Wk5-6

ENME462: Renewable Energy

Chapter 3: Solar angle and radiation
• Sun-earth size, temperature and rotation
• Solar time
• Solar angle
Perihelion and Aphelion
Summer and Winter Solstice
Insolation and seasonal changes
Solar altitude (α) and the solar azimuth (z)
Incidence angle measurement
• Solar radiation
Extraterrestrial solar radiation
Total radiation on tilted surface

Dr. M. A. Fazal
Mechanical and Materials Engineering Dept. UJ
 Earth’s axis: Parallelism & Angle of inclination

The earth’s axis has two characteristics:

1) Parallelism
• The axis at different position are always parallel to each other
• It does not point in different directions as the Earth moves on its orbit

2) Angle of inclination
• The earth’s axis is tilted around 23½ degrees from the perpendicular
(normal) of the Plane of Ecliptic
• The angle does not change throughout the entire revolution.
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Perihelion and Aphelion
• Earth’s rotation: one in every 24 h around its own axis
• Earth’s revolution around the sun: approximately 365.25 days.
• Revolution follows an ellipse with the sun at the foci.

• The eccentricity (e) is very small (0.01673). Therefore, the orbit of

the earth around the sun is almost circular.

• The sun-earth distance (R):

• R is largest at aphelion/July 4.
• R is shortest at perihelion/January 3

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The sun-earth distance (R):

• The plus sign in Eq. is for the sun-earth distance when the earth is at the
aphelion position and the minus sign for the perihelion position.

• Earth is far from the Sun

• R: ~94.5 million miles
• Northern Hemisphere
Summer

• Earth is closer to the Sun

• R: ~91.4 million miles
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• Northern Hemisphere Winter
Length of Daylight at different
latitudes when earth is in aphelion:

Look at the Figure.

Where is summer?
Explain why?
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Answer:
• Summer is in the Northern Hemisphere.
• The sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, making higher sun
angles with more intense sunlight.
• Also, the days are longer.
• It occurs at aphelion side (sun-earth distance is high). Temperature
is increased due to high angle of incidence and longer daylight hours.
Length of Daylight at different
latitudes when earth in perihelion:

Look at the Figure. Where

is winter? Explain why?

Answer:
• Winter is at the Northern Hemisphere.
• The sun is overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn. It causes less sun angles
with less intense sunlight at Tropic of cancer.
• Also, days are shorter at Tropic of cancer.
• It occurs at perihelion side (sun-earth distance is short). Temperature
is reduced due to low Angle of Incidence and shorter daylight hours.
Summer and Winter Solstice

• The sun’s position in the sky changes from day to day and from hour
to hour. The relative motions of the sun and earth are not simple, but
they are systematic and thus predictable.

• Solstice - means “Sun stops”.

• On June 21, the sun is at its most northerly position with respect
to the earth. This is called the summer solstice and during this day
the daytime is maximum.

• Six months later, on December 21, the winter solstice, the reverse
is true and the sun is at its most southerly position.

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 Summer and Winter Solstice

Sun is northerly Sun is southerly

positioned positioned

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 Summer solstice (June 21 or 22)

• Seasons and Positions of the Earth around the Sun with reference to
the Northern Hemisphere

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 Winter solstice (Dec 21 or 22)

• Seasons and the Positions of the Earth around the Sun with reference
to the Northern Hemisphere
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• In the middle of the six-month range, on March 21 or 22 and
September 21 o 22, the length of the day is equal to the length of
the night. These are called spring and fall equinoxes, respectively.
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Seasons and the Positions of the Earth around the Sun with reference
to the Northern Hemisphere

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Seasons and the Positions of the Earth around the Sun with reference
to the Northern Hemisphere

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 March 21 or 22

Dec 21 or 22
The sun is at its
most southerly
Or spring equinox position; 13.5 h
June 21 or 22 darkness at TCn

The sun is at its

most northerly
position; 13.5 h
daylight at TCc

Or fall equinox
September 21 0r 22 14
Changes in degree of tilt and revolution

• The Earth’s degree of tilt (obliquity) changes through a 41,000-year

cycle – ranging between 22.5 and 24 degrees

• Earth’s orbit (revolution) about the Sun changes from nearly circular
to elliptical and back every 100,000 years – this process is called
eccentricity

