EARTHWORKS

OUTLINE
 Definition of Earthworks
 Uses of Earthworks
 Types of Earthworks
 Types of Work in Earthworks
 Equipment and Tools Used in Earthworks

WHAT IS EARTHWORK?

Earthwork is a process that involves the movement of a portion of the earth’s surface
from one location to another and in a new position.

It also involves the establishment of a new position for earth material like sand.

USES OF EARTHWORKS

A. Military Use

B. Civil Engineering Use

Earthwork is one of the major works involved in road construction. All civil
engineering work will involve some form of earthworks.
Typical earthworks include railway beds, causeways, dams, levees, canals, and
berms.
Earthworks operations include the excavation, transport, placement and
compaction of fill materials to construct earth structures, and is a significant element of
almost all civil engineering projects.
TYPES OF EARTHWORKS OR EXCAVATION

1. Topsoil Excavation
2. Earth Excavation
3. Rock Excavation
4. Muck Excavation
5. Channel excavation
6. Footing excavation
7. Borrow Excavation
8. Bridge Excavation
9. Unclassified Excavation

1. TOPSOIL EXCAVATION
This is a type of excavation that is associated with the scraping of all vegetation.

2. EARTH EXCAVATION
This is a type of excavation that deals with the removal of a layer of the soil immediately
under the top soil. The depth is usually not more than 4 meters.

3. ROCK EXCAVATION
Removal of solid rock in place, or boulders and chunks of old concrete and stone
masonry sized not less than one cubic yard which require drilling and blasting to allow removal
by conventional earth moving equipment.

4. MUCK EXCAVATION
`This is the process of removing of materials on site which contains an excess amount of
water and undesirable soil. This is necessary for all materials that will not have enough strength
to sustain a structure during and after construction.

5. CHANNEL EXCAVATION
 This is mostly common in road construction. It is the process of re-locating a creek or
stream usually because its path cuts across a right of way.

6. FOOTING EXCAVATION
Footing excavation occurs after a building site has been properly graded, at which point
excavation can begin. This type of excavation may be somewhat more precise than other types as
the concrete for footings will likely be poured and left to set.

7. BORROW EXCAVATION
In many types of excavation, materials are removed to make way for construction.
Borrow excavation does just the opposite. In this type of excavation, materials like soil or gravel
are taken from a ―borrow‖ pit (sometimes called a sandbox) to be used in another location.

8. BRIDGE EXCAVATION
This type of excavation is related to the construction of bridges and centers on removing
any materials that might impede the construction of the foundations, substructures, and so on
required to support the bridge.

9. UNCLASSIFIED EXCAVATION
Is defined as the excavation of all materials encountered, including rock materials,
regardless of their nature or the manner in which they are removed.
TYPES OF WORKS IN EARTHWORKS

1. CUTTING
Cutting (Cutting Activities) or "Excavation" is the removal of material from an area in
order to reduce its height and reach the required line and level.

Sub Activities:
A. CLEARING
Removal and disposal of trees bushes and other unwanted vegetation or organic
materials.
B. GRUBBING
Removal and disposal of tree roots all loose soils and plants should be removed
from the roots and should be burned shredded or hauled off as required.
C. STOCKPILING
Excavated Soil are stockpiled or "set aside" during the clearing operation for
future use.
D. MARKING
Involves the identifying and placing of identifiers that is critical to the placement
of structures according to its plan. Example: When constructing a building, the site
should be marked according to plan, to identify pillar placement.
E. LOOSENING
The process of breaking the material in order to perform its removal. Involves
drilling blasting chipping ripping pounding splitting cutting or other operations to break
the material up so it can be removed.
F. DIGGING and HAULING
Digging is the vertical movement of materials while Hauling is the horizontal
movement of materials.
2. FILLING

Addition of material to an area in order to increase the height.

Sub Activities:
A. DUMPING
To place or "dump" materials in order to fill spaces or add height to areas.
B. SPREADING
To evenly distribute dumped materials in order to achieve a leveled surface.
C. COMPACTING
Process in which stress is applied to soil causing densification as air is displaced
from the pause of the soil grains.

EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS USED IN EARTHWORKS

TWO (2) CATEGORIES

1. Hand Tools/ Equipment
2. Machinery Tools/ Equipment

1. HAND TOOLS/ EQUIPMENT

A. SPADE
A spade is a tool primarily for digging consisting of a long handle and blade,
typically with the blade narrower and flatter than the common shove.
B. SHOVEL
Hand held tool used to excavate that generally, its metal plate has a higher degree
of curvature that a spade.
C. HOE
Hand tool for excavation that consists of a metal plate (or sometimes a "fork-type"
plate) attached to a long, acutely angled handle.
 D. TROWEL
Hand-sized tools that are commonly used to dig small trenches in soil or to remove
shallow roots in the soil.
E. PICKAXE
Hand tool made up of a hard spike pointed on one side and a wide blade on the
other, that is attached perpendicular to the handle. Pick axes are suitable for excavating
hard soils and rocky surface.
F. RAKE
Tool with a horizontal rod and metal teeth that is used to remove small layers of
soil.

2. MACHINERY TOOLS/ EQUIPMENT

A. EXCAVATORS
Heavy construction equipment consisting of a boom, dipper (or stick), bucket and
cab on a rotating platform known as the "house". Primarily used in digging trenches,
holes, foundations, and/or large scale excavation of land.
B. BULLDOZERS
Heavy construction equipment that has hard steel plates with a sharp edge at the
front. This is commonly used for soil excavations, weak strata removal, soil lifting and
other similar tasks
C. BACK HOE EXCAVATOR
Back hoe excavators have the hoe arrangement on the back side and the loader
bucket in front of the vehicle. The hoe and loader perform two operations: digging and
loading or lifting.
D. DRAGLINE EXCAVATOR
Dragline excavators feature a long boom. A cable is suspended from the boom's
top, and a digging bucket is suspended from the cable. They are typically used for deeper
excavations such as port construction and underwater sediment removal.
E. TRENCHES
Used to dig trenches, drainage, pipeline laying, and cable laying.
F. HYDRAULIC JACK-HAMMERS
Used for loosening hard soils, surfaces, and rocky-featured sites.
G. EXCAVATORS with HYDRAULIC JACK-HAMMERS
Used for loosening large-scale hard soils, surfaces, and rocky-featured sites.
SUPER ELEVATION

OUTLINE

 What is Super Elevation

 How Does Super Elevation Work

 Purpose of Super elevation

 Forces That Act Upon Super elevation

 Factors that Affect the Need for Super elevation

 Super elevation at High Speeds

 Methods of Super elevation

 Advantages and Disadvantages of Super elevation

 Forces Quantified
 Formulas for Super elevation

 Design Analysis
 Maximum and Minimum Super elevation

 Sample Problems

SUPER ELEVATION: WHAT IS IT?

Super elevation is a method of constructing infrastructure in roadway curves in which

the edges of the road are raised above the inner edge. Since it is a component of the vertical
position or ―profile‖ of a road viewed in cross-section, it is an important security element in the
design specifications of any road with curves.

A super elevated road must be meticulously designed. Its construction necessitates the
purchase of heavy machinery, extensive materials, and a large labor force. However, if done
correctly, most people will not even notice it is there. super elevation is also known as ―can't‖ or
―banking,‖ as in a racing speedway’s banked track.

HOW DOES Super elevation WORK?

Super elevation works with several interacting forces of physics to help drivers maintain
speed and stay safely on the road through a curve. A complex combination of centrifugal and
centripetal force, friction, inertia, weight, and velocity or speed all interplay to determine the
need for super elevation on a road or highway.

PURPOSE OF SUPER ELEVATION:

● The use of super elevation allows the vehicle to move more safely and faster than
turns, rather than being allowed.
● Side friction between the tires and the road surface also works to neutralize the
external pull of the vehicle.
● Side friction is reduced when there is water, snow, or ice on the road or when the
tires are badly damaged.
● The maximum height for a piece of highway is determined by the weather
conditions, the type of terrain, and the type of development

FORCES THAT ACTS UPON SUPER ELEVATION

That’s centripetal force, the sideways force acting on an object that causes it to move in a
circle. If you tie the end of a string to a tennis ball and start whirling it around you, you’re
creating centripetal force.

