Ancient Times  The first 365-day calendar was possibly devised by

1. Sumerian Civilization IMHOTEP.

Significant Contributions  They calculated the time by means of waterclock- a
 Cuneiform- a set of word pictures depicted in conical earthen vessel with hours equally marked off
symbols made of triangular marks. on the inside and spout at the bottom.
 Sexagesimal - using the number 60 as base,  Nobles, men and women wore wigs, they used a
system of counting and a form of place notation. variety of preparations for the hair such as henna.
 Ziggurats- Mountain of god, served as the sacred  They used tweezers and razors to remove unwanted
place of their chief god body hair.
 Potter’s wheel.  Both sexes wore jewelries, sandals, perfume and
 Wheeled vehicle made of solid wooden wheels cosmetics-eye make-up and Kohl around the eyes to
on axles now regarded as the greatest mechanical prevent or even cure eye diseases.
invention of all time.
 They built pyramids such as Pyramid of Sakkara as
 materia medica -made up of assorted botanical,
Zoser’s tomb and memorial and Pyramid of Khufu or
zoological and mineralogical ingredients.
 seed plow Cheofs and Great sphinx- a stone statue with a king;s
 sail boat head and a lion’s boy to guard the pharaoh’s tomb..
 intricate system of canals, dikes and reservoir.  The ancient Egyptians knowledge of human anatomy,
 the City of Uruk- a great wonder not only physiology and medical plants enabled them to
because it is considered to be the first true city in master the art and science of embalming the dead.
the world  From the Hyksos, they learned military technology
 Divided the circle into 360 degrees. and system- horse driven light war chariots manned
 Developed advances mathematical functions to by warriors armed with bows, bronze swords and
permit accurately plot and forecast. lances.
 Zodiacal map of Sumer was used for practical  The Egyptians invented and used many simple
mathematical and observational purposes. machines such as ramp and lever, to aid construction
 Code of Ur-NAmmu- the oldest surviving law in
processes.
the world. It is the earliest existing legal text
 They used rope trusses to stiffen the beam of ships
 Fabrication of copper
 In Hellenistic Egypt, lighthouse technology was
developed, the most famous example being the
2. Babylonian Civilization Lighthouse of Alexandria- a port for the ships that
Babylonia- ancient region bordering the Tigris and Euphrates traded the goods manufactured in Egypt or imported
rivers (Southern Iraq) in Egypt.
 Library of Alexandria
 Nebuchadnezzar ordered the construction of the  Obelisks and pillars
famous “Hanging Gardens of Babylon” and the Isthar
Gate. 4. Greek Civilization
 They adopted the Sumerian sexagesimal system of Greece- is an archipelago in the Southeastern part of
counting in units, Ziggurat and cuneiform. Europe.
 Their measurements made use of fractions, squares - Known as the birthplace of western philosophy.
and square roots. - Some of the major achievements of the Greeks
 book-keeping, a simple but adequate system of include in-depth works on philosophy and
double-entry accounting. mathematics.
 Zodiac signs, concept of horoscope - Their wise men were the first to systematically
 Prediction of solar and lunar eclipses. separate scientific ideas from superstition and
 Jewelry making originated from the Babylonians stressed the logical development of general principles
 Code of Hammurabi or theories about natural phenomena.
 The Babylonian Map of the World- first map - Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age
 Astrology, the science of studying the position of  They designed various mathematical models and
celestial bodies. mechanical systems to explain the planetary motions
and mechanical systems to explain the planetary
3. Egyptian Civilization positions and movements on geometrical
Egypt- located in the Northeastern part of the African determinations and logical deductions.
continent, a desert country thriving on an agricultural  Ancient Greeks invented the alarm clock- used large
economy. complicated mechanisms to time the alarm. They
 The Egyptian writing was in the form of pictorial made use of water ( or sometimes small stones or
symbols known as hieroglyphics, representing sand). That dropped into drums which sounded the
individual objects or actions. alarm.
 They wrote with ink and brushes on paper made of  Watermills were also considered as one of the most
papyrus reeds. important contributions of the Greek civilization to
 Ancient Egyptians studies the heavens to record time, the world. They were commonly used in agricultural
calculate distances/directions, forecast the seasons processes like milling of grains which was a
and predict annual flooding of the Nile river. necessary form of food processing.
 The earliest Egyptian calendar was based on their Greek Philosophers
observations of the regular appearance and
disappearance of Sirius the brightest star in their  Galen made the first steps for the advancement of the
horizon which coincide with the annual rise and fall science of anatomy.
of the Nile river.  Hippocrates- “Father of Greek Medicine”
 Another calendar was based on the phases of the First to regard medicine as a science apart from
moon, consisting of 29 and ½ days. religion.
 He taught that diseases have natural causes and that  The Arabs interest in the pseudoscience of alchemy
somehow the human body is capable of healing or encouraged them to mix and manipulate chemical
repairing itself. elements and conduct experiments to transform base
 According to Empedocles nature was a mixture of metals into gold.
four elements: earth, fire, air and water.  They were the first to use glass lens for
 Thales of Miletus- Father of Philosophy, taught that magnification