• Milankovitch Theory: These changes can be linked to long-term

climate changes based on latitudinal differences in insolation
(incoming solar radiation)

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 Latitudes and sun relations
The following three latitudes are important because of their significance to
seasons on the Earth
i) Equator (0˚)
ii) Tropic of Cancer: 23½0 North
iii) Tropic of Capricorn: 23½0 South

Equator (0˚)
• An imaginary line on the Earth's surface equidistant from the
North Pole and South Pole that divides the Earth into a Northern
Hemisphere and a Southern Hemisphere

• Two days per year (Autumnal Equinox: September 21 and Vernal

Equinox: March 21) the Sun’s location, at local noon is directly
over the Equator

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Equator (0˚)
2) Tropic of Cancer: 23½0 North
Summer Solstice: June 21,22. The sun’s location, at local noon, is in
the Tropic of Cancer
3) Tropic of Capricorn: 23½0 South
Winter Solstice: December 21, 22. The Sun’s location, at local noon, is
in the Tropic of Capricorn

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Insolation and seasonal changes

Insolation: Solar radiation received by the Earth (incoming solar radiation)

Seasons: Variations of insolation due to spherical surface of Earth
• Distance between Earth and Sun is NOT a determinant of seasons.
(e.g. Perihelion occurs during winter in Northern Hemisphere)

Determinant # 1: Angle of Incidence of Sun’s rays striking Earth’s

surface. Latitudes receiving more perpendicular rays receive more
insolation for heating

Determinant # 2: Length of daylight hours. Longer daylight hours

means more insolation

Determinant # 3: Angle of Incidence and length of daylight hours

directly affected by tilt of Earth’s axis.
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Seasonal Changes

• Seasonal Changes are caused by the tilting of the Earth and its
revolution around the Sun.
• These bring the variations in the lengths of days and sun angle.

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Summer season:
• When the longest days and shortest nights occur in Northern
Hemisphere.
• when the North Pole Is directly tilted toward the Sun.
• Summer has warm weather

Winter season:
• When the North Pole is tilted away from the Sun.
• Earth will experience the shortest day and longest night of the year.
• Winter has cool weather

Spring and fall equinoxes:

• Days and nights are equal all over the Earth.
• Equinoxes Equinox - means equal day and night.
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 • Sun Angle has a significant
effect on the irradiance
reaching a solar array

• At higher angle, more solar

energy reaches at an array.

Why is it summer in the Northern Hemisphere in June?

The Northern hemisphere tilts towards the sun in June.

Sun angles are high and days are long.
This means that a lot more sunlight is received, making it summer.

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 Solar angle and radiation

• Sun-earth relationship and Earth geometry

• Reckoning time
• Solar angle
Perihelion and Aphelion
Summer and Winter Solstice
Insolation and seasonal changes
Solar altitude (α) and the solar azimuth (z)
Incidence angle measurement
• Solar radiation
Extraterrestrial solar radiation
Total radiation on tilted surface
Basics of earth-sun angles

• The Ptolemaic view of the sun’s motion: Since all motions are
relative, it is convenient to
o consider the earth fixed just for simplicity and
o the sun’s virtual motion in a coordinate system that is
fixed to the earth with its origin at the site of interest.

• For most solar energy applications, one needs reasonably

accurate predictions of where the sun will be in the sky at a
given time of day and year.

• Sun’s position with respect to an observer on earth can be fully

described by means of two astronomical angles, the solar
altitude (α) and the solar azimuth (z).