On the road, centripetal force pulls moving vehicles toward the inside edge of pavement
as they move through a curve. It can feel like sliding or tipping, or both. It’s the opposite of
centrifugal force, which pulls you away from the center and toward the outside edge (and also
pushes you into your seat) as your vehicle rounds a curve.

A superelevated curve in a roadway balances these two forces, in combination with

several others that act in various directions.

According to Newton’s Law of Inertia, any object moving in a straight line will keep
moving in the same direction (a straight line) unless it’s affected by an unbalanced force, or
something that changes the direction of its motion. In this case, that ―something‖ is a curve — or,
more precisely, a driver’s decision to turn the steering wheel and change the vehicle’s course.

But you need traction, or friction, to modify inertia and change direction safely. Friction
in this case is the resistance created between your car’s rubber tires and the road surface. Its
action is to inhibit motion, slowing the car down by keeping it in constant contact with the road
(which also helps prevent it from sliding or skidding).

A vehicle’s weight can affect its traction. Heavier

vehicles generally press the tires into the road surface
with greater pressure, resulting in better traction than
lighter vehicles.

Speed or velocity is also a factor, one that can

combine with moisture to counteract friction on the road.
This counteraction is especially pronounced on elevated
highway bridges, as it is on most types of bridges, where
cold air can turn the moisture into ice.

If you’re moving at a low speed in dry conditions, maintaining traction while navigating
a curve likely isn’t much of a problem. However, the faster you go, the more friction you’ll need
to offset the degree of velocity you’ve built up while you were headed in a straight line.
 And on a wet or icy road, for example, you won’t be able to gain much traction at all,
which is why your vehicle may keep sliding straight forward instead of changing directions when
you turn the wheel.

This is also why drivers need to slow down before changing direction on a flat surface:
Centrifugal force can pull a car outward, off the road, on a curve. But super elevation changes
that equation.

On a flat surface, the only thing acting against inertia if you’re driving straight is the
friction provided by your tires. A banked curve, however, uses centripetal force to redirect some
of that velocity toward the center and allow you to navigate the turn safely.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE NEED FOR SUPER ELEVATION

How and where super elevation is used can vary based on several factors, many of which
involve how fast vehicles are likely to be moving.

For instance, with too great an angle of super elevation, slower-moving vehicles might
slide down the slope of a curve on a wet or icy road. For vehicles moving too fast on such roads,
by contrast, hydroplaning may occur. Where snow and ice are factors, a maximum super
elevation of 8 percent may be called for.

The type of pavement is also worth considering. Rougher roads, where vehicles would
likely be moving more slowly, would employ less super elevation. The amount of traffic (such as
in urban areas, where speeds are likely to be lower) is also a factor, along with the terrain.

The size of the vehicle involved is another factor to consider. Trucks, RVs, heavy
construction vehicles and others with high centers of gravity are more likely to tip or roll over on
curves that don’t have adequate super elevation.
SUPER ELEVATION AT HIGH SPEEDS

If you’ve ever seen the banked track of a

NASCAR or Indy car race, the banked curves are an
example of this principle in action. First installed in
1959, the 31-degree super elevation at Daytona
International Speedway allows the speeding cars to
maintain more of that speed heading into a curve with
less risk of crashing, and gives them added momentum
coming out the other side.

The curves at Martinsville Speedway in Virginia, by contrast, are banked at just 12

degrees because it’s a shorter track and drivers don’t build up as much speed on the
straightaways. In simple terms, the faster cars go, the higher the bank will need to be, to absorb
the vehicles’ more forceful inertia at higher velocities.

Of course, roads and highways require banked curves, as well. Transition curves or
turning roadways, like freeway cloverleaf on- and off-ramps, are common examples. However,
the maximum super elevation for well-traveled open highways is 10% to 12% — much lower
than at a speedway like Daytona, where vehicles move at higher speeds.