nature was composed of or convertible into water.  First to manufacture the black powder
 Anaxagoras- argued that matter was composed of  They produced the first gun- a bamboo tube
countless tiny particles, each made of dominant reinforced with iron that used a charge of black
substances such as water mixed with other random powder to shoot an arrow.
substances.
 Aristotle- proved the importance of critical 7. Chinese Civilization
observation and systematic means to identify and - It is considered to be the oldest civilization in Asia.
classify organisms. - It is also known as the middle kingdom, located on
 Thales,Phythagoras,Euclid- perfected geometry, as a the far east of Asia.
single logical system.  People learned the technology of silk production
 Archimedes- performed experiments which led him  The outstanding contribution of the Shang included
to discover the laws of lever and the pulley. – the creation of magnificent bronze vessels, discovery
invented the science of hydrostatics- measurement of lacquer, the development of the horse-drawn war
and use of water-power. chariots and the first known Chinese writing which
- made planetarium powered by water to demonstrate was discovered incised on flat shoulder bones of cattle
the movements of the sun and planets around the or on tortoises shells called “oracle bone”.
stationary earth.  Chopsticks came into use.
- discovered the concept of gravity
 They invented the escapement, the basic device used
 Ptolemy- wrote the Almagest, wherein he presented
to regulate clocks.
his ideas and summarized those of the earlier Greek
 They constructed the Great Wall of China and the
astronomers about the universe.
great palace of the first emperor.
-postulated the geocentric theory of the universe.
 The Chinese had one of the most advanced systems of
pharmacology- discovery of healing drugs and herbs.
5. Roman Civilization  They also practice apothecaries and acupuncture- was
- The Roman Empire was perceived to be the strongest used to treat illnesses or pain by pricking the patient’s
political and social entity in the west. body with needles at points believed to be connected
- Considered to be the cradle of politics and with the visceral organs causing the pain.
governance.  They invented the “earthquake weathercock” to detect
 One of the major contributions of the Romans is the earthquake occurrence
newspaper- Gazettes-contained announcements of the  The use of toilet paper was also traced in China back
Roman Empire to the people, made metal or stone to the sixth century.
tablets and then publicly displayed.  Development of calligraphy, water color, painting and
 The ancient Roman Empire was able to produce the block printing were invented.
first books or codex.  The first movable type printer made form pottery was
 They introduced the Roman numeral. developed by Pi Sheng.
 They constructed the Pantheon as one of the world’s  Chinese had an outstanding contributions such as the
greatest domed buildings and Colosseum, Rome’s invention of gunpowder, a naturally magnetic iron ore
stage for individual gladiatorial contest which held used to magnetize a floating needle (prototype of the
50,000 spectators. magnetic needle in compass) to indicate location, the
 Chariot races and gladiatorial fights were held at use of coal as fuel, water wheel, the wheelbarrow, and
Rome’s principal stadium, the Circus Maximus, which the flexible bamboo pole that speedily enchanted the
accommodated some 300,000 people. transport of heavy loads, the technology of copper
 Roman government were able to implement major coinage, the artistry of wallpaper and porcelain.
projects such as large churches (cathedrals and  Tea production was developed.
basilicas), aqueducts, amphitheaters and even
residential houses. 8. Indus-Hindu Civilization
 Vitruvius first described the odometer as being used India- mainly in the Northwestern regions of South Asia.
for measuring distance around 27BC, but evidence  Considered the most remarkable accomplishment of
points towards Archimedes of Syracuse as its inventor. the Indus civilization was the construction layout of its
 Anaximander was one of the first pioneer cities which featured water wells (that piped water
cartographers to create a map of the world. supply) bathrooms and wastepipe or drains in nearly
 Olympics were dedicated to the Olympian Gods. every house.
 They excelled particularly in medicine and
mathematics.
6. Arabic/Islamic Civilization  Traditional Indian medication had a very extensive
Arabia- is a rocky peninsula in Southwestern Asia. pharmacopoeia and varieties of herbal remedies and
- The most influential Muslim intellectual contribution drugs.
to the modern world was their synthesis of the  Indian surgeons successfully performed various
scientific and technological knowledge they learned operations like repair of broken limbs, complicated
from and transmitted to the various cultures they bone setting, amputation, plastic surgery and
encountered. Caesarian section.
 They introduced the Arabic system of numbers  They introduced the negative and positive quantities,
square and cube roots, quadratic equations,
 mathematical implications of zero and infinity and plough. In addition, the introduction of the horses’ modes
value of pi up to nine decimal places. put the horse on the road for pack and wagon.
 They also developed the steps in sine functions, 7. Distillation and Alcohol- the first preparation of strong
spherical geometry and calculus spirits of wine was made in Europe in the 12 th century. As
 Iron pillar of Delhi-the world’s first iron pillar. the distillation of perfumes and oil was already known,
 Stupa was used as commemorative monument alcohol was probably produced by accident in the course
