PARABOLIC

REFLECTORS
Flat Reflector Antennas

Plane Corner
Curved Reflector Antennas

Prime Focus Reflector Cassegrain Reflector

 Corner Reflector Antenna

Top View of Corner Wave incident at 900 Corner Reflector

Reflector Antenna reflects back in the same direction
 Corner Reflector Antenna

Prospective View Wire Grid Arrangement

 Images for Corner Reflector Antennas

3 Images for 900 Corner 5 Images for 600 Corner

Reflector Antenna Reflector Antenna
Images for Corner Reflector Antennas

7 Images for 450 Corner 11 Images for 300 Corner

Reflector Antenna Reflector Antenna
No. of Images = 360/α - 1
 90° Corner Reflector Antenna

Total field will be sum of contributions

from the feed and its images.
E r, ,   E1 r1, ,   E2 r2 , ,   E3 r3 , ,   E4 r4 , , 
Array Factor for 90° Corner Reflector
Antenna
Array factor of the 90° Corner Reflector Antenna:

 AF  ,   2 [cos ks sin cos   cosks sin sin]

E
E0

In the Azimuthal Plane, ( = /2)

 AF    / 2,   2 [cosks cos   cosks sin]

E
E0
Radiation Pattern of 900 Corner
Reflector Antenna

For s > 0.7λ, main

beam splits.

For s = λ, null in
the broadside
direction.
 Array Factor of Corner Reflector Antenna
for other α
For  = 60o

AF  ,   4sin 
X  cos  X   cos 3 Y 
  2   2 
2    
For  = 45o
  Y 
AF  ,   2 cos(X )  cos(Y )  2 cos 
X 
cos  2 
  2   
For  = 30o
  3   3 
AF  ,   2 cos(X )  2 cos X cos  cos(Y )  2 cos  cos
Y X
Y
   2 2  
 2   2 

where X  ks sin cos Y  ks sin sin

S-Limit for Corner Reflector Antennas

There is Limit on S-value for single

lobe in the radiation pattern.

S < 0.7λ α = 900

Parabolic Reflector Antenna
For Parabola:
OP + PQ = constant = 2f
OP = r’ and PQ = r’cos’
So, r’ (1+ cos’) =2f
Parabolic Reflector Antenna Equations

d 1 f 
2  d 
0  tan 1 2  tan1
d2  
2
f 1
f    16
16 f d

f/d 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0

θ0 64.0 53.1 45.2 39.3 34.7 28.1
 Gain and Aperture Efficiency of
Parabolic Reflector Antenna

 𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 (∈𝒔): fraction of the total power that

is radiated by the feed, intercepted, and collimated by the
reflecting surface.
 𝐓𝐚𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 (∈𝒕) :uniformity of the amplitude
distribution of the feed pattern over the surface of the reflector.
 𝐏𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 (∈𝒑): phase uniformity of the field over
the aperture plane.
 𝐏𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 (∈𝒙) : polarization uniformity of
the field over the aperture plane
 𝐁𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐤𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 (∈𝒃)
 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒐𝒎 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (∈𝒓)
Effect of Feed Pattern on Efficiency
Spillover and Taper Efficiencies of
Parabolic Reflector Antenna

Spillover Efficiency
Reflector Aperture Angle, θ0 Taper Efficiency

Reflector Aperture Angle, θ0 (in degrees)

Aperture Efficiency of Parabolic
Reflector Antenna

Reflector Aperture Angle, θ0 (in degrees)

Cassegrain Reflector Antenna
Gain of Large Reflector Antennas
HELICAL ANTENNA
What is an Helical Antenna?

A helical antenna is an antenna

consisting of a conducting wire wound
in the form of a helix.
Why Helical Antenna?

 Circular Polarization
 Large Bandwidth
 Simple Construction
 Circularly polarized wave consists of two perpendicular electromagnetic
plane waves of equal magnitudes and 90° difference in phase.
 This property makes it very useful for communication in narrow and
obstructed space.
Simple Construction
 They are one of the easiest to design.
 Find a tube with a circumference equal
to one wavelength and wrap a wire in a
helix spaced a quarter wavelength.
 The greater the number of turns we will
give, the greater the directivity or
antenna gain.
 Helical Antenna
L
d S
D
Helix axis
C = D
S
L

A = nS
Total Length of wire = nL
Total axial length (A) = nS

Special Cases of Helical Antenna:

