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    DAA4M

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    DAA4M

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    DAA4M

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    Contents 1, Introduction to Dynamic Programming 1.1, General method with Examples 1.2. Multistage Graphs 2. Transitive Closure: 2.1. Warshall’s Algorithm, 3. Alll Pairs Shortest Paths: 3.1. Floyd's Algorithm, Optimal Binary Search Trees Knapsack problem Bellman-Ford Algorithm Travelling Sales Person problem Reliability design ee 1, Introduction to Dynamic Programming Dynamic programming is a technique for solving problems with averlapping subproblems, Typically, these subproblems arise from a recurrence relating a given problem's solution to solutions of its smaller subproblems. Rather than solving overlapping subproblems again and again, dynamic programming suggests solving each of the smaller subproblems only once and recording the results in a table from which a solution to the original problem can then be obtained. [From T1] ‘The Dynamic programming can also be used when the solution to a problem can be viewed as the result of sequence of decisions, / From T2/, Here are some examples. Example 1 [Knopsack] The solution to the knapsack problem van be viewed as the result of a sequence of decisions, We have to decide the values of 4,1 < i Yocien pip. Hence. the sequence y1, ++y2n i8 a sequence for (5.1) with greater value. Again the principle of optimality applies. a Example 5.7 [Shortest path] Let A; be the set of vertices adjacent to vertex i. For each vertex & € Aj, let [, be a shortest path from & to j. Then, a shortest i to j path is the shortest of the paths {i,1',|k ¢ Ai}. a Example 5.8 [0/1 knapsack] Let g;(y) be the value of an optimal solution to KNAP(j + 1.7,y). Clearly, go(m) is the value of an optimal solution to KNAP(1,2,m). The possible decisions for 2; are 0 and 1 (D, = {0,1}). From the principle of optimality it follows that go(m) = max {gi(m), gi(m — wi) + pi} (5.2) o While the principle of optimality has been stated only with respect to the initial state and decision, it can be applied equally well to intermediate states and decisions. The next two examples show how this can be done. Example 5.9 Cire path] Let k be an intermediate vertex on a shortest ito j path i,i),42,....k,pi,p2,---.j. The paths #, i, skand ky pis... j must, respectively. be shortest i to k and k to j paths. ou Example 5.10 [0/1 knapsack] Let y1,y2.--..Jm be an optimal solution to KNAP(1,n,m). Then, for each j, 1 0 and gn(y) = —00 for y < 0. From g,(y), one can obtain gn—1(y) using (5.3) with i=n-—1. Then, using gn_1(y), one can obtain gn—a(y). Repeating in this way, one can determine gi(y) and finally go(m) using (5.3) with i = 0 1.2 Multistage Graphs A multistage graph G = (V, E) is a directed graph in which the vertices are partitioned into k > 2 disjoint sets Vj, 1 | 20 5 Je] Withintermediate vertices numbered Be le 7 ot not higher than 3, ie., a, b, and c S| PE STaT| _ tnote four new shortest paths from a to b from a to d, from b to d, and from d to b). abed alo 03 4 Lengths of the shortest peths ob} 2056 with intermediate vertices numbered DH =O) > 7 9 7 | nothigher than 4, ie., a, b,c, and d (note a new shortest path from c to a). d| 6 169 0 4. Optimal Binary Search Trees A binary search tree is one of the most important data structures in computer science. One of its principal applications is to implement a dictionary, a set of elements with the operations of searching, insertion, and deletion. If probabilities of searching for elements of a set are known e.g., from accumulated data about past searches it is average number of compari tural to pose a question about an optimal binary search tree for which the ns in a search is the smallest possible. ‘Asan example, consider four keys A,B, C,andDto be searched for with probabilities 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.3, respectively. The figure depicts two out of 14 possible binary search trees containing these keys. The average number of comparisons in a successful search in the first of these trees is 0.1 * 1+0.2* 2+0.4* 3+0.3* 4=2.9, and for the second one it is 0.1 *2+02* 140.4 * 2+03* 3521. Neither of