implications of ending a pregnancy.
Laws and regulations regarding abortion differ across countries and jurisdictions, ranging
from highly restrictive to more permissive, with varying conditions and gestational limits.
It is essential to understand that the legal status and availability of abortion services can
differ significantly depending on the specific country or region.

**2. What are the types of abortion?**

Abortion may be of two types: (1) Induced (or, Voluntary) Abortion, and (2) Spontaneous
(or, Involuntary) Abortion (or, Miscarriage)
• Induced Abortion is the intentional termination of a pregnancy which involves the
methods of medication and surgery and results in the death of the embryo or fetus.
• Spontaneous Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy that happens without any
intervention and results in the death of the embryo or fetus.

**3. What are the moral approaches to abortion?**

There are three Moral Approaches to Abortion:

• (1) Pro-Choice, (2) Moderate, and (3) Pro-Life

• The central thesis of Pro-Choice advocates, such as Mary Anne Warren, is that the
mother is free to dispose of the fetus as she wishes. This view implies that a fetus is not a
person. It emphasizes the mother’s right to her own body and freedom to control her
reproductive life. This approach entails the consequentialist focus on the benefits of
abortion and the harms of continued pregnancy.

• The central thesis of the Moderate approach, advocated, for example, by Judith Jarvis
Thomson, is that early abortion is permissible, but late-term abortions are morally
problematic. This view implies that the moral status of the fetus may change during
pregnancy. It emphasizes the conflict of rights between the mother’s right to choose and
the fetus’s developing right to life. This approach entails that judgments about
consequences may depend on the stage of pregnancy.

• The central thesis of the Pro-life position, advocated, for example, by Don Marquis, is
that abortion is generally morally prohibited, except in cases (i) where the mother’s life is
at risk, or (ii) when it is essential to prevent the birth of an unborn baby diagnosed to be
born with serious birth defects such as deformity or genetic abnormality, or (iii) when the
pregnancy is caused by incest or (iv) rape. This view implies that the fetus is a person and
“life begins at conception”. It emphasizes the fetus’s right to life. This approach may focus
on the benefits of family life or appeal to the natural law ideas about reproduction and
pregnancy.

**4. What are the arguments for or against Abortion?**

Arguments for Abortion

• A woman has the right to choose whether or not she wants to have the baby. It is her
body.
• In the case of rape, it would be lacking in compassion to deny a woman the right to an
abortion.
• The woman might be too young or have work or family commitments that make
bringing up a child difficult or impossible for her.
• The pregnant woman's health and welfare are more important than that of the embryo
or fetus.
• The embryo or fetus does not have the same rights as the mother.
• The quality of life of the unborn child or the woman's existing children could be
adversely affected by the birth.
• Stopping legal abortions would mean a return to 'back street' abortions, causing a great
deal of suffering to the health and wellbeing of the woman. Abortion could therefore be
the lesser of two evils.

Arguments against Abortion

• Roman Catholics believe that life begins at conception. Some Protestants believe that
life begins after the first 14 days. For Muslims, all human life is a precious and sacred gift
from Allah. The embryo is a living human being from this point, and so abortion would be
murder.
• Although Islam gives high priority to the sanctity of life, most Muslim scholars agree that
abortion may be permitted, before ensoulment if there are valid reasons.
• One valid reason is when it is quite likely that the mother's life is endangered by
continuing the pregnancy.
• This permission is based on the principle of the 'lesser of two evils' and the mother's life
takes precedence because she has established duties and responsibilities for the family.
• Another valid reason is when the fetus is detected to have severe disabilities and/or a
genetic disease that would cause it relentless pain.• One valid reason is when it is quite
likely that the mother's life is endangered by continuing the pregnancy.
• This permission is based on the principle of the 'lesser of two evils' and the mother's life
takes precedence because she has established duties and responsibilities for the family.
• Another valid reason is when the fetus is detected to have severe disabilities and/or a
genetic disease that would cause it relentless pain.
• Every human being, including an embryo or fetus, has the right to live and to reach their
potential.
• There are alternatives to abortion, eg adoption.
• The unborn child is denied choice.
• Abortion destroys human life and makes life appear cheap and disposable. This affects
the quality and value of life.
• People born with disabilities can live full and happy lives.
 PUNISHMENT

**1. What is Punishment?**

Punishment is defined as suffering, loss, pain, or any other penalty that is inflicted on a
person or group for committing a mistake, crime, immoral act, or any other unacceptable
behavior by the concerned authority to attain one or more of several goals, such as
deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation, retribution, and restitution. Punishments differ
in their types, purposes, and degree of severity, and may include sanctions such as
reprimands (formal rebuke), deprivations of privileges or liberty, fines, imprisonment,
ostracism, the infliction of pain, incapacitation such as amputation, and the death
penalty. Some of the major types of criminal punishment are incapacitation, deterrence,
retribution, rehabilitation, restoration, and restitution.

**2. What is Incapacitation?**

Incapacitation prevents crime by removing a defendant from society.

**3. What is Deterrence?**

Deterrence aims to prevent future crime and can focus on specific deterrence or general
deterrence depending on whether it tries to make an individual or members of the public
less likely to commit a similar crime in the future.

**4. What is Retribution?**

Retribution prevents crime by removing the desire for personal avengement through
giving victims or society a feeling of avengement or vengeance.

**5. What is Rehabilitation?**

Rehabilitation prevents crime by altering a defendant's behavior.