Case 1: α = 0°  S = 0  Loop Antenna
Case 2: α = 90°  D = 0  Linear Antenna
Modes in Helical Antenna

Normal Axial Conical

Mode Mode Mode
C = πD << λ C≈λ C ≈ nλ, n = 2, 3..
 Helical Antenna Modes Chart

C/λ

Axial Mode

Normal Mode
S/λ
Field Distribution in Different Modes
Axial Mode Helical Antenna: Ground Plane

(a) (b) (c)

Monofilar Axial Mode Helical Antenna
a) Flat Ground Plane
b) Shallow Cupped Ground Plane
c) Deep Conical Ground Plane Enclosure.
Conductor Size of Helical Antenna

Monofilar axial-mode helical antennas with

wire diameter of 0.055, 0.017 and 0.0042 at
center frequency of 400 MHz
Effect of conductor diameter on helical antenna
performance - only minor changes
Helical Antenna Support
Axial Mode Helical Antenna - Input
Impedance
For Axial Feed: R = 140*Cλ 
For Peripheral or Circumferential Feed:
R  150 / √Cλ 

Restrictions: (a) 0.8 ≤ Cλ ≤ 1.2

(b) 12° ≤ α ≤ 14°
(c) n  4
 Input Impedance Matching
1. Tapered Transition from helix to coaxial line

w = width of conductor at termination

2. Tapered Microstrip Transition
Radiation Pattern of Axial Mode Helical Antenna

Measured Field Patterns of Axial Mode Helical

Antenna of 6 turns and pitch angle α = 14°.
 CP Radiation Pattern for C/ from 0.73 to 1.22.
 ( ) Horizontally polarized field component and
( ) Vertically polarized.
 Effect of No. of Turns (n)

Helical Antennas: α =12.2° and 10, 8, 6, 4, 2 turns.

Pattern of Single Turn Helical Antenna
Axial Mode Helical Antenna - Increased
Directivity Endfire Array
 Gain of Axial Mode Helical Antenna

HPBW (Half-Power Beamwidth)

BWFN (Beamwidth Between First Nulls)

Directivity = 32,400 / HPBW2

Gain = η x Directivity, η ≈ 60%

Design of Axial Mode Helical Antenna

Desired: Directivity = 24 dB = 251.19

For Axial Mode Helical Antenna:
Assume: Cλ = 1.05 ( 0.8 to 1.2)
α = 12.7° (12° to 14°)
Calculate: Sλ = Cλ tan α = 0.2366
 2x2 Helical Antenna Array
Instead of single 80-turns helical antenna, four 20-
turns helical antennas can be used

Directivity of each 20-turns helical antenna

= 251.19/4 = 62.8 dx

Effective Aperture dy

Assuming Square Aperture

Side Length = 5λ = 2.236 λ 2x2 Array

Each Helix is placed at the center of its aperture.

Helical Antenna and Arrays
Side View Front View

n = 80 1 Helix

2.236 λ

n = 20 4 Helices
 Arrays of Helical Antenna
Side View Front View
Directivity of each 9-turns helical
1.49 λ
antenna = 251.19/49=27.91
λ2 λ2
n=9
Effective Aperture = 𝐷0 ≈ 27.91 =2.222λ2
4𝜋 4𝜋

Side Length = (2.222)λ = 1.49 λ

9 Helices

1.18 λ
n=5

16 Helices
 Mutual Impedance between Arrays of Helical
Antennas

Resistive (R) and Reactive (X) components of the

mutual impedance of a pair of same-handed 8-turn
axial-mode helical antennas of 12° pitch angle
2x2 Array of Helical Antenna at 800 MHz
Results of 2x2 Array of Helical Antenna

Directivity = 18.5 dB
at 800 MHz
Helix as a Parasitic Element
Helix-Helix Polyrod-Helix LP to CP

Corner-reflector
Helix, LP to CP
Horn-Helix
LP to CP

Helix Lens
Helix-Helix
More Gain
 Normal Mode Helical Antenna
D D
Small Dipole:
 jkr S S
E  j o
kI Se sin
4 r
Small Loop:
  2
k 2 I o   e jkr
D
 2
E  sin
4r
Therefore, Axial Ratio is:
E  2S  2S
AR 
E C 2 C2
For Circular Polarization, AR = 1  C  2S 
 Design of Normal Mode Helical Antenna

For Infinite Ground Plane:

Wire length ≈ λ / 4 – text book
> λ / 4 – in reality
Radiation Resistance (Rs)
2
I 
 
R  (790) av h2  R 0.6 
1  

s 2 
Io
  s
 

Axial Ratio (AR)

AR = 2 Sλ / C λ2
= 2x0.01/0.04 2
= 12.5 = 21.94 dB

Feed is tapped after one turn for impedance matching

Normal Mode Helical Antenna (NMHA) on
Small Circular Ground Plane
NMHA Design on Small Circular
Ground Plane
Resonance Frequency 1.8 GHz
Wavelength 166 mm
Spacing = 0.027λ 4.5 mm
Diameter of Helix = 0.033λ 5.5 mm
No of Turns (N) 7
Pitch Angle (α) 14.6 Degree
Length of Wire = 0.75λ 124.5 mm
 Effect of Ground Plane Size on NMHA

As ground plane radius increases from λ/30 to λ/20, resonance

frequency decreases and the input impedance curve shifts upward.
NMHA designed for 1.8 GHz and rwire = 1.6 mm (λ/100)
 Effect of Wire Radius on NMHA

As radius of wire decreases from λ/80 to λ/120, its inductance

increases so resonance frequency of NMHA decreases and its input
impedance curve shifts upward (inductive region).
NMHA designed for 1.8 GHz and rg = 5.5 mm (λ/30)
Effect of Wire Radius on Bandwidth of NMHA
Fabricated NMHA on Small Ground Plane
and its esults
 Normal Mode
 If the circumference, pitch and length of the
helix are small compared to the wavelength,
so that the current is approximately uniform
in magnitude and phase in all parts of the
helix, the normal mode of radiation is excited.
 This mode of operation is very narrow in
bandwidth and its radiation efficiency is very
small. Practically , this mode of operation is
hardly used

(a) : Normal Mode

 Widely used today as typical FM receiving antennas
in automobiles.
 Used as standard FM receiving antennas for many
factory produced motor vehicles.
 Axial Mode
 When the helix circumference is near
the wavelength of operation, the
antenna operates in axial mode.
 Here, the radiation field is maximum in
the end fire direction i.e. along the helix
axis
(b) Axial Mode
 Large bandwidth and good efficiency.
“It produces a broad and fairly
directional beam in the axial direction
with minor lobes at oblique angles”
 Used in space telemetry application at the ground end
of the telemetry link for satellite and space probes at
HF and VHF.
 Most often used with hand held satellite
communication devices such as telephones, radios,
and Global Positioning Systems(G.P.S).
 Helical Antenna
 Helix is spiral
 An example: ¼ wavelength dipole shortened into helix (rubber
ducky) for handheld transeivers.
 Typically several wavelengths long and used with a ground plane.
 Circumference is ½ wavelength and the turns are ¼ wavelength
apart.
 Application: VHF satellite transmission. (cross polarization)
 Parasitic Array – Yagi-Uda
 Array antennas can be used to increase directivity.
 Parasitic array does not require a direct connection to each element by a feed
network.
 The parasite elements acquire their excitation from near field coupling by the
driven element.
 A Yagi-Uda antenna is a linear array of parallel dipoles.
 The basic Yagi unit consists of three elements:
 1. Driver or driven element
 2. Reflector
 3. Director
Parasitic Array – Yagi-Uda
Parasitic Array – Yagi-Uda
Parasitic Array – Yagi-Uda
 Linear Dipole with a Reflector

A linear dipole antenna has omni-directional radiation pattern. Gain ≈ 2 dB

A dipole with a linear reflector will have directional radiation
pattern with gain ≈ 5 dB
 Yagi-Uda Antenna with 3-Elements

H-Plane Pattern E-Plane Pattern

A 3-element Yagi-Uda Antenna has one fed dipole, one linear reflector and one
director.
Length of the dipole: l + d = 0.48λ
Length of the reflector > l > Length of the director Spacing between the elements
≈ λ/4
It acts as an end-fire array antenna. Gain ≈ 7 dB
 General Yagi-Uda Antenna

Reflector Driven dipole Directors

Typical Values of Yagi-Uda Antenna
Directivity vs No. of Elements

Practically, Gain is
around 1 dB less
than this value.