these two trees is, in fact, optimal. For our tiny example, we could find the optimal tree by generating all 14 binary search trees with these keys. As a general algorithm, this exhaustive-search approach is unrealistic: the total number of binary search trees with n keys is equal to the nth Catalan number, cm =— (?") forn >0, (0) n+i\n which grows to infinity as fast as 4"/ n' Soletai,. the probabil «ay be distinct keys ordered from the smallest to the largest and let pi, . .. . Pa be of searching for them. Let C(i, j) be the smallest average number of comparisons made in a successful search in a binary search tree T! made up of keys ai, ... jy where i, j are some integer indices, I< i py-level of a, in T,, + > pst tS a 1 =i i = min {CG.kK-D+CK+1, D+ DY py isks) ‘Thus, we have the recurrence i CG. f= min {CUkK-D+CK+1L D+ Yop, forlsisj 0), an optimal subset is made up of this item and an optimal subset of the first i-1 items that fits into the knapsack of capacity j ~ wi. The value of such an optimal subset is vi+ FG ~ 1, j wy. Thus, the value of an optimal solution among all feasible subsets of the first I items is the maximum of these two values. ra jy — | maXxtFG-1,/).y+FG-1. j—w)) if j—w,>0, FOD=1 pG- 19 itj—w; <0. It is convenient to define the initial conditions as follows: F(0, j) = 0 for j > 0 and F(i, 0) = 0 for i> 0. Our goal is to find F(n, W), the maximal value of a subset of the n given items that fit into the knapsack of capacity W, and an optimal subset itself. ° nm i w ofo ° ° ° i-a}o Fu-1j-w) Fun. my i fo Fu a goal Table for solving the knapsack problem by dynamic programming. Example-1: Let us consider the instance given by the following data: value 1 si2 2 $10 capacity W 3 $20 4 2 Sis ‘The dynamic programming table, filled by applying formulas is given below capacity j i oO 1 2 3 4 5 0 o 0 0 0 0 O 1 o 0 BR 2 2 2 o wo 12 n 2 3 o wo 12 a2 wy = 2, y= 4 o Ww 1s 300037 ‘Thus, the maximal value is F(4, 5) = $37. We can find the composition of an optimal subset by backtracing the computations of this entry in the table. Since F(4, 5) > F(3, 5), item 4 has to be included in an optimal solution along with an optimal subset for filling 5 ~ 2 = 3 remaining units of the knapsack capacity. The value of the latter is F(3, 3). Since F(3, 3) = F(2, 3), item 3 need not be in an optimal subset. Since F(2, 3) > F(., 3), item 2 is a part of an optimal selection, which leaves element F(1, 3 ~ 1) to specify its remaining composition, Similarly, since F(1, 2) > F(O, 2), item 1 is the final part of the optimal solution {item 1, item 2, item 4). Anal s The time efficiency and space efficiency of this algorithm are both in @(nW). The time needed to find the composition of an optimal solution is in O(n). Memory Functions ‘The direct top-down approach to finding a solution to such a recurrence leads to an algorithm that solves common subproblems more than once and hence is very inefficient, ‘The classic dynamic programming approach, on the other hand, works bottom up: it fills a able with solutions to all smaller subproblems, but each of them is solved only once. An unsatisfying aspect of this approach is that solutions to some of these smaller subproblems are often not necessary for getting a solution to the problem given. Since this drawback is not present in the top-down approach, it is natural to try to combine the strengths of the top-down and bottom-up approaches does so only once. Such a method exists; itis based on using memory funetions. ‘The goal is to get a method that solves only subproblems that are necessary and ‘This method solves a given problem in the top-down manner but, in addition, maintains a table of the kind that would have been used by a bottom-up dynamic programming algorithm. Initially, all the table's entries are initialized with a special “null” symbol to indicate that they have not yet been calculated. Thereafter, whenever a new value needs to be calculated, the method checks the corresponding entry in the table first: if this entry is not “null,” it is simply retrieved from the table; otherwise, it is computed by the recursive call whose result is then recorded in the table. The following algorithm implements this idea for the knapsack problem. After initializing the table, the recursive