METHODS OF SUPER ELEVATION:

1. ELIMINATION OF THE CROWN OF THE CAMBERED SECTION:

The outside portion of the camber is slowly reduced using this procedure. There are two
ways to accomplish this.

The outer side of the camber is rotated about the crest at the needed rate until the surface
will be in the same plane as the inner corner in the first attempt.
The crown is gradually moved outwards in the second procedure. This approach is not
commonly used.

2. PAVEMENT ROTATION FOR FULL SUPER ELEVATION:

At this step, super elevation is gradually delivered throughout the whole width of the
carriageway, such that the requisite super elevation is accessible at the start of the circular bend.
The many methods used to achieve super elevation are as follows:

A. CIRCULAR PAVEMENT AROUND THE CENTRE LINE:

In this manner, the road surface is rotated about the inner side, expanding the
center and outside corner.

a) The center line’s level is kept constant.

b) This technique is extensively utilized.

B. CIRCULAR PAVEMENT AROUND THE INNER EDGE:

In this manner, the road surface is twisted about the inner edge, expanding the
center and outside edge.

C. CIRCULAR PAVEMENT AROUND THE OUTSIDE EDGE:

The road surface is spun around the outside edge, lowering the center and inner
edge.

SUPER ELEVATION: ADVANTAGES AND PURPOSE

● When a vehicle travels on a curved path, it experiences an outward force known as

centrifugal force. To mitigate the effects of centrifugal force, super elevation is provided.
● It aids in maintaining a constant speed while remaining comfortable on a curve path.
● It lowers the number of accidents.
 ● It aids in the drainage of rainwater towards the inner side. So there’s no need for camber
on this stretch of road.
● It also aids in keeping vehicles on the correct side of the road, preventing head collisions
between vehicles travelling in opposite directions.

SUPER ELEVATION: DISADVANTAGES

● High engineering, geological, and concrete work costs result in increased construction
costs.
● Complexity may cause instability or a loss of vehicle control.
● Increased tyre maintenance is the cause of excessive maintenance. This raises the price.
● The construction project needs more room.
● increases the vehicle’s weight, which results in a 20% increase in traction force on the
base course.
RECAP ON CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

Centrifugal Force - An apparent outward force that pushes an object away from it’s center and
and it’s circular path

Formula for Centrifugal Force

Where:
P - Centrifugal Force
W - Weight
V - Velocity
g - Gravity
R - Radius of the Curve

An object (e.g. vehicle) moving along a curved path will either experience Overturning
or Skidding.

Overturning - to tip over to the side (in this context: the vehicle)
Skidding - to slide sideways or obliquely, usually from stopping or turning too quickly
FOR OVERTURNING

Given the figure below:

FOR SKIDDING

Given the figure below:

SUPER ELEVATION (e) FORMULAS
Given the figure:

Since:

Formula for Rate of Super Elevation

given the coefficient of friction of the road
DESIGN ANALYSIS

Formula for Full Super Elevation

given the breadth/width of road

MAXIMUM and MINIMUM SUPER ELEVATIONS

SAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the super elevation of a 9m wide road, with a radius of 300m,
speed limit of 60kph, and a centrifugal limit of 1/10.

Therefore, the super elevation of 0.849 m of the road is within the

centrifugal limit.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAYS

INTRODUCTION

Geometric design of highway is the determination of layout and features visible on highway. The
emphasis is more on satisfying the need of the driver as well as to ensure the safety of the vehicle, the
comfort while driving and efficiency. Geometric design of highways and railways refers to their
dimensional and spatial characteristics. Highways and railways vary in shape, elevation, size, etc.
depending on their purpose and location. Geometry also defines the position of a highway with
reference to the objects around it.

Some of the main features considered for geometric design of highway are:

● Cross section elements

● Horizontal and vertical alignments
● Super-elevation
● Earthworks

PASCUA, KYLA CELINE P.