associated with storing sacred relics. of some medical preparation.
 Great technology was needed in the fields of 8. Universities and Scholastics- By the twelfth century,
weaponry, navigation, mass food and farm production, these schools swelled to become universities with set of
and health. courses and teaching the seven liberal arts, philosophy
and theology. The first and most famous of these was the
9. Persian Civilization University of Paris in 1160. In the eleventh century A.D,
 Introduction of a uniform system of gold and silver medical school had been existence in Salermo.
coinage. 9. Church, medieval towns, Iron-chain suspension bridges,
 The first regular postal system in the world segmental arch structures were built.
 Taxation system, an important component of the 10. Canon of Medicine- authored by Avicenna, an Arab
Achaemenid state administration. physician. It contained a good summary of the period’s
 Qanat is a gently sloping underground channel that medical knowledge and accurate descriptions of
carries water from an aquifer or water well to houses meningitis, tetanus and other diseases.
and fields. It is used for drinking water and irrigation 11. War Weapons such as cross bows, long bows was
of crops. developed so that they could attack the enemies at long
 Sulfuric acid was first discovered by Abu Bakr ranges, keeping themselves safe with the protection of
Muhammad Ibn Jakarta al-Razi. wall and fortresses. Soldiers wear body armors and
chainmail to protect themselves.
12. Lenses with spectacles- The discovery of lenses resulted
in the invention of spectacles in Italy around 1350 A.D.
Medieval Times This gave impetus to the study of light or optics.
• The period from 450A.D to 1450 A.D Grosseteste, Dietrich and Roger Bacon explained how a
• is generally known as the period of history between lens could focus light rays and magnify things. The
Ancient Times and Modern Times. demand for spectacles gave rise to lens grinding/trading
• This is usually divided into the so called Dark Ages and spectacle-makers.
and the High Middle Ages. 13. The sternpost rudder apparently came also from China.
• The Age of Exploration. This led to the development of the sail that could be
• The start of the middle ages was marked by massive adjusted such that ship voyages could be made in rougher
invasions and migrations. weather.
• The Islamic world had become a civilization of 14. Mariner’s Magnetic Compass- the ability of a natural
colossal expansive and had imposed a unity of magnet to show direction was known o the Chinese
religion and culture on much of southwest Asia and several centuries ago or about sixth century A.D before it
North Africa. passed to the West or Europe.
15. Flying Buttress- one of the architectural innovations
Technological advances during the Middle Ages include the associated with Gothic churches. This allowed buildings
following: to have much higher ceilings and larger windows.
16. Library of Malatesta Novello in Cesena- considered to be
1. Printing press- After the Chinese, Johann Gutenberg first ever public library in the world.
developed a more reliable and way of printing using a cast 17. Coffee House became popular in Arabic and Ottoman
type. Gutenberg utilized wooden machines that extracted lands.
juices from fruits, attached to them a metal impression of
the letters, and pressed firmly the cast metal into a piece
of paper, which then made an extract impression on paper. Renaissance ( 14th century -16th century)
2. Gunpowder and Canon- appeared around the 9th century  The period of rebirth
A.D, followed by vigorous development of explosive  Beginning of the cultural movement
weapons from 1040 A.D about three centuries before it  Rediscovery of ancient texts was accelerated after the
appeared in Europe. From fire-lance using a rocket fall of Constantinople in 1453.
combination and bamboo tube as close combat weapon,  Technology for printing books was regarded as the most
all barrier guns and cannon were constructed at the important invention that facilitated dissemination of
beginning of the 12th century A.D. knowledge and new ideas.
3. Water mill – it was an integral part of the feudal  Paracelsus- an alchemist and physician of the
economy. By using suitable mechanism, its rotary motion Renaissance. Medieval alchemists worked with two
could be converted to reciprocal motion making it a main elements: Sulphur and mercury.
source of general power.  The astronomy was based on geocentric model (earth-
4. Windmill was used primarily for blowing bellows, filling centered) described by Claudius Ptolemy.
cloth, forging iron, sawing, weaving and threshing.  Nicolas Copernicus published “On the Revolutions of
5. Mechanical clock- tells time using gears driven by the Heavenly Spheres”.
weights that pull the gears at the right pace.  Andreas Vesalius described the anatomy of the brain’s
6. Horse Harness and Horse shoe allowed the horse to function. He wrote the book “On the Fabric of the
increase its” attractive” effort five times and for Human Body”.
protection. This innovation came from the 7 th century A.D
china reaching Europe early in the eleventh century,
resulting in the horse taking the place of oxen at the Modern Times
 Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath,
 The booming world population during the nineteenth originated the concept of a programmable computer.
century onwards demanded that more goods be produced
at a faster rate. People needed efficient means of 13. Universal Serial Bus (USB) flash drive- also known as
transportation to trade more goods and cover a larger thumb drive pen, pen drive, gig stick, flash stick, jump drive,
distance. Machines that required animals to operate must disk key, disk on key- is a data storage device that includes