No. of Elements (N)

 Yagi-Uda Antenna
 Develops an endfire radiation pattern.
 Optimum spacing for gain of a reflector and driven element is 0.15 to 0.25
wavelengths
 Director to director spacings are 0.2 to 0.35 wavelengths apart.
 Reflector length is typically 0.5 wavelengths or 1.05 that of the driven element.
 The driven element is calculated at resonance without the presence of parasitic
elements.
 The directors are usually 10 to 20% shorter than at resonance.
 Yagi-Uda antennas
 Gain is related to boom length and number of directors.
 Max directivity of a 3 element Yagi is 9 dBi or 7dBd.
 Addition of directors up to 5 or 6 provides significant increase in gain. Addition of
more directors has much less impact on gain.
 Increasing N from 3 to 4 results in 1 dB increase.
 Adding a director to go from 9 to 10 presents a 0.2 dB gain improvement.
 Adding more reflectors has minimal impact on gain however does impact on
feedpoint Z and the backlobe.
 Introduction
 In telecommunication, a log-periodic antenna is a broadband,
multi-element, directional, narrow-beam-antenna, that
has impedance and radiation characteristics that are regularly
repetitive as a logarithmic function of the excitation frequency.
 The individual components are often dipoles.

 The lengths and spacings of the elements of a log-periodic antenna

increase logarithmically from one end to the other.
KEY POINTS:
 High bandwidth
 Moderate directivity
 Structure:

 Log periodic antenna has an array of dipole which

has their length according to logarithmic scale.
 Log periodic antenna is basically a wideband
antenna because it has many dipole elements
which are of different length, radiating different
frequency.
 The structure of log periodic antenna is shown on
right side.
 In this the dipole array are cross connected to each
other.
 Point of Excitation:
 The single element is provided
excitation via these cross connection
lines.
 Here only one element has provided
excitation and other element has no
separate excitation.
 By varying the point of excitation we
can change the radiation pattern of log
periodic antenna.
Radiation Pattern:

• The radiation pattern of log

periodic antenna is shown here.
• From the pattern we can say that
it has less directivity than other
antennas like Yagi-uda.
• But we can obtain wide frequency
response than any other
antenna‘.
• Here the radiation pattern is
shown at 12MHz frequency.
Far Field Pattern:
 Uses:
 This antenna design is used where a wide range of
frequencies is needed while still having moderate gain and
directionality.
 It is sometimes used for a (VHF/UHF) television antenna.
Log-Periodic Dipole Array Antenna

 All dipole elements are fed with successive elements out of phas
Radiates in end-fire direction.
LPDA Design Equations

 1  
  2 tan 
1


 4 
 LPDA Design Formulas

L1 
 L
2

Add one large dipole, Add a few small dipoles

which acts as reflector in front, which act as
to increase gain at directors to increase gain
lower frequencies. at higher frequencies.
This is a dispersive array. Several narrowband antenna combine and get a
broadband antenna
Design Curve for LPDA for given Directivity

Scaling Factor (τ)

 Design of LPDA Antenna
Example: Design of a 54 to 216 MHz Log-
periodic Dipole Antenna. Desired Gain: 6.5 dB

Solution: For gain = 6.5 dB, optimum values of

τ and σ are obtained from the design curve for
Directivity = 7.5 dB (assuming 1 dB loss).

So, τ = 0.822 and σ = 0.149. Therefore,

Design of LPDA Antenna (Contd.)
Longest dipole length is calculated corresponding
to lowest frequency = 54 MHz

Shortest dipole length is calculated corresponding

to highest frequency = 216 MHz
Design of LPDA Antenna (Contd.)
Length of other elements is calculated by scaling
the largest dipole length (2.78 m) until the
smallest dipole length (0.694 m) is obtained.

L1 = 2.78 m, L2 = 2.29 m, L3 = 1.88 m, L4

= 1.54 m, L5 = 1.27 m, L6 = 1.04 m,
L7 = 0.858 m, L8 = 0.705 m, L9 = 0.579 m.
So, N = 9.

One or two elements can be added at both the

end to improve the performance at the cut-off.
Design of LPDA Antenna (Contd.)
The spacing between the elements is found from:

Using dipole lengths, spacing between the

elements is calculated as:

d1 = 0.828 m, d2 = 0.682 m, d3 = 0.560 m,

d4 = 0.459 m, d5 = 0.378 m, d6 = 0.310 m,
d7 = 0.256 m, d8 = 0.210 m.
Results of LPDA for 54 to 806 MHz
HPBW of LPDA for 54 to 806 MHz