Elements of Road Cross sections

Principal elements

● Traffic lanes - an area within defined limits in which one-way traffic is established.
Natural obstacles, including those forming separation zones, may constitute a boundary.
● Auxiliary lanes – used to balance the traffic load and maintain a more uniform level of
service on the highway (climbing lanes, acceleration and deceleration lanes, etc )
● Shoulders - the graded or surfaced area of the roadway, on the side of and adjacent to
the pavement, which gives lateral support to the road surface and can be used by traffic in
an emergency.
● Median (for divided roads)- the area between opposing lanes of traffic, excluding turn
lanes.

Marginal elements

● Roadside and Median barrier - Roadside barriers are intended to prevent run-off-road
(ROR) crashes and stop vehicles from colliding with obstacles present on the roadside.
On the other hand, median barriers prevent swerving vehicles from entering opposing
traffic.
 ● Curbs- help to control water runoff and, in conjunction with the crown in the roadway,
direct rainwater to the side of the street where it will not impede traffic. Curbs are also
used:

• To control drainage
• Improve aesthetic
• Reduce right-of-way

➢ Barrier curbs – relatively high designed for preventing vehicles from leaving the
toad
➢ Mountable curbs – are designed so that vehicles can cross them
● Gutters - designed to collect rainwater that flows along the street diverting it into a storm
drain
➢ drainage ditches located on the pavement side of a curb to provide the principal
drainage facility for the highway
● Guard rails - a safety barrier intended to shield a motorist who has left the roadway.
➢ longitudinal barriers on the outside of sharp curves at sections with high fills
(greater than 2.5 m)
● Sidewalks - a usually paved walk for pedestrians at the side of a street
➢ When pedestrian traffic is high along main or high speed roads
➢ When shoulders are not provided on arterials even when pedestrian traffic is low
➢ In urban areas, sidewalks are provided along both sides of streets to serve
pedestrians access to schools, parks, shopping centers, and transit stops.
● Side slopes - it is graded area immediately adjacent to the graded roadway shoulder
➢ provided for stability of earthworks; the slope varies depending on the
material type
● Cross slopes - provided to provide a drainage gradient so that water will run off the
surface to a drainage system such as a street gutter or ditch.
● Right-of-way – the total land area required for the construction of the roadway

• To accommodate all the elements of the road cross-section

• Planned widening of the road
• Public utility facilities that will be installed along the highway

❖ Shoulders
The term "shoulder" refers to the graded or surfaced area of the roadway, on the side of
and adjacent to the pavement, which gives lateral support to the road surface and can be used by
traffic in an emergency. The shoulder must be capable of sustaining the weight of the average
vehicle using the highway, and its surface must be kept properly maintained for safe deceleration
of traffic. Shoulders that are properly sloped and maintained at all times aid in the quick removal
of surface water from the roadway into the drainage system.

● Serves for an emergency stop of vehicles

● Used to laterally support the pavement structure

Shoulder width
• Recommended shoulder width is in the range of 1.8 to 2.4 m
• for highways serving large number of trucks and on highways with high traffic volumes and
high speeds, shoulder width of 3.0 to 3.5 m is preferable
• Minimum shoulder width 0.6 m on the lowest type of roads
– Shoulders should be flush with the edge of the traveled lane and be sloped to facilitate drainage
(2-4 % if paved, 4-6 % if not paved)

❖ Median
The median strip, central reservation, roadway median, or traffic median is the reserved
area that separates opposing lanes of traffic on divided roadways such as divided highways, dual
carriageways, freeways, and motorways. The term also applies to divided roadways other than
highways, including some major streets in urban or suburban areas. The reserved area may
simply be paved, but commonly it is adapted to other functions; for example, it may
accommodate decorative landscaping, trees, a median barrier, or railway, rapid transit, light rail,
or streetcar lines.
● section of divided road that separates lanes in the opposite directions.
Functions:
● Provide recovery area during emergency
● Provide stopping area for left and U-turning vehicles
● Provide refuge for pedestrians
● Reduce headlight glare
➢ Median can be either raised, flush or depressed
➢ Median width vary between 0.6 up to 24 m or more depending on the availability
of right-of-way