**5. What is Restoration?**

Restoration is the process of bringing an object back to its original state and preventing
crimes by calling for the offender to make direct amends to the victim of their crime, as
well as the community where the crime occurred.
**6. What is Restitution?**

Restitution prevents crime by making the defendant pay financial compensation to the
victims for their losses.

**7. What are the conditions required for Punishment?**

• (1) Punishment is a response to an offense. Some offenses go unpunished or even

undetected.
• (2) It involves three parties, (a) the offender (or, defendant) – a person who has carried
out the illegal or immoral act, (b) the victim (or, plaintiff) - a person who is harmed,
injured, or killed as a result of a crime, and (c) the authority who inflicts the penalty on
the criminal.
• (3) It involves some loss or unpleasant outcome to the supposed offender.
• (4) It is imposed by an authority (single or multiple) and not by the victim or any other
party.
• (5) The party (human or other animal) to whom the punishment is imposed should be
deemed responsible for the offense because it was an act committed either intentionally
or negligently.

**8. What is the deterrent theory?**

This is a forward-looking theory of punishment, according to which, punishments are

justified to the extent that they bring about future good results. According to the
deterrent theory, the purpose of punishing anyone who has done wrong is to deter or
prevent people from committing the same offense. This theory is supported by
utilitarianism. Punishment aims to project it as an ‘example’ to other potential criminals
so that they would not commit the same offense. It was aptly stated by a judge in the
following way- “You are to be punished, not because you have stolen a sheep, but so that
others may not steal sheep.” A distinction can be made between general deterrence and
specific deterrence. General deterrence refers to the effects of legal punishment on the
general public (potential offenders), and specific deterrence refers to the effects of legal
punishment on those individuals who undergo the punishment. The deterrent theory
justifies capital punishment as an extreme form of punishment because of its deterrent
effect on those who are likely to commit a serious crime.

**8. What is the objection to the deterrent theory?**

An objection often raised against this theory of punishment is that it allows the possibility
of treating the offender not as an end, but merely as a means for the benefit of others.
This is not quite correct that the offender is being treated merely as means to the good
of others because any punishment, except capital punishment, is likely to have a more
deterrent effect on the offender himself than on anyone else. The real weakness of the
deterrent theory is that if the real purpose of punishment is only to deter people from
wrongdoing, it does not matter whether the person punished is guilty or not. A problem
for the deterrent theory as a forward-looking theory is that the punishments
recommended may not be “proportional” to the crime.

**9. What is the Reformative (or, Educative) Theory of Punishment?**

Like the deterrent theory, the reformative (or, educative, or, rehabilitative) theory of
punishment is a forward-looking theory of punishment. This theory is supported by
criminologists. But unlike the deterrent theory, the reformative theory directly focuses
not on deterring or reducing crime, but on educating or reforming the criminals
themselves so that they are transformed into normal people who are less likely to commit
crimes.

**10. What are the merits of the Reformative (or, Educative) Theory of Punishment?**

• Though the effectiveness of education and forgiveness in dealing with offenders is often
undeniable, education or character building itself is not punishment.
• This theory has an initial appeal because of its harmony with the humanitarian
sentiments of people.
• This theory does not involve treating a person as a means. An offender is punished for
his good, and not merely for the benefit of others.

**11. What are the demerits of the Reformative (or, Educative) Theory of
Punishment?**

• The reformative theory of punishment takes an offender-centric approach which is

unjust to the victim in some cases. In its attempt to protect the rights of the prisoners,
the courts may unconsciously violate the rights of the victim.
• It is evident that capital punishment cannot be justified by the reformative theory.
• An inherent weakness of the reformative theory is that it is incompatible with our
intuition that habitual or hardened offenders who have a strong tendency to commit
crimes are not amenable to correction through education and hence should be punished
as per the preventive theory.
**12. What is the Retributive Theory of Punishment?**

The retributive theory of punishment is based on Lex Talionis or the "law of retaliation“
and expressed in the maxim ‘life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth’ holds that
punishment should be coextensive with, i.e., proportionate to, offense, i.e., criminal's
moral desert.
The retributive theory is a backward-looking theory of punishment as it tries to find out
the fact about how the crime was committed and is concerned with “paying back” for the
crime. This theory is supported by deontologists.

**13. What are Steffen’s nine criteria for the justification of the death penalty?**

• (1) The execution power must be legitimately authorized.

• (2) Just cause for the use of the death penalty must be established.
• (3) The motivation for applying lethal punishment must be justice, not vengeance.
• (4) Executions must be administered fairly, without accidental features such as race,
religion, class, or sex affecting the administration of the death penalty.
• (5) The death penalty is to be used as an expression of cherished values, and it must not
subvert the goods of life but promote and advance the value of life.
• (6) Executions ought not to be cruel.
• (7) Execution ought to be a last resort, with no other response to the offender except
execution adequately serving the interests of justice.
• (8) Execution ought to restore a value equilibrium distorted and upset by the
wrongdoing committed by the person on whom execution is visited.
• (9) Execution should be a response proportionate to the offense committed.

**14. What is Unified Theory?**

A unified theory of punishment brings together multiple penal (i.e., punitive) purposes—
such as retribution, deterrence, and rehabilitation—in a single, coherent framework.
Instead of punishment requiring us to choose between retribution, deterrence, and
rehabilitation, unified theorists argue that they work together as part of some wider goal
such as the protection o rights.
FEMINISM