function needs to be called with i = n (the number of items) and j = W (the knapsack capacity). Algorithm MFKnapsack(, j ) //mplements the memory function method for the knapsack problem /Mnput: A nonnegative integer i indicating the number of the first items being considered and a nonnegative integer j indicating the knapsack capacity //Output: The value of an optimal feasible subset of the first i items Not Uses as global variables input arrays Weightsf1..n}, V alues{1..n}, and table F[0..n, 0..W ] whose entries are initialized with —1’s except for row 0 and column 0 initialized with 0°s if Fli, j)<0 if j < Weights|i] value — MFKnapsack(i = 1, j) else value —max(MFKnapsack(i — 1, j), Values[i] + MFKnapsack(i — 1, j — Weights{i])) Fli, j) 1, edges has no dist*~ fal 2. If the shortest path from v to u with at most k, & > 1, edges has exactly & edges, then it is made up of a shortest path from v to some vertex j followed by the edge (j,u). The path from v to j has k —1 edges, and its length is dist*'[j]. All vertices i such that the edge {i,u) is in the graph are candidates for j. Since we are interested in a shortest path, the i that minimizes dist*-'{i] + cost[i, u] is the correct value for j. These observations result in the following recurrence for dist: dist*{u) = min {dist*'[u], min {dist*"[i] + costfi, u)}} This recurrence can be used to compute dist* from dist*—!, for k = 2,3,..., n-1. Bellman-Ford algorithm to compute shortest path Algorithm BellmanFord(», cost, dist, n) // Single-source/all-destinations shortest. 7/ paths with negative edge costs for i:— 1 to n do // Initialize dist. dist{t] = cost[v, 1]; for k :=2 to n—1do for each u such that u 4 v and u has at least one incoming edge do for cach (i, u) in the graph do if dist|u] > dist(i] + cost[i,u) then dist|u] := dist{i) + cost[i,u); Example 5.16 igure 5.10 gives a seven-vertex graph, together with the arrays dist", k ‘These arrays mputed using the equation just given, For instance, dist*[1] . for all & since 1 is the source node. Also, dist'[2] = 6, dist![3] = 5, and dist‘[4] = 5, since there are edges from 1 to these nodes. The distance dist'{] is oo for the nodes 5,6, and 7 since there are no edges to these from 1 dist®Q) = min {dist!(2], min; dist*{i] + cost[i,2}} = min {6,0 + 6,5 — 2,5 +00, 00 + 00,00 + 00, 00 + co} Here the terms 0 + 6,5 — 2,5 + 00, 00 + 00,00 + 09, and oo + 00 correspond to a choice of i = 1,3,4,5,6, and 7, respectively. The rest of the entries are computed in an analogous manner. o | dist*(1..7| kT 234567 T0655 e600 20335540 S)0 13 5 2.4 7) 40135045 50135043 60135043 (a) A directed graph (b) dise* Figure 5.10 Shortest paths with negative edge lengths 7. Travelling Sales Person problem (T2:5.9), We have seen how to apply dynamic programming to a subset selection prob- Jem (0/1 knapsack). Now we turn our attention to a permutation problem. Note that permutation problems usually are much harder to solve than sub- set problems as there are n! different permutations of n objects whereas there are only 2" different subsets of n objects (n! > 2"). Let G = (V,E) be a directed graph with edge costs cj. The variable ci; is defined such that ¢ij > 0 for all é and j and ¢; = 00 if (i. 7) ¢ E. Let [V| = n and assume n> 1. A tour of G is a directed simple cycle that includes every vertex in V. The cost of a tour is the sum of the cost of the edges on the tour. The traveling salesperson problem is to find a tour of minimum cost. The traveling salesperson problem finds application in a variety of situ- ations. Suppose we have to route a postal van to pick up mail from mail boxes located at n different sites. An n +1 vertex graph can be used to represent the situation. One vertex represents the post office from which the postal van starts and to which it must return. Edge (i,j) is assigned a cost equal to the distance from The route taken by the postal van is a tour, and we are interested in finding a tour of minimum length. As a second example, suppose we wish to use a robot arm to tighten the nuts on some piec: machinery on an assembly line. The arm will start from its initial p« ion (which is over the first nut to be tightened), successively move to each of the remaining nuts, and return to the initial position. The path of the arm is clearly