thus be upgraded. Faster and easier means to flash memory with an integrated USB interface.
communicate and compute should be developed to
established connections between and among nations. All 14. Cellphone or mobile phone- a device that has at least the
these needs resulted in the development of industries. same functions of a standard wired telephone but is smaller
However, due to massive industrialization, the modern and more mobile.
times again faced more complicated problems. Food
processing and medicine posed some of the bigger 15. Internet- is the global system of interconnected computer
challenges since health was of great concern. networks that use the internet protocol suite ( TCP/IP) to link
devices worldwide. It carries a vast range of information
1.Pasteurization- invented by Louis Pasteur, a French resources and services such as the inter-linked hypertext
biologist, microbiologist and chemist, the process of heating documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW).
dairy products to kill the harmful bacteria that allow them to Electronic mail, telephony and file sharing.
spoil faster.
16. Television- is a telecommunication medium used for
2. Petroleum Refinery- is widely used in powering transmitting moving images in monochrome (black and white)
automobiles, factories, and power plants. or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. It is a
mass medium for advertising, entertainment and news.
Kerosene was referred to as the “illuminating oil” because it
was used at first to provide lighting homes. It was invented by 17. Veterinary medicine was for the first time, truly separated
Samuel M. Kier. from human medicine in 1761, when French Veterinarian
Claude Bourgelat founded the world’s first veterinary school
3. Telephone- invented by Alexander Graham Bell, a way to in Lyon, France
easily maintain connection and communication with each
other in real time. 18. Penicillin- discovered by Alexander Fleming in September
1928, marks the start of modern antibiotics.
4. Calculator- a faster way to compute more complicated
equations. 19. Genomics- is an interdisciplinary field of science focusing
on the structure, function, evolution, mapping and editing of
5. Electricity- the heart of many modern technologies, is the genomes- is an organism’s complete set of DNA, including all
set of physical phenomena associated with presence and of its genes.
motion of electric charge.
20. Biotechnology- is the broad area of science involving
6. Electric power- where electric current is used to energize living systems and organisms to develop or make products, or
equipment. any technological application that uses biological systems,
7. Electronics- which deals with electrical circuits that involve living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify
active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, products for specific use.
diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive 21. Automobile ( car)- is a wheeled motor vehicle used for
interconnection technologies. transportation
8. Smartwatches- a variation of regular watches but coming 22. Nuclear weapon- is an explosive device that derives its
with a whole bunch of features as your smartphone. destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or from
9. Robotics- is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and a combination of fission and fusion reactions.
science that includes mechanical engineering, electronics 23. Nuclear power- is the use of nuclear reactions that release
engineering, computer science and others. It deals with the nuclear energy to generate heat, which most frequently is then
design, construction, operation and use of robots, as well as used in steam turbines to produce electricity in a nuc;ear
computer systems for their control, sensory feedback and power plant.
information processing.
24. Satellites- is an artificial object which has been
10. Incandescent light bulb- is an electric light with a wire intentionally placed into orbit. They are used for many
filament heated to such a high temperature that it glows with purposes such as military and civilian Earth observation,
visible light (incandescence). It is widely used in household telecommunication, navigation, weather forecast and space
and commercial lighting, for portable lighting such as table telescopes.
lamps, car headlamps and flashlights and for decorative and
advertising lighting. 25. Vaccine- is a biological preparation that provides active
acquired immunity to a particular disease.
11. Airplane- is a powered fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled
by thrust from a jet engine, propeller or rocket engine. The 26. telegraphy-is the long distance transmission of textual or
Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903, symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object
recognized as “the first sustained and controlled heavier-than- bearing the message.
air powered flight. It is used to transport parcels as well as
27. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scanner- is a medical
people to other side of the world in less than a day or weeks.
imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the
12. Computer- is a device that can be instructed to carry out anatomy and the physiological processes of the body in both
sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via health and disease.
computer programming. It is also used as control systems for a
28. Computed tomography (CT) scan- makes use of computer-
wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. Charles
processes combinations of many X-ray measurements taken
from different angles to produce cross-sectional images of
specific areas of scanned object, allowing the user to see the
object without cutting.