Introduction to Horizontal and Vertical alignment

There are many factors that contribute to the decisions required for the geometric design
elements and controls utilized in the location and the design of the various types of highways.
Without some type of basic framework of design controls, the judgment of the individual designers
may vary considerably. This Chapter presents the guidelines required to tailor the highway to the
terrain, to the controls of the land usage and to the type of traffic anticipated. In applying these
guidelines, it is important to follow the basic principle that consistency in design is of major
importance on any section of highway.
PROVIDENCIA, ERIC
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
To obtain balance in highway design, all geometric elements should be designed to provide
safe, continuous operation, as far as economically practical, using design speed as an overall design
control. Where curvature in the highway alignment is required, it should be based on an appropriate
relationship between design speed and curvature and their joint relationships with superelevation and
side friction. These factors shall be properly balanced to produce an alignment that is safe, in
harmony with the topography and adequate for the design classification of the roadway or highway.
These factors are discussed at length in subsequent Sections. To avoid poor design practices, the
following general controls for horizontal alignment should be used:

1. Alignment should be as directional as practical but should be consistent with the topography and
with preserving developed properties and community values.
2. In alignment developed for a given design speed, the minimum radius of curvature for that speed
should be avoided wherever practical.
3. Consistent alignment should always be sought.
4. For small deflection angles, curves should be sufficiently long enough to avoid the appearance of a
kink.
5. Avoid sharp curvature on long, high fills.
6. Caution should be exercised in the use of compound circular curves.
7. Abrupt reversals in alignment should be avoided.
8. The "broken-back" or "flat-back" arrangement of curves (with a short tangent between two curves
in the same direction) should be avoided except where very unusual topographical or right-of-way
conditions make other alternatives impractical.
9. To avoid the appearance of inconsistent distortion, the horizontal alignment should be coordinated
carefully with the profile design as presented in Section 2.3. Such coordination is especially
important at railroad-highway grade crossings.

Types of Horizontal Curves

1. Simple Circular Curve - Simple circular curve is a normal horizontal curve which connect
two straight lines with constant radius.
2. Compound Curve - Compound curve is a combination of two or more simple circular
curves with different radii. In this case both or all the curves lie on the same side of the
common tangent.
3. Reverse Curve - Reverse Curve is generated when two simple circular curves bending in
opposite directions are meet at a single point and that point is called as point of reverse
 curvature. The center of both the curves lies on the opposite sides of the common tangent
such that the radii of both the curves may be the same or different.
4. Transition Curve – A curve of varying radius is termed as transition curve. It is generally
provided on the sides of circular curve or between the tangent and circular curve and
between two curves of compound curve or reverse curve. Its radius varies from the
infinity to the radius of provided for the circular curve. Transition curve helps gradual
introduction of centrifugal force by gradual super elevation which provides comfort for
the passengers in the vehicle without sudden jerking.

QUINIQUITO, DANAH L.
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
As with other design elements, the characteristics of vertical alignment are influenced greatly
by basic controls related to design speed, highway functional classifications and the terrain
conditions. Within these basic controls, there are several general controls for vertical alignment that
should be considered that include:

1. A smooth gradeline with gradual changes, as consistent with the type of highways, roads or streets
and the character of terrain, should be sought for in preference to a line with numerous breaks and
short lengths of grades.
2. The "roller-coaster" or the "hidden-dip" type of profile should be avoided.
3. Undulating gradelines involving substantial lengths of momentum grades should be evaluated for
their effect on traffic operation.
4. A broken-back gradeline (two vertical curves in the same direction separated by short sections of
tangent grade) generally should be avoided, particularly in sags where the full view of both vertical
curves is not pleasing.
5. It may be preferable, on long grades, to place the steepest grades at the bottom and flatten the
grades near the top of the ascent or to break the sustained grade by short intervals of flatter grade.
6. Where at-grade intersections or railroad-highway grade crossings occur on roadway sections with
moderate to steep grades, it is desirable to reduce the grade through the intersection or railroad-
highway grade crossing.
7. Sag vertical curves should be avoided in cuts unless adequate drainage can be provided.