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Sun’s position wrt observer:
• Solar altitude (α) For understanding the solar radiation
• Solar azimuth (z). related calculation, we should know
the followings:
i) Angle of latitude (Φ)
ii) Declination angle (δ)
iii) Solar altitude (α)
iv) Zenith angle (𝜽𝒛)
v) Hour angle(ω)

vi) Solar azimuth angle (z)

vii) Surface azimuth angle(𝜰)
viii) Tilt angle or slop(β)
• Angle of incidence (θ) depends ix) Angle of incidence(θ)
on declination (δ), surface azimuth
(γ), slop (β), latitude (Ф) and hour
angle (ω or h). 26
Celestial sphere:
During the clear night, the stars, planets, moon etc. are seen in the sky
which is conveniently assumed to be a large sphere. This imaginary
transparent sphere surrounding the earth is called the celestial sphere.
Zenith: It is a point on the
celestial sphere over the
observer’s head.

Nadir: It is a point on the

celestial sphere diametrically
opposite to the zenith.

Visible horizon: It appears to

an observer that the celestial
sphere meets the ground, Basic terms of
the location of this apparent solar geometry
meeting is called the visible
horizon. 27
Celestial sphere, Observer and the position of sun at different times of the year

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i) Angle of latitude (Φ or L):
• It is the vertical angle between the line extended from a particular
point of location to the centre of the earth and its projection on an
equatorial plane.
• When the point of location is on the north of equator, the angle is
positive; and when on south is negative.

• Angle of latitude (Φ)

= Angle between CE & CP
Where, Point of interest: P;
Extended line PC & Projection on
equator EC

• Northern Hemisphere: Positive Φ

• Southern Hemisphere: Negative Φ
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ii) Declination angle (δ)
• It is the angle between a line extended from the centre of the sun to
the centre of the earth and its projection on an equatorial plane.
• It is positive when measured above the equatorial plane in the
northern hemisphere.

• Angle of declination (δ)

= Angle between LC & MC
Where, Extended line from sun is
LC & Projection on equator MC

• Northern Hemisphere: Positive Φ

• Southern Hemisphere: Negative Φ

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Variation of solar declination:
• The declination, δ, in degrees for any day of the year (N) can be calculated approximately
by the above equation

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Variation of solar declination:

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• Angle of declination during summer, fall, spring and winter:

Yearly variation of solar declination

• The declination ranges from 0° at the spring equinox to +23.45° at

the summer solstice, 0° at the fall equinox, and -23.45° at the winter
solstice.
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• Tropics of Cancer (23.45°N) and Capricorn (23.45°S) -
sun is overhead during summer and winter solstice,
respectively.

• During winter solstice, all the points at north of the Arctic

Circle are in complete darkness, whereas all the points
south of the Antarctic Circle receive continuous sunlight.
The opposite is true for the summer solstice.

• During spring and fall equinoxes, the North and South

Poles are equidistant from the sun and daytime is equal
to nighttime, both of which equal 12 h. 34
 iii) Solar altitude (α)
• The angle between the sun’s ray and its projection on a horizontal
surface is known as the solar altitude (α). The angle (α) during
sunrise and also sunset is zero.

• The Zenith angle (𝜽𝒛) is the compliment

of altitude angle (α), i.e. α+𝜃𝑧= 90˚.

• At sunrise and sunset, the zenith angle

is ±90˚. The positive value is for sunrise
and negative value for sunset.

• At sunrise and sunset, the altitude

angle is 0.

iv) Zenith angle (𝜽𝒛) (It is also presented by Φ)

• It is the angle (𝜽𝒛) between the sun’s ray and the perpendicular
(normal) to the horizontal plane as shown in figure. 35
Solar Altitude (α) and Zenith angle (𝜽𝒛)

• The solar altitude angle (α) and also the solar zenith angle (𝜽𝒛)
depend on the latitude (L), declination (δ), and hour (h) angles .

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v) Hour angle (ω) (It is also presented by h)

• It is the angle representing the position of the sun with respect to

clock hour with reference to sun’s position at 12 noon.
• Since the earth completes one revolution at every 24 hours, the hour
angle changes by (360/24) 15° for each hour. Expressed symbolically,
the hour angle in degrees is

• For Morning hours: Negative ω

• For Afternoon hours: Positive ω

• Hour angle can also be presented by

where the plus sign applies to

afternoon hours and the minus sign
to morning hours.
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What is the hour angle for 11 The hour angle (h) at a point P:
am, 12 pm and 1 pm? • Hour angle is another presentation
of solar time.
Ans: -15˚, 0˚, 15˚ • Angle between the meridian
containing point P and the meridian
that is parallel to the Sun’s rays.