29. Liquid-crystal display (LCD projector)- is a type of video

projector for displaying video, images or computer data on a
screen or other flat surface.

30. Bluetooth- is a wireless technology standard for Scientific Revolution

exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile
devices and building personal area networks. It has been established that most, if not all, of the discoveries
and inventions in science and technology during each time
31. Wi-Fi- is a technology for radio wireless local area period were due to human needs and wants.
networking of devices.

32. Printer- is a peripheral device which makes a persistent Brilliant minds responded to the call of the times and created
human-readable representation of graphics or text on paper. things that could make life easier for the people.

33. Camera- is an optical instrument for recording or capturing There have also been instances when advancements in science
images, which may be stored locally, transmitted to another and technology changed people’s perceptions and beliefs.
location or both.
Much of these events happened in a period now known as the
34. Closed-circuit television (CCTV)- also known as video Intellectual Revolution.
surveillance, is the use of video cameras to transmit a signal to
a specific place, on a limited set of monitors. Scientific Revolution is used to refer to the great intellectual
achievements of science from sixteenth to seventeenth century
35. Submarine- is a watercraft capable of independent marking a radical change in the assumptions attitudes and
operation underwater. It is used in military, marine science, methods in scientific inquiry.
search-and-rescue and tourism.
Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed
36. Stethoscope- is an acoustic medical device for
to scholarly life in science but it was also a deeply trying
auscultation, or listening to the internal sounds of an animal or
moments to some scientific individuals that led to their painful
human body. death or condemnation from the religious institutions who
37. Laptop or notebook computer- is a small, portable personal tried to preserve their faith, religion and theological views.
computer with a “clamshell”form factor having typically a thin
LCD or LED computer screen mounted on the inside of the The Scientific Revolution develops as an offshoot of the
Renaissance. The same questioning spirit that fueled the
upper lid of the “clamshell”and an alphanumeric keyboard on
Renaissance led scientists to question traditional beliefs and
the inside of the lower lid.
the Church about the workings of the universe. It was a new
38. Credit card- is a payment card issued to users to enable the way of thinking about the natural world.
cardholder to pay a merchant for goods and services.
Before 1500, the Bible and Aristotle were the only authorities
39. Steam engine- is a heat engine that performs mechanical accepted as truth
work using steam as its working fluid.
A geocentric model of the universe, in which the Earth is at
40. Light Amplification by stimulated emission of radiation the center was supported during the Middle Ages
(Laser)- is a device that emits light through a process of
optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of Until the mid 1500’s, European scholars accepted and
electromagnetic radiation. believed the teachings of Ptolemy, an ancient Greek
astronomer.

Ptolemy taught that the Earth was the center of the universe.

People felt this was common sense, and the geocentric theory
was supported by the Church.

It was not until some startling discoveries caused Europeans to

change the way they viewed the
physical world.

Industrial revolution- refers to complex technological

innovations from 1750 to 1895 characterized by the
substitutions of machines for human skill and machine power
for that of human and animal bringing a shift from handicraft
to manufacture and marking the birth of
modern economy.