VERTICAL CURVES
A. General Considerations. Vertical curves are used to effect gradual changes between tangent
grades at their point of intersection. Vertical curves that are offset below the tangent are crest
vertical curves and those offset above the tangent are sag vertical curves. These curves
should be simple in application and should result in a design that is safe (ample sight
 distance), comfortable in operation (proper rate of change of grade), adequate for drainage
and exhibit a pleasing appearance. The major control for safe operation on crest vertical
curves is the provision of ample sight distances for the design speed. Minimum stopping
sight distances should be provided in all cases. Wherever practical, more liberal stopping
sight distances should be used.
For simplicity, a parabolic curve with an equivalent vertical axis centered on the point of vertical
intersection (PVI) is usually used in roadway profile design. On certain occasions, because of critical
clearance or other controls, the use of asymmetrical vertical curves may be appropriate. The
derivation and use of the relevant equations for computing symmetrical and asymmetrical vertical
curves can be found in numerous highway engineering texts.

B. Crest Vertical Curves. Minimum lengths of crest vertical curves based on sight distance
criteria generally are satisfactory from the standpoint of safety, comfort, and appearance. An
exception may be at decision areas, such as sight distance to ramp exit gores, where longer
lengths are needed. The major control for safe operation on crest vertical curves is the
provision of ample sight distances for the design speed. When the design speed is less than
30 km/h (20 mph), the stopping sight distances.
C. Sag Vertical Curves. At least four different criteria to establish the lengths of sag vertical
curves are recognized that include: (1) headlight sight distance, (2) passenger comfort, (3)
drainage control and (4) general appearance. The design controls for these curves differ from
those for crest vertical curves and separate design values are required. Sag vertical curves

CONTROLS FOR COMBINATION HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS

Horizontal and vertical alignments represent permanent design elements which warrant
thorough examination and study. They should not be designed independently but should complement
each other to avoid alignment deficiencies. Excellence in the design of each and the integration of
their interrelated concepts results in a completed highway that provides increased safety, usefulness,
uniform speeds, and improved appearances on which to travel.

The proper combination of horizontal and vertical alignment is obtained through engineering studies
with consideration given to the following general guidelines:
1. Curvature and grades should be in proper balance. Tangent alignment or flat curvature at the
expense of steep or long grades and excessive curvature with flat grades both represent poor
design. A logical design that offers the best combination of safety, capacity, ease and
uniformity of operation and pleasing appearance within the practical limits of terrain and area
traversed is a compromise between these two extremes.
2. Vertical curvature superimposed on horizontal curvature, or vice versa, generally results in a
more pleasing facility, but such combinations should be analyzed for their effect on traffic.
Successive changes in profile not in combination with horizontal curvature may result in a
 series of humps visible to the driver for some distance which represents an undesirable
condition.
3. Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the top of a pronounced crest
vertical curve. This condition is undesirable because the driver may not perceive the
horizontal change in alignment, especially at night. The disadvantages of this arrangement
are avoided if the horizontal curvature leads the vertical curvature, i.e., the horizontal curve is
made longer than the vertical curve. Suitable designs can also be developed by using design
values well above the appropriate minimum values for the design speed.
4. Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced near the bottom of a steep grade
approaching or near the low point of a pronounced sag vertical curve. Because the view of
the road ahead is foreshortened, any horizontal curvature other than a very flat curve assumes
an undesirable, distorted appearance. Further, vehicle speeds, particularly for trucks, are often
high at the bottom of grades and erratic operations may result, especially at night.
5. On two-lane roads and streets, the need for passing sections at frequent intervals and
including an appreciable percentage of the length of the roadway often supersedes the general
guidelines for combinations of horizontal and vertical alignment. In such cases, it is
appropriate to work toward long tangent sections to assure sufficient passing sight distance in
design.
6. Horizontal curvature and profile should be made as flat as practical at intersections and at
railroad highway grade crossings where sight distance along both roads or streets is important
and vehicles may have to slow or stop.