(at standard solar noon)

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Sunrise and sunset times & Day length
The sun is said to rise and set when the solar altitude angle is 0.
So, the hour angle at sunset, hss, can be found by solving following
Eq. for h when α = 0°:

Where hss is taken as positive at sunset.

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Since the hour angle at local solar noon is 0°; with each 15° of longitude
equivalent to 1 h, the sunrise and sunset time in hours from local solar
noon is then

The day length is twice the sunset hour, since the solar noon is at the
middle of the sunrise and sunset hours. Therefore, the length of the
day in hours is

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vi) Solar Azimuth (z)
• It is the angle on a horizontal plane, between the line due south and
the projection of the sun’s ray on the horizontal planes.

• It is considered a positive when it measured from south toward

west as shown in figure.
• The mathematical
expression for the
solar azimuth angle is

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• Two angles are used to define the sun’s position relative to an
observer on Earth. Those are Solar azimuth and altitude angles.
• These are used to describe the sun’s location in the sky.

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• At solar noon, by definition, the sun is exactly on the meridian, which
contains the north-south line, and consequently, the solar azimuth is 0°.
Therefore the noon altitude αn:

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vii) Surface Azimuth angle (𝜰 or Zs)
• It is the angle in the horizontal plane, between the line due south and
the horizontal projection of the normal to the inclined plane surface.

• It is considered as positive when it is measured from south toward west

as shown in figure.

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 viii) Tilt angle or slop (β)
• It is angle between the inclined plane surface and the horizontal
plane. It is considered positive for the surface sloping towards south as
shown in figure.

ix) Angle of incidence (θ)

• It is an angle between sun’s ray incident on plane surface and normal
to that surface as shown in figure. 45
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Sunrise , sunset and day length
• Sunrise hour, sunset hour and day length depend upon latitude of the
location season and day in the year.

• As the angle of latitude increases (from equator to north pole) the

difference in day length between summer and winter becomes more
and more prominent.

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• Radiation intensity ‘I’ normal to the surface is given by ICosθ

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2.6. Find the altitude and azimuth angles at 2 h after local noon on June 15 (N=167) for a
city located at 40˚ N latitude. Also find the sunrise and sunset hours and the day length.

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2.7. A surface titled 45˚ from horizontal and pointed 10˚ west due south is located at 35˚ N latitude.
Calculate the incident angle at 2 h after local noon on June 15 (N=167).

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Surface Azimuth angle (𝜰 or Zs) 53
 Active learning questions
1) Explain the following terms: a) Perihelion and Aphelion, b) Angle of
inclination & Parallelism of tilt axis.
2) How many degrees is Earth’s axis tilted from the vertical? Show it by sketching
the plane of ecliptic and equator.
3) Sketch and state the length of Daylight at different latitudes when the earth
is in a) aphelion and b) perihelion.
4) How would you define a solstice? Sketch and explain summer and winter
solstices.
5) Explain the determinants for seasonal changes.
6) What locations had the most and fewest daylight hours on a) December 21 and b)
June 21? Sketch and explain.
7) Why is it summer in the Northern Hemisphere in June?
8) If Earth were not inclined on its axis, would there still be latitudinal
temperature variations? Would there be seasons? Justify your answer.
9) How would you define angle of declination and hour angle? What are the
angle of declination during the equinoxes and the solstices?
10) Explain solar altitude (α), the solar azimuth (z), latitude angle, zenith angle,
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Surface azimuth angle(𝜰), Tilt angle or slop(β) and Angle of incidence (θ).
1. What are the maximum and minimum noon altitude angles for a location
at 40˚ latitude?
2. Find the altitude and azimuth angles at 2 h after local noon on June 15
(N=167) for a city located at 40˚ N latitude. Also find the sunrise and
sunset hours and the day length.
3. A surface titled 45˚ from horizontal and pointed 10˚ West due south is
located at 35˚ N latitude. Calculate the incident angle at 2 h after local
noon on June 15 (N=167).

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