Causes or Genesis of the Scientific Revolution

 The remarkable achievements of specific individuals such

as Nicolas Copernicus, Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes,
Andreas Vesalius, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei,
Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton.
 The philosophy of new science, a new way of doing movement of the stars and planets.
science using what is known as the scientific method
advocated by Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes among Johannes Kepler
others. • After Brahe’s death, his assistant, the German astronomer
 The desire to break away from the ideas of the feudal and mathematician Johannes Kepler, used Brahe’s data to
middle ages and the Aristotelian view. calculate the orbits of the planets revolving around the sun.
 The establishments of the universities from the 12th • Kepler’s calculations supported Copernicus’ heliocentric
century which were later engaged in the critical analysis theory.
of the Aristotelean views. • His calculations also showed that the planets moved in oval
 The Renaissance hopeful period of concerned with the shaped orbits, and not perfect circles, as Ptolemy and
present life as well as the empirical and mundane interest Copernicus believed.
in the natural world and humanity. • Kepler’s finding help explain the paths followed by man-
 Important inventions such as mechanical clock, lenses, made satellites today.
telescope, microscope etc.
 The combinations and cooperation’s of the skills of the Galileo Galilei
craftsmen and the intellectual, computational and logical • Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer who built upon the
method of the scholars. scientific foundations laid by Copernicus and Kepler.
 Printing press spread new ideas • Galileo assembled the first telescope which allowed him to
 Age of Exploration fueled a great deal of scientific see mountains on the moon and fiery spots on the sun.
research because of technology needed for navigation • He also observed four moons rotating around Jupiter –
 Translation of the works of Muslim scholars opened the exactly the way Copernicus said the Earth rotated around the
minds of European thinkers to new scientific knowledge sun.
• Galileo also discovered that objects fall at the same speed
Nicolaus Copernicus regardless of weight.
• Copernicus was a Polish mathematician and astronomer who • The Church punished him for his belief in this idea. He was
studied in Italy. questioned by the Inquisition and forced to confess that his
• In 1543 Copernicus published De revolutionibus orbium ideas were wrong.
coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres). • The Church came against Galileo because it claimed that the
Earth was fixed and unmoving.
• In his book, Copernicus made two conclusions: The universe
• When threatened with death before the Inquisition in 1633,
is heliocentric, or sun-centered. The Earth is merely one of Galileo recanted his beliefs, even though he knew the Earth
several planets revolving around the sun. moved.
• Galileo was put under house arrest, and was not allowed to
publish his ideas.
Copernicus’ model of the solar system:
1. Sun Sir Isaac Newton
2. Moon • Sir Isaac Newton was an English scholar who built upon the
3. Mercury work of Copernicus and Galileo.
4. Venus • Newton was the most influential scientist of the Scientific
5. Earth Revolution.
6. Mars • He used math to prove the existence of gravity - a force that
7. Jupiter kept planets in their orbits around the sun, and also caused
8. Saturn objects to fall towards the earth.
• Newton published his scientific ideas in his book
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.
 Copernicus came to these conclusions using mathematical • He discovered laws of light and color, and formulated the
laws of motion:
formulas.
1. A body at rest stays at rest
 The Copernican conception of the universe marked the start 2. Acceleration is caused by force
of modern science and astronomy. 3. For every action there is an equal opposite reaction
 Up to the time of Copernicus, people thought that there was • He invented calculus: a method of mathematical analysis.
a sort of crystal sphere that kept the planets, moon, and stars in
orbit around the Earth. It was Copernicus that Charles Darwin
proposed the idea that the Earth revolved around the sun, and • Studied medicine at Edinburgh, theology at Cambridge
not vice versa... The sun was the center of the Universe, not • Interest in natural history
the Earth. • Taught by a freed black slave who told him exciting tales of
the South American Rainforest
 Most scholars rejected Copernicus’s theory. • Darwin developed the biological theory of evolution that
 Most scholars rejected his theory because it went against explains how modern organisms evolved over long periods of