a tour on a graph in which vertices represent the nuts. A minimum-cost tour will minimize the time needed for the arm to complete its task (note that only the total arm movement time is variable; the nut tightening time is independent of the tour). In the following discussion we shall, without loss of generality, regard a tour to be a simple path that starts and ends at vertex 1. Every tour consists of an edge (1,k) for some k € V — {1} and a path from vertex k to vertex 1. The path from vertex k to vertex 1 goes through each vertex in V —{1,k} exactly once. It is easy to see that if the tour is optimal, then the S path from & to 1 must be a shortest k to 1 path going through all verti in V ~ {1,k}. Hence, the principle of optimality holds. Let 9(i,$) be the length of a shortest path starting at vertex i, going through all vertices in S, and terminating at vertex 1. The function g(1,V — {1}) is the length of an optimal salesperson tour. From the principal of optimality it follows that 9(1,V ~ {1}) = ymin {ere + 9(k,V ~ {1,k})} (5.20) Generalizing (5.20), we obtain (for i ¢ S) gi, S) = min{o +9(5.5 —{5})} (5.21) Equation 5.20 can be solved for g(1,V — {1}) if we know g(k,V — {1,k}) for all choices of k. The g values can be obtained by using (5.21). Clearly, 91,6) = ca, 1 | Ds ee 1 >: | a uJ} LI L__] Figure 5.20 Multiple devices connected in parallel in each stage If stage i contains mj copies of device D;, then the probability that all ‘m, have a malfunction is (1—rj)"'. Hence the reliability of stage « becomes 1-(1—rj)™. Thus, if rj = 99 and m; = 2, the stage reliability becomes .9999. In any practical situation, the stage reliability is a little less than 1-(1—r,)™ because the switching circuits themselves are not fully reliable. Also, failures of copies of the same device may not be fully independent (e. if failure is due to design defect). Let us assume that the reliability of stage i is given by a function 4;(m;), 1 1 and integer, 1 0, each m, must be in the range 1 < mj < u;, where w=[lera-Sevral ‘The upper bound u; follows from the observation that m, > 1. An optimal solution 12;,71,...,1™Mp is the result of a sequence of decisions, one decision for each m,. Let fi(«) represent the maximum value of Hh ejmj Sv and 1< mj; 1, this equation generalizes to ia) = , max, {bi(mi) fi-1(@ ~ errns)} (5.19) Clearly, fo(x) = 1 for all 2, 0 < x fo and a, < 2 holds for this problem too. Hence, dominated tuples can be discarded from S'. Example 5.25 We are to design a three stage system with device types D,, D2, and D3. The costs are $30, $15, and $20 respectively. The cost of the system is to be no more than $105. The reliability of each device type is 9, .8 and .5 respectively. We assume that if stage i has m; devices of type i in parallel, then $j(m;) = 1—(1—r;)”'. In terms of the notation used earlier, ec, = 30, c2 = 15, ¢3 = 20, ¢ = 105, ry = 9, re = .8, 73 = .5,u) = 2,u2 = 3, and us We use S' to represent the set of all undominated tuples (f,«) that may result. from the various decision sequences for m,my,...,™mj. Hence, f(x) = fi(x). Beginning with S° = {(1,0)}, we can obtain each S' from S*~! by trying out all possible values for m, and combining the resulting tuples together. Using S' to represent, all tuples obtainable from S'- by choosing j, we obtain $}] = {(.9, 30)} and $} = {(.9, 30), (.99,60)}. The set (.72, 45), (.792, 75)}; S3= {(.864, 60)}. Note that the tuple (.9504, 90) mes from (.99, 60) has been eliminated from $3 as this leaves only $10. This is not enough to allow mg = 1. The set $2 4: 8928, 75)}. Com- bining, we get S? = {(.72, 45), (.864, 60), (.8928, 75)} as the tuple (.792, 75) is dominated by (.864, 60). ae set 53 fess 65), (432, 80), (.4464, 95)}, 93 = {(.54, 85), (.648, 100)}, and $3 = {(.63,105)}. Combining, we get S° = {(.36, 65), (432, 80), (.54, 85), (.648, or ‘The best design has a reliability of .648 and a cost of 100. Tracing os through the S'’s, we determine that m; = 1,m2 = 2, and mg = 2. As in the case of the knapsack problem, a complete dynamic programming algorithm for the reliability problem will use heuristics to reduce the size of the S's. There is no need to retain any tuple (f,2) in S' with x value greater that c — Dy

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