Ptolemy, the Church, and because it called for the Earth to time through descent from common ancestors
rotate on its axis. • In 1831, he began a 5 year voyage on the HMS Beagle that
 Many scientists of the time also felt that if Ptolemy’s would change his life.
reasoning about the planets was wrong, then the whole system • Darwin observed that the characteristics of many animals
of human knowledge could be wrong. and plants varied noticeably among the different Galapagos
Islands. Among the tortoises, the shape of the shell
Tycho Brahe corresponds to different habitats.
• Darwin thought about the patterns he’d seen on his voyage
 In the late 1500s, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe
• He realized that there were many similarities between the
provided evidence that
animals he’d seen.
supported Copernicus’ heliocentric theory.
• There was evidence that suggested that species were not
 Brahe set up an astronomical observatory.
fixed and that they could change by some natural process.
 Every night for years he carefully observed the sky,
accumulating data about the
Artificial Selection
• To find an explanation for change in nature, Darwin studied
the changes produced by plant and animal breeders • A single “tree of life” links all living things
• Some plants bear larger or smaller fruits than others • This is known as the principle of common descent.
• Some cows give more or less milk than others in their herd • Darwin argued that living things have been evolving on
• This told Darwin that variation could be passed from parents Earth for millions of years.
to offspring and used to improve crops and livestock • Today, fields like genetics and molecular biology support
• In artificial selection, nature provides the variations, and Darwin’s basic ideas about evolution
humans select the ones they find useful DARWIN'S FOUR POSTULATES
• Darwin knew that variation occurs in wild species as well as • individuals within species vary
domesticated species • some of these variations are passed on to offspring
• He realized that that natural variation provided the raw • individuals vary in their ability to survive and reproduce
material for evolution • Individuals with the most favorable adaptations are more
• Darwin wanted to gather as much evidence as he could to likely to survive and reproduce.
support his ideas before he made them public • Natural selection produces organisms with different
• In 1858, Darwin read an essay by Alfred Wallace whose structures than their ancestor, different niches, and new
thoughts about evolution were almost identical to his! habitats.
• In order to not get “scooped”, Darwin decided to present his • Each living species has descended, with changes, over time.
work at a scientific meeting in 1858 along with some of
Wallace’s essay Lamarck’s Evolutionary Hypotheses
• The next year, Darwin published his complete work on • Proposed that the use or disuse of organs caused organisms
evolution: On the Origin of Species to gain or lose traits over time.
• Struggle for Existence • These new characteristics could be passed on to the next
• From Malthus’ theory of supply and demand, Darwin generation.
reasoned that if more individuals are produced than can • Suggest that species are not fixed
survive, they will have to compete for food, living space and • Explain that evolution uses natural processes
other necessities of life • Recognize that there is a link between an organism’s
• Darwin described this as the struggle for existence environment and its body structures
• Variation and Adaptation • Lamarck’s work paved the way for later biologists, including
• Individuals have natural variations among their inheritable Darwin.
traits
• Some variations are better suited to life in their environment Thomas Malthus
than others • In 1798, Thomas Malthus noticed that people were being
• Fast predators capture prey more efficiently born faster than people were dying
• Prey that are faster, better camouflaged or better protected • He reasoned that if the human population grew unchecked,
avoid being caught. there would not be enough living space and food for everyone
• The forces that work against human population growth are
Variation and Adaptation war, famine and disease
• Any heritable characteristic that increases an organisms • He reasoned that what Malthus proposed for human
ability to survive and reproduce in its environment is called an populations also applied to all living things.
adaptation • He observed that most organisms produce many more
• Examples of Adaptations: offspring than survive.
• Tiger’s claws • He wondered which individuals would survive ... and why
• Camouflage colors • If all the offspring that were produced did survive, they
• Plant structures would overrun the world.
• Avoidance behaviors

Survival of the Fittest ORGANIC EVOLUTION

• Darwin felt that there must be a connection between an • the slow and gradual process by which living organisms have
animal’s environment and how it survives changed from the simplest unicellular form to the most
• Ability to survive and reproduce in a specific environment is complex multi-cellular forms that are existing today.
called FITNESS
• Fitness depends upon how well an organism is suited for its Sigmund Freud
environment • An Austrian Neurologist who became fascinated with
• Fitness is a result of ADAPTATION studying hysteria.
• Good adaptations allow organisms to survive and are passed • Father of psychoanalysis.
on to their offspring. • Psychology was considered more of an art rather than a
• Good fitness: Reproduce science.
• Low Fitness: Few offspring/extinction • Psychoanalysis- is the study that explains human behavior.
• Darwin thought that this seemed very similar to artificial
selection
Levels of Consciousness: Iceberg theory
• He referred to “survival of the fittest” as NaturalSelection
• Survival means more than just staying alive. It means
reproducing and passing adaptations on to the next gen. 1. Conscious mind – like the top of the iceberg, only a small
• Natural Selection: Nature chooses portion of our mind is accessible to us.
• Artificial selection: Man chooses
• Favorable characteristics are inherited over several 2. Preconscious mind – material that is unconscious, but can
generations. be easily brought into awareness. Moves back & forth easily
• Natural Selection is the process by which organisms with between conscious & unconscious.
variations most suited to their local environment survive and
leave more offspring 3. Unconscious mind – is completely outside of our awareness
• Natural Selection occurs in any situation in which more (could produce anxiety if made conscious).
individuals are born than can survive
• Over time, natural selection results in changes in the
inherited characteristics of a population. Structures of Personality
• These changes increase a species’ fitness in its environment.
• Id – “pleasure principle” unconscious impulses that want to
be gratified, without regard to
potential punishment.
- Original Core of an Individual personality
- Biological Driven
- Primarily Unconscious

2. Ego “reality principle” – tries to satisfy id impulses while

minimizing punishment & guilt.
- Self- Identity which arises out of ID
It controls voluntary motion and self- reservation behavior

3. Superego – the “moral principle” of our personality which

tells us right from wrong our
conscience.
- Developing out of the Ego
- Serves as conscience

• Conscious mind- consists of thoughts that focus on the

present state of the mind

• Preconscious mind- consists of what can be retrieved from

the memory

• Subconscious mind- consists of primitive desires, wishes or

impulse which is mediates by the